education discussion

education, community-building and change

What is education? A definition and discussion

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Education is the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning and change undertaken in the belief that we all should have the chance to share in life.

Mark k smith explores the meaning of education and suggests it is a process of being with others and inviting truth and possibility., contents : introduction • education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning • education, respect and wisdom • education – acting so all may share in life • conclusion – what is education • further reading and references • acknowledgements • how to cite this piece, introduction.

When talking about education people often confuse it with schooling. Many think of places like schools or colleges when seeing or hearing the word. They might also look to particular jobs like teacher or tutor. The problem with this is that while looking to help people learn, the way a lot of schools and teachers operate is not necessarily something we can properly call education. They have chosen or fallen or been pushed into ‘schooling’ – trying to drill learning into people according to some plan often drawn up by others. Paulo Freire (1973) famously called this banking – making deposits of knowledge. Such ‘schooling’ too easily descends into treating learners like objects, things to be acted upon rather than people to be related to.

Education, as we understand it here, is a process of inviting truth and possibility, of encouraging and giving time to discovery. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social process – ‘a process of living and not a preparation for future living’. In this view educators look to learning and being with others rather than acting upon them. Their task is to educe (related to the Greek notion of educere ), to bring out or develop potential both in themselves and others. Such education is:

Deliberate and hopeful. It is learning we set out to make happen in the belief that we all can ‘be more’;
Informed, respectful and wise. A process of inviting truth and possibility.
Grounded in a desire that at all may flourish and share in life . It is a cooperative and inclusive activity that looks to help us to live our lives as well as we can.

In what follows we will try to answer the question ‘what is education?’ by exploring these dimensions and the processes involved.

Education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning

It is often said that we are learning all the time and that we may not be conscious of it happening. Learning is both a process and an outcome. As a process, it is part of being and living in the world, part of the way our bodies work. As an outcome, it is a new understanding or appreciation of something.

In recent years, developments in neuroscience have shown us how learning takes place both in the body and as a social activity. We are social animals. As a result, educators need to focus on creating environments and relationships for learning rather than trying to drill knowledge into themselves and others.

Teachers are losing the education war because our adolescents are distracted by the social world. Naturally, the students don’t see it that way. It wasn’t their choice to get endless instruction on topics that don’t seem relevant to them. They desperately want to learn, but what they want to learn about is their social world—how it works and how they can secure a place in it that will maximize their social rewards and minimize the social pain they feel. Their brains are built to feel these strong social motivations and to use the mentalizing system to help them along. Evolutionarily, the social interest of adolescents is no distraction. Rather, it is the most important thing they can learn well. (Lieberman 2013: 282)

The cultivation of learning is a cognitive and emotional and social activity (Illeris 2002)

Alison Gopnik (2016) has provided a helpful way of understanding this orientation. It is that educators, pedagogues and practitioners need to be gardeners rather than carpenters. A key theme emerging from her research over the last 30 years or so that runs in parallel with Lieberman, is that children learn by actively engaging their social and physical environments – not by passively absorbing information. They learn from other people, not because they are being taught – but because people are doing and talking about interesting things. The emphasis in a lot of the literature about parenting (and teaching) presents the roles much like that of a carpenter.

You should pay some attention to the kind of material you are working with, and it may have some influence on what you try to do. But essentially your job is to shape that material into a final product that will fit the scheme you had in mind to begin with.

Instead, Gopnik argues, the evidence points to being a gardener.

When we garden, on the other hand, we create a protected and nurturing space for plants to flourish. It takes hard labor and the sweat of our brows, with a lot of exhausted digging and wallowing in manure. And as any gardener knows, our specific plans are always thwarted. The poppy comes up neon orange instead of pale pink, the rose that was supposed to climb the fence stubbornly remains a foot from the ground, black spot and rust and aphids can never be defeated.

Education is deliberate. We act with a purpose – to build understanding and judgement and enable action. We may do this for ourselves, for example, learning what different road signs mean so that we can get a license to drive; or watching wildlife programmes on television because we are interested in animal behaviour. This process is sometimes called self-education or teaching yourself. We join with the journey that the writer, presenter or expert is making, think about it and develop our understanding. Hopefully, we bring that process and understanding into play when we need to act. We also seek to encourage learning in others (while being open to learning ourselves). Examples here include parents and carers showing their children how to use a knife and fork or ride a bike; schoolteachers introducing students to a foreign language; and animators and pedagogues helping a group to work together.

Sometimes as educators, we have a clear idea of what we’d like to see achieved; at others, we do not and should not. In the case of the former, we might be working to a curriculum, have a session or lesson plan with clear objectives, and have a high degree of control over the learning environment. This is what we often mean by ‘formal education’. In the latter, for example, when working with a community group, the setting is theirs and, as educators, we are present as guests. This is an example of informal education and here two things are happening.

First, the group may well be clear on what it wants to achieve e.g. putting on an event, but unclear about what they need to learn to do it. They know learning is involved – it is something necessary to achieve what they want – but it is not the main focus. Such ‘incidental learning’ is not accidental. People know they need to learn something but cannot necessarily specify it in advance (Brookfield 1984).

Second, this learning activity works largely through conversation – and conversation takes unpredictable turns. It is a dialogical rather than curricula form of education.

In both forms, educators set out to create environments and relationships where people can explore their, and other’s, experiences of situations, ideas and feelings. This exploration lies, as John Dewey argued, at the heart of the ‘business of education’. Educators set out to emancipate and enlarge experience (1933: 340). How closely the subject matter is defined in advance, and by whom, differs from situation to situation. John Ellis (1990) has developed a useful continuum – arguing that most education involves a mix of the informal and formal, of conversation and curriculum (i.e. between points X and Y).

The informal-formal education continuum - John Ellis

Those that describe themselves as informal educators, social pedagogues or as animators of community learning and development tend to work towards the X; those working as subject teachers or lecturers tend to the Y. Educators when facilitating tutor groups might, overall, work somewhere in the middle.

Acting in hope

Underpinning intention is an attitude or virtue – hopefulness. As educators ‘we believe that learning is possible, that nothing can keep an open mind from seeking after knowledge and finding a way to know’ (hooks 2003: xiv) . In other words, we invite people to learn and act in the belief that change for the good is possible. This openness to possibility isn’t blind or over-optimistic. It looks to evidence and experience, and is born of an appreciation of the world’s limitations (Halpin 2003: 19-20).

We can quickly see how such hope is both a part of the fabric of education – and, for many, an aim of education. Mary Warnock (1986:182) puts it this way:

I think that of all the attributes that I would like to see in my children or in my pupils, the attribute of hope would come high, even top, of the list. To lose hope is to lose the capacity to want or desire anything; to lose, in fact, the wish to live. Hope is akin to energy, to curiosity, to the belief that things are worth doing. An education which leaves a child without hope is an education that has failed.

But hope is not easy to define or describe. It is:

An emotion . Hope, John Macquarrie (1978 11) suggests, ‘consists in an outgoing and trusting mood toward the environment’. We do not know what will happen but take a gamble. ‘It’s to bet on the future, on your desires, on the possibility that an open heart and uncertainty is better than gloom and safety. To hope is dangerous, and yet it is the opposite of fear, for to live is to risk’ (Solnit 2016: 21).

A choice or intention to act . Hope ‘promotes affirmative courses of action’ (Macquarrie 1978: 11). Hope alone will not transform the world. Action ‘undertaken in that kind of naïveté’, wrote Paulo Freire (1994: 8), ‘is an excellent route to hopelessness, pessimism, and fatalism’. Hope and action are linked. Rebecca Solnit (2016: 22) put it this way, ‘Hope calls for action; action is impossible without hope… To hope is to give yourself to the future, and that commitment to the future makes the present inhabitable’.

An intellectual activity . Hope is not just feeling or striving, according to McQuarrie it has a cognitive or intellectual aspect. ‘[I]t carries in itself a definite way of understanding both ourselves – and the environing processes within which human life has its setting’ ( op. cit. ).

This provides us with a language to help make sense of things and to imagine change for the better – a ‘vocabulary of hope’. It helps us to critique the world as it is and our part in it, and not to just imagine change but also to plan it (Moltman 1967, 1971). It also allows us, and others, to ask questions of our hopes, to request evidence for our claims. (See, what is hope? ).

Education – being respectful, informed and wise

Education is wrapped up with who we are as learners and facilitators of learning – and how we are experienced by learners. In order to think about this, it is helpful to look back at a basic distinction made by Erich Fromm (1979), amongst others, between having and being. Fromm approaches these as fundamental modes of existence. He saw them as two different ways of understanding ourselves and the world in which we live.

Having is concerned with owning, possessing and controlling. In it we want to ‘make everybody and everything’, including ourselves, our property (Fromm 1979: 33). It looks to objects and material possessions.

Being is rooted in love according to Fromm. It is concerned with shared experience and productive activity. Rather than seeking to possess and control, in this mode, we engage with the world. We do not impose ourselves on others nor ‘interfere’ in their lives (see Smith and Smith 2008: 16-17).

These different orientations involve contrasting approaches to learning.

Students in the having mode must have but one aim; to hold onto what they have ‘learned’, either by entrusting it firmly to their memories or by carefully guarding their notes. They do not have to produce or create something new…. The process of learning has an entirely different quality for students in the being mode… Instead of being passive receptacles of words and ideas, they listen, they hear , and most important, they receive and they respond in an active, productive way. (Fromm 1979: 37-38)

In many ways, this difference mirrors that between education and schooling. Schooling entails transmitting knowledge in manageable lumps so it can be stored and then used so that students can pass tests and have qualifications. Education involves engaging with others and the world. It entails being with others in a particular way. Here I want to explore three aspects – being respectful, informed and wise.

Being respectful

The process of education flows from a basic orientation of respect – respect for truth, others and themselves, and the world. It is an attitude or feeling which is carried through into concrete action, into the way we treat people, for example. Respect, as R. S. Dillon (2014) has reminded us, is derived from the Latin respicere , meaning ‘to look back at’ or ‘to look again’ at something. In other words, when we respect something we value it enough to make it our focus and to try to see it for what it is, rather than what we might want it to be. It is so important that it calls for our recognition and our regard – and we choose to respond.

We can see this at work in our everyday relationships. When we think highly of someone we may well talk about respecting them – and listen carefully to what they say or value the example they give. Here, though, we are also concerned with a more abstract idea – that of moral worth or value. Rather than looking at why we respect this person or that, the interest is in why we should respect people in general (or truth, or creation, or ourselves).

First, we expect educators to hold truth dearly . We expect that they will look beneath the surface, try to challenge misrepresentation and lies, and be open to alternatives. They should display the ‘two basic virtues of truth’: sincerity and accuracy (Williams 2002: 11). There are strong religious reasons for this. Bearing false witness, within Christian traditions, can be seen as challenging the foundations of God’s covenant. There are also strongly practical reasons for truthfulness. Without it, the development of knowledge would not be possible – we could not evaluate one claim against another. Nor could we conduct much of life. For example, as Paul Seabright (2010) has argued, truthfulness allows us to trust strangers. In the process, we can build complex societies, trade and cooperate.

Educators, as with other respecters of truth, should do their best to acquire ‘true beliefs’ and to ensure what they say actually reveals what they believe (Williams 2002: 11). Their authority, ‘must be rooted in their truthfulness in both these respects: they take care, and they do not lie’ op. cit.).

Second, educators should display fundamental respect for others (and themselves) . There is a straightforward theological argument for this. There is also a fundamental philosophical argument for ‘respect for persons’. Irrespective of what they have done, the people they are or their social position, it is argued, people are deserving of some essential level of regard. The philosopher most closely associated with this idea is Immanuel Kant – and his thinking has become a central pillar of humanism. Kant’s position was that people were deserving of respect because they are people – free, rational beings. They are ends in themselves with an absolute dignity

Alongside respect for others comes respect for self. Without it, it is difficult to see how we can flourish – and whether we can be educators. Self-respect is not to be confused with qualities like self-esteem or self-confidence; rather it is to do with our intrinsic worth as a person and a sense of ourselves as mattering. It involves a ‘secure conviction that [our] conception of the good, [our] plan of life, is worth carrying out’ (Rawls 1972: 440). For some, respect for ourselves is simply the other side of the coin from respect for others. It flows from respect for persons. For others, like John Rawls, it is vital for happiness and must be supported as a matter of justice.

Third, educators should respect the Earth . This is sometimes talked about as respect for nature, or respect for all things or care for creation. Again there is a strong theological argument here – in much religious thinking humans are understood as stewards of the earth. Our task is to cultivate and care for it (see, for example, Genesis 2:15). However, there is also a strong case grounded in human experience. For example, Miller (2000) argues that ‘each person finds identity, meaning, and purpose in life through connections to the community, to the natural world, and to spiritual values such as compassion and peace’. Respect for the world is central to the thinking of those arguing for a more holistic vision of education and to the thinking of educationalists such as Montessori . Her vision of ‘cosmic education’ puts appreciating the wholeness of life at the core.

Since it has been seen to be necessary to give so much to the child, let us give him a vision of the whole universe. The universe is an imposing reality, and an answer to all questions. We shall walk together on this path of life, for all things are part of the universe, and are connected with each other to form one whole unity. This idea helps the mind of the child to become fixed, to stop wandering in an aimless quest for knowledge. He is satisfied, having found the universal centre of himself with all things’. (Montessori 2000)

Last, and certainly not least, there is a basic practical concern. We face an environmental crisis of catastrophic proportions. As Emmett (among many others) has pointed out, it is likely that we are looking at a global average rise of over four degrees Centigrade. This ‘will lead to runaway climate change, capable of tipping the planet into an entirely different state, rapidly. Earth would become a hell hole’ (2013: 143).

Being informed

To facilitate learning we must have some understanding of the subject matter being explored, and the impact study could have on those involved. In other words, facilitation is intelligent.

We expect, quite reasonably, that when people describe themselves as teachers or educators, they know something about the subjects they are talking about. In this respect, our ‘subject area’ as educators is wide. It can involve particular aspects of knowledge and activity such as those associated with maths or history. However, it is also concerned with happiness and relationships, the issues and problems of everyday life in communities, and questions around how people are best to live their lives. In some respects, it is wisdom that is required – not so much in the sense that we know a lot or are learned – but rather we are able to help people make good judgements about problems and situations.

We also assume that teachers and educators know how to help people learn. The forms of education we are exploring here are sophisticated. They can embrace the techniques of classroom management and of teaching to a curriculum that has been the mainstay of schooling. However, they move well beyond this into experiential learning, working with groups, and forms of working with individuals that draw upon insights from counselling and therapy.

In short, we look to teachers and educators as experts, We expect them to apply their expertise to help people learn. However, things don’t stop there. Many look for something more – wisdom.

Wisdom is not something that we can generally claim for ourselves – but a quality recognized by others. Sometimes when people are described as wise what is meant is that they are scholarly or learned. More often, I suspect, when others are described as ‘being wise’ it that people have experienced their questions or judgement helpful and sound when exploring a problem or difficult situation (see Smith and Smith 2008: 57-69). This entails:

appreciating what can make people flourish
being open to truth in its various guises and allowing subjects to speak to us
developing the capacity to reflect
being knowledgeable, especially about ourselves, around ‘what makes people tick’ and the systems of which we are a part
being discerning – able to evaluate and judge situations. ( op. cit. : 68)

This combination of qualities, when put alongside being respectful and informed, comes close to what Martin Buber talked about as the ‘real teacher’. The real teacher, he believed:

… teaches most successfully when he is not consciously trying to teach at all, but when he acts spontaneously out of his own life. Then he can gain the pupil’s confidence; he can convince the adolescent that there is human truth, that existence has a meaning. And when the pupil’s confidence has been won, ‘his resistance against being educated gives way to a singular happening: he accepts the educator as a person. He feels he may trust this man, that this man is taking part in his life, accepting him before desiring to influence him. And so he learns to ask…. (Hodes 1972: 136)

Education – acting so that all may share in life

Thus far in answering the question ‘what is education?’ we have seen how it can be thought of as the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning. Here we will explore the claim that education should be undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance to share in life. This commitment to the good of all and of each individual is central to the vision of education explored here, but it could be argued that it is possible to be involved in education without this. We could take out concern for others. We could just focus on process – the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning – and not state to whom this applies and the direction it takes.

Looking beyond process

First, we need to answer the question ‘if we act wisely, hopefully, and respectfully as educators do we need to have a further purpose?’ Our guide here will again be John Dewey. He approached the question a century ago by arguing that ‘the object and reward of learning is continued capacity for growth’ (Dewey 1916: 100). Education, for him, entailed the continuous ‘reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. (Dewey 1916: 76). His next step was to consider the social relationships in which this can take place and the degree of control that learners and educators have over the process. Just as Freire (1972) argued later, relationships for learning need to be mutual, and individual and social change possible.

In our search for aims in education, we are not concerned… with finding an end outside of the educative process to which education is subordinate. Our whole conception forbids. We are rather concerned with the contrast which exists when aims belong within the process in which they operate and when they are set up from without. And the latter state of affairs must obtain when social relationships are not equitably balanced. For in that case, some portions of the whole social group will find their aims determined by an external dictation; their aims will not arise from the free growth of their own experience, and their nominal aims will be means to more ulterior ends of others rather than truly their own. (Dewey 1916: 100-101)

In other words, where there are equitable relationships, control over the learning process, and the possibilities of fundamental change we needn’t look beyond the process. However, we have to work for much of the time in situations and societies where this level of democracy and social justice does not exist. Hence the need to make clear a wider purpose. Dewey (1916: 7) argued, thus, that our ‘chief business’ as educators is to enable people ‘to share in a common life’. I want to widen this and to argue that all should have a chance to share in life.

Having the chance to share in life

We will explore, briefly, three overlapping approaches to making the case – via religious belief, human rights and scientific exploration.

Religious belief. Historically it has been a religious rationale that has underpinned much thinking about this question. If we were to look at Catholic social teaching, for example, we find that at its heart lays a concern for human dignity . This starts from the position that, ‘human beings, created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26-27), have by their very existence an inherent value, worth, and distinction’ (Groody 2007). Each life is considered sacred and cannot be ignored or excluded. As we saw earlier, Kant argued something similar with regard to ‘respect for persons’. All are worthy of respect and the chance to flourish.

To human dignity a concern for solidarity is often added (especially within contemporary Catholic social teaching). Solidarity:

… is not a feeling of vague compassion or shallow distress at the misfortunes of so many people, both near and far. On the contrary, it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good; that is to say, to the good of all and of each individual, because we are all really responsible for all. On Social Concern ( Sollicitudo rei Socialis . . . ), #38

Another element, fundamental to the formation of the groups, networks and associations necessary for the ‘common life’ that Dewey describes, is subsidiarity . This principle, which first found its institutional voice in a papal encyclical in 1881, holds that human affairs are best handled at the ‘lowest’ possible level, closest to those affected (Kaylor 2015). It is a principle that can both strengthen civil society and the possibility of more mutual relationships for learning.

Together, these can provide a powerful and inclusive rationale for looking beyond particular individuals or groups when thinking about educational activity.

Human rights. Beside religious arguments lie others that are born of agreed principle or norm rather than faith. Perhaps the best known of these relate to what have become known as human rights. The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights puts it this way:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 26 further states:

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms….

These fundamental and inalienable rights are the entitlement of all human beings regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status (Article 2).

Scientific exploration. Lastly, I want to look at the results of scientific investigation into our nature as humans. More specifically we need to reflect on what it means when humans are described as social animals.

As we have already seen there is a significant amount of research showing just how dependent we are in everyday life on having trusting relationships in a society. Without them even the most basic exchanges cannot take place. We also know that in those societies where there is stronger concern for others and relatively narrow gaps between rich and poor people are generally happier (see, for example, Halpern 2010). On the basis of this material we could make a case for educators to look to the needs and experiences of all. Political, social and economic institutions depend on mass participation or at least benign consent – and the detail of this has to be learnt. However, with our growing appreciation of how our brains work and with the development of, for example, social cognitive neuroscience, we have a different avenue for exploration. We look to the needs and experience of others because we are hard-wired to do so. As Matthew D. Lieberman (2013) has put it:

Our basic urges include the need to belong, right along with the need for food and water. Our pain and pleasure systems do not merely respond to sensory inputs that can produce physical harm and reward. They are also exquisitely tuned to the sweet and bitter tastes delivered from the social world—a world of connection and threat to connection. (Lieberman 2013: 299)

Our survival as a species is dependent upon on looking to the needs and experiences of others. We dependent upon:

Connecting: We have ‘evolved the capacity to feel social pains and pleasures, forever linking our well-being to our social connectedness. Infants embody this deep need to stay connected, but it is present through our entire lives’ ( op. cit. : 10) Mindreading: Primates have developed an unparalleled ability to understand the actions and thoughts of those around them, enhancing their ability to stay connected and interact strategically… This capacity allows humans to create groups that can implement nearly any idea and to anticipate the needs and wants of those around us, keeping our groups moving smoothly ( op. cit. : 10) Harmonizing: Although the self may appear to be a mechanism for distinguishing us from others and perhaps accentuating our selfishness, the self actually operates as a powerful force for social cohesiveness. Whereas connection is about our desire to be social, harmonizing refers to the neural adaptations that allow group beliefs and values to influence our own. ( op. cit. : 11)

One of the key issues around these processes is the extent to which they can act to become exclusionary i.e. people can become closely attached to one particular group, community or nation and begin to treat others as somehow lesser or alien. In so doing relationships that are necessary to our survival – and that of the planet – become compromised. We need to develop relationships that are both bonding and bridging (see social capital ) – and this involves being and interacting with others who may not share our interests and concerns.

Education is more than fostering understanding and an appreciation of emotions and feelings. It is also concerned with change – ‘with how people can act with understanding and sensitivity to improve their lives and those of others’ (Smith and Smith 2008: 104). As Karl Marx (1977: 157-8) famously put it ‘all social life is practical…. philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; ‘the point is to change it’. Developing an understanding of an experience or a situation is one thing, working out what is good and wanting to do something about it is quite another. ‘For appropriate action to occur there needs to be commitment’ (Smith and Smith 2008: 105).

This combination of reflection; looking to what might be good and making it our own; and seeking to change ourselves and the world we live in is what Freire (1973) talked about as praxis. It involves us, as educators, working with people to create and sustain environments and relationships where it is possible to:

Go back to experiences . Learning doesn’t take place in a vacuum. We have to look to the past as well as the present and the future. It is necessary to put things in their place by returning to, or recalling, events and happenings that seem relevant.
Attend and connect to feelings . Our ability to think and act is wrapped up with our feelings. Appreciating what might be going on for us (and for others) at a particular moment; thinking about the ways our emotions may be affecting things; and being open to what our instincts or intuitions are telling us are important elements of such reflection. (See Boud et. al. 1985).
Develop understandings . Alongside attending to feelings and experiences, we need to examine the theories and understandings we are using. We also need to build new interpretations where needed. We should be looking to integrating new knowledge into our conceptual framework.
Commit . Education is something ‘higher’ according to John Henry Newman. It is concerned not just with what we know and can do, but also with who we are, what we value, and our capacity to live life as well as we can . We need space to engage with these questions and help to appreciate the things we value. As we learn to frame our beliefs we can better appreciate how they breathe life into our relationships and encounters, become our own, and move us to act.
Act . Education is forward-looking and hopeful. It looks to change for the better. In the end our efforts at facilitating learning have to be judged by the extent to which they further the capacity to flourish and to share in life. For this reason we need also to attend to the concrete, the actual steps that can be taken to improve things.

As such education is a deeply practical activity – something that we can do for ourselves (what we could call self-education), and with others.

Conclusion – so what is education?

It is in this way that we end up with a definition of education as ‘the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance to share in life’. What does education involve?

We can begin with what Aristotle discusses as hexis – a readiness to sense and know. This is a state – or what Joe Sachs (2001) talks about as an ‘active condition’. It allows us to take a step forward – both in terms of the processes discussed above, and in what we might seek to do when working with learners and participants. Such qualities can be seen as being at the core of the haltung and processes of pedagogues and educators (see below). There is a strong emphasis upon being in touch with feelings, attending to intuitions and seeking evidence to confirm or question what we might be sensing. A further element is also present – a concern not to take things for granted or at their face value (See, also, Pierre Bourdieu on education , Bourdieu 1972|1977: 214 n1).

Beyond that, we can see a guiding eidos or leading idea. This is the belief that all share in life and a picture of what might allow people to be happy and flourish. Alongside is a disposition or haltung (a concern to act respectfully, knowledgeably and wisely) and interaction (joining with others to build relationships and environments for learning). Finally, there is praxis – informed, committed action (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Grundy 1987).

The process of education

At first glance, this way of answering the question ‘what is education?’ – with its roots in the thinking of Aristotle , Rousseau , Pestalozzi and Dewey (to name a few) – is part of the progressive tradition of educational practice. It seems very different from ‘formal tradition’ or ‘traditional education’.

If there is a core theme to the formal position it is that education is about passing on information; for formalists, culture and civilization represent a store of ideas and wisdom which have to be handed on to new generations. Teaching is at the heart of this transmission; and the process of transmission is education…

While progressive educators stress the child’s development from within, formalists put the emphasis, by contrast, on formation from without— formation that comes from immersion in the knowledge, ideas, beliefs, concepts, and visions of society, culture, civilization. There are, one might say, conservative and liberal interpretations of this world view— the conservative putting the emphasis on transmission itself, on telling, and the liberal putting the emphasis more on induction, on initiation by involvement with culture’s established ideas.(Thomas 2013: 25-26).

As both Thomas and Dewey (1938: 17-23) have argued, these distinctions are problematic. A lot of the debate is either really about education being turned, or slipping, into something else, or reflecting a lack of balance between the informal and formal.

In the ‘formal tradition’ problems often occur where people are treated as objects to be worked on or ‘moulded’ rather than as participants and creators i.e. where education slips into ‘schooling’.

In the ‘progressive tradition’ issues frequently arise where the nature of experience is neglected or handled incompetently. Some experiences are damaging and ‘mis-educative’. They can arrest or distort ‘the growth of further experience’ (Dewey 1938: 25). The problem often comes when education drifts or moves into entertainment or containment. Involvement in the immediate activity is the central concern and little attention is given to expanding horizons, nor to reflection, commitment and creating change.

The answer to the question ‘what is education?’ given here can apply to both those ‘informal’ forms that are driven and rooted in conversation – and to more formal approaches involving a curriculum. The choice is not between what is ‘good’ and what is ‘bad’ – but rather what is appropriate for people in this situation or that. There are times to use transmission and direct teaching as methods, and moments for exploration, experience and action. It is all about getting the mix right and framing it within the guiding eidos and disposition of education.

The 10 Education Issues Everybody Should Be Talking About

What issues have the potential to define—or re define—education in the year ahead? Is there a next “big thing” that could shift the K-12 experience or conversation?

These were the questions Education Week set out to answer in this second annual “10 Big Ideas in Education” report.

You can read about last year’s ideas here . In 2019, though, things are different.

This year, we asked Education Week reporters to read the tea leaves and analyze what was happening in classrooms, school districts, and legislatures across the country. What insights could reporters offer practitioners for the year ahead?

Some of the ideas here are speculative. Some are warning shots, others more optimistic. But all 10 of them here have one thing in common: They share a sense of urgency.

Accompanied by compelling illustrations and outside perspectives from leading researchers, advocates, and practitioners, this year’s Big Ideas might make you uncomfortable, or seem improbable. The goal was to provoke and empower you as you consider them.

Let us know what you think, and what big ideas matter to your classroom, school, or district. Tweet your comments with #K12BigIdeas .

No. 1: Kids are right. School is boring.

Illustration of a student who is bored in class

Out-of-school learning is often more meaningful than anything that happens in a classroom, writes Kevin Bushweller, the Executive Editor of EdWeek Market Brief. His essay tackling the relevance gap is accompanied by a Q&A with advice on nurturing, rather than stifling students’ natural curiosity. Read more.

No. 2: Teachers have trust issues. And it’s no wonder why.

Many teachers may have lost faith in the system, says Andrew Ujifusa, but they haven’t lost hope. The Assistant Editor unpacks this year’s outbreak of teacher activism. And read an account from a disaffected educator on how he built a coalition of his own. Read more.

No. 3: Special education is broken.

Conceptual Illustration of a special education puzzle with missing pieces

Forty years since students with disabilities were legally guaranteed a public school education, many still don’t receive the education they deserve, writes Associate Editor Christina A. Samuels. Delve into her argument and hear from a disability civil rights pioneer on how to create an equitable path for students. Read more.

No. 4: Schools are embracing bilingualism, but only for some students.

Staff Writer Corey Mitchell explains the inclusion problem at the heart of bilingual education. His essay includes a perspective from a researcher on dismantling elite bilingualism. Read more.

No. 5: A world without annual testing may be closer than you think.

There’s agreement that we have a dysfunctional standardized-testing system in the United States, Associate Editor Stephen Sawchuk writes. But killing it would come with some serious tradeoffs. Sawchuk’s musing on the alternatives to annual tests is accompanied by an argument for more rigorous classroom assignments by a teacher-practice expert. Read more.

No. 6: There are lessons to be learned from the educational experiences of black students in military families.

Drawing on his personal experience growing up in an Air Force family, Staff Writer Daarel Burnette II highlights emerging research on military-connected students. Learn more about his findings and hear from two researchers on what a new ESSA mandate means for these students. Read more.

No. 7: School segregation is not an intractable American problem.

Racial and economic segregation remains deeply entrenched in American schools. Staff Writer Denisa R. Superville considers the six steps one district is taking to change that. Her analysis is accompanied by an essay from the president of the American Educational Research Association on what is perpetuating education inequality. Read more.

No. 8: Consent doesn’t just belong in sex ed. class. It needs to start a lot earlier.

Assistant Editor Sarah D. Sparks looked at the research on teaching consent and found schools and families do way too little, way too late. Her report is partnered with a researcher’s practical guide to developmentally appropriate consent education. Read more.

No. 9: Education has an innovation problem.

Are education leaders spending too much time chasing the latest tech trends to maintain what they have? Staff Writer Benjamin Herold explores the innovation trap. Two technologists offer three tips for putting maintenance front and center in school management. Read more.

No. 10: There are two powerful forces changing college admissions.

Some colleges are rewriting the admissions script for potential students. Senior Contributing Writer Catherine Gewertz surveys this changing college admissions landscape. Her insights are accompanied by one teacher’s advice for navigating underserved students through the college application process. Read more.

Wait, there’s more.

Want to know what educators really think about innovation? A new Education Week Research Center survey delves into what’s behind the common buzzword for teachers, principals, and district leaders. Take a look at the survey results.

A version of this article appeared in the January 09, 2019 edition of Education Week as What’s on the Horizon for 2019?

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Leading Effective Discussions

Engaging Students
updated on April 16, 2024

Planning Ahead for Discussions

Facilitating in-class discussions, additional resources.

Leading class and business case discussions requires agility in balancing course content while inviting diverse perspectives from students.

This resource offers frameworks, examples, and tips from the GSB community for leading effective and inclusive discussions. We recommend focusing on a few that might be most relevant to your teaching and adapting and implementing them to meet your needs. Let us know if you’d like a consultation or need any support.

Create a clear game plan for how you wish to achieve your teaching goals by planning your content delivery and how you aim to engineer student engagement. Here are some areas where you can plan ahead.

Your goals for the discussion. For example, do you want students to critically analyze the details of a case, examine the pros and/or cons of a specific point, explore conflicting views on a topic, or hypothesize scenarios and outcomes?
The balance between reviewing assigned work and taking the discussion further. How much do you want students to recap key points from a case or assigned reading? At what point do you want them to evaluate the material more critically from a variety of angles?
The balance between lecturing on new content and staying in the discussion space. How much of your class discussion is about students making key connections through discussion and how much is about you bringing in other information and insights through mini-lectures?
How the topic relates to other cases in the course and/or the marketplace. Is the topic representative of a more general phenomenon?
How the topics relate to other assigned readings, prior class discussions, and future course work or projects.
Real-world connections. How much should students link concepts to current events? How much do you want them to bring in connections to their own experiences?

As you prepare study or discussion questions, take a moment to ensure they map to your key learning goals. You may wish to:

Frame initial discussion questions with some case, industry, or other relevant background to set the stage and point students toward the goals you have in mind.
Look for areas of potential confusion. For example, questions that are too broad can solicit variable and off-topic answers.
Envision a range of responses you hope students might contribute to the discussion. What question(s) will help you elicit these responses?
Craft questions that elicit deeper answers and avoid excessive use of Yes/No questions or questions with a single correct answer. While Yes/No and single correct answer types might be easier to craft, students will often respond with short performative answers, preventing discussions from going deeper.

Clearly state how discussions are part of your course and share your expectations for how students should participate. Ensure that students follow your discussion guidelines in the first few classes and re-emphasize them throughout the quarter. Your discussion norms will soon become routine in your course. As part of your expectations, give guidance and feedback on:

How much you expect students to volunteer and respond to other students’ comments.
How you implement cold calls, warm calls, or role plays to foster meaningful discussions.
How much you expect them to contribute from their own experiences, or debate a point.
How they should respond to other students’ comments.
When you wish them to focus on the facts from the case or readings and when you want them to transition to offering analysis.

Engaging all students in the classroom to join in discussion is an art that can seem challenging in the moment. Some students are naturally more inclined to participate while others are more reserved in the group setting. As a facilitator, think about the role you will play to create a welcoming atmosphere in the classroom for engaged and inclusive discussions. Consider these tips:

Strive to cast open-ended questions that elicit analysis, reactions, or insights from the class instead of using questions that fish for specific answers.
Consider waiting for a few students to raise their hands then beginning the discussion with the last person who raised their hand. This strategy can help shy students, who can be hesitant to respond, engage early without waiting nervously. Choosing later volunteers may shape the conversation in a different way than always choosing the first or quickest hand to raise.
Invite students to respond to one another’s ideas instead of responding directly to you.
Integrate brief pauses to give students time to reflect on your summaries or others’ comments before calling on the next person.
When disagreements arise, ask students to further illustrate their position by drawing on insights from the course content.
Invite students to review the main ideas and their conclusions toward the end of the discussion.
Lower the stakes for making mistakes by acknowledging the challenging nature of the material and celebrating contributions especially when students are outside of their comfort zones.
Maintain strategies for equitable discussion throughout the quarter, such as implementing warm calls, generating randomized lists, and checking in with students who seem reluctant.

Tips for Handling Engagement Challenges

Stay curious and open to varying viewpoints. Ensure your questions maintain an approach of curiosity to your student’s perspectives and opinions. Students often pick up on the use of leading questions that imply a correct answer or slanted questions that close-down differing points of view, which may limit their willingness to explore different sides of an issue.
Use discretion in handling unpreparedness. If a student is unprepared, calmly move on to the next student. Follow up with the student privately after class.
Use Discussion Moves (outlined below) to keep momentum throughout the class session.

Hear from your GSB colleagues about their strategies for handling challenging moments in the classroom in this video on Challenging Students .

Discussion Moves

Your goals as a discussion facilitator might need to shift during a class session. Below are some discussion moves, or different actions you might consider to facilitate deeper discussions during your course and signal to students shifts in the discussion.

Opening the Class
Eliciting Deeper Answers
Broadening Participation

Start the discussion by sharing with your students what the focus is and why it is important to them.

Frame the discussion in a way that helps students know how you wish to focus the discussion.

Today we’re going to focus on… This topic is relevant to…

Elicit initial student responses and reactions with open-ended questions .

Why…? How…? What is the significance of…?

Encourage students to deepen their analysis and thought processes by further exploring their initial responses. Consider using these question types to avoid surface-level answers and a yes/no rut.

Why…? How would you explain…? What is the importance of…? What is the meaning of…?

Compare and Contrast

Compare… Contrast… What is the difference between…? What is the similarity between…?

Cause and Effect

What are the causes/results of…? What connection is there between…? If that is so, why do you think [the protagonist] made the choice they did?

Clarification

What is meant by…? Explain how… Could you say a little more about that? How did you arrive at that conclusion? Why is that important? What connection is there between…? What are the implications of…? In your own words, describe/clarify [key idea] from the reading.

Make a point to broaden perspectives and encourage participation from more students to keep the discussion moving. Once a student has aptly articulated their key ideas, you may wish to pose some of the following questions more broadly to the class.

Are there other perspectives? What other issues might we consider? Does anyone see it differently? Can anyone build on/respond to [student’s] point? Have we missed anything on this point?

Refocusing the Discussion
Recasting Your Question
Closing the Loop

Even the best and most dynamic class discussions can have off-topic moments. Depending on how the discussion has moved off topic, here are some phrases you can use to help refocus the conversation.

Students might give a long list of items or ideas in response to the topic and you may wish to drill down on only one or two of them.

You’re raising a number of issues. Let’s focus on [x]. Let’s take this one step at a time. How might you summarize your point into one or two key ideas?

A student may raise a new point or direction to the conversation, but you wish to continue with the current pathway to drive home a teaching point.

Let’s hold off on that for the moment and resolve the debate on the table. We’ll come back to that when we get to [later topic]. Let’s hold off on that for the moment. I want to finish exploring the point that [student] brought up.

A student might articulate an idea that isn’t fully consistent with what was previously stated but, with a little nudging, can be prompted to link to the idea on the table.

How does that relate to what [previous student] was saying? (Note of caution: this could come across as punitive in cases where the student is wildly off-topic.)

A student might confuse or conflate ideas. You may wish to treat this by bringing them back to the source of information or inviting alternative perspectives .

Where in the case did you find that? (Note of caution: this could come across as punitive depending on the tone or if you know this doesn’t exist in the case.) Did anyone come up with a different answer? How might we reconcile these different perspectives/ideas/results?

Sometimes you may realize that you didn’t cast your question as clearly as you hoped. In these cases, take a moment and acknowledge to the students that you wish to reframe your question.

Let me rephrase that question. I see that this question was confusing, let’s try it again.

At the end of each discussion, invite students to make connections to the goals of the day’s topic or real-world decision-making. Prompting students to articulate their takeaways can make key ideas and your teaching points more memorable and valuable to your students. Try adding a question or two from below into your course closing remarks.

What are some takeaways from today’s discussion? In what other contexts (industries/cultures) might these principles apply? Why should you care about these issues?

Teaching Strategies

Handling Sensitive Topics , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub
Building Classroom Community , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub
Cultivating Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in the GSB Classroom , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub
Inclusive and Equitable Discussions as part of the Inclusive Teaching Guide , Stanford Teaching Commons

GSB Faculty and Student Voices

Faculty Tips: Teaching with Presence and Connection , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub
Faculty Showcase on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion: Event Highlights , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub
GSB Student Voices Panel: Event Highlights , GSB Teaching and Learning Hub

Looking to implement or adapt any of these tips on leading effective discussions for your courses? The Teaching and Learning Hub is here to help .

Unless otherwise noted, you may copy and redistribute this resource in its unmodified form under the terms of the Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license (attribution, non-commercial, no-derivatives).

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Discussions that Teach

Discussion is a flexible and effective method of interactive learning . As with other forms of interactive learning, discussion requires careful preparation and skill to achieve pedagogical goals. When done well, classroom discussion enhances student learning and helps students develop a range of intellectual and social skills.

Benefits of Discussion

Discussion is not a mere technique, but a pedagogy that ought to flow from certain instructor values—for instance, that classrooms are communities where everyone has a voice and that well-structured learning communities successfully refine knowledge (Abercrombie, 1979). Classroom discussions can draw attention to greater diversity of viewpoints and help students learn how to formulate and critique arguments—distinguish fact from opinion, distinguish assertion from evidence, judge the relationship between assertion and evidence, organize thoughts, etc. Although lectures can be as effective as discussion in helping students learn foundational knowledge, discussion is better at promoting thought among students and engendering interest in a subject (Bligh, 2000).

Getting Students to Participate

Students may be reluctant to engage in class discussion. This may be linked to introversion, shyness, or fear of being perceived as wrong, uninformed, or inarticulate; but students may also be reticent because they are inexperienced with participating in academic discussions, have language or cultural barriers, expect that college classrooms should be lecture-driven, or simply prefer to process information internally (Zakrajsek, 2017). Instructors should recognize that common American conversation practices—interrupting, contradicting, speaking over another—can be uncomfortable for students from other cultures.

Opinions differ on whether to require students to speak in class; instructors must balance accountability and authenticity (Hess, 2009). Either way, instructors should encourage a range of behaviors as participation beyond voluntary response to a question or prompt. Students can be assigned roles, such as devil’s advocate or reporter. Instructors can also task student with conversational moves, such as making a comment that summarizes what some else has said or finding a way to express appreciation for the what one has learned in the discussion (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005; see Conversational Roles and Conversational Moves for more ideas). Instructors can encourage more and higher-quality participation by asking open-ended and “authentic” questions—that is, questions for which there are many legitimate answers. Thoughtfully arranging the learning space also facilitates participation; for instance, students sitting in a circle are more likely to talk to each other, while student sitting in rows are more likely to talk to the teacher.

Balancing Voices

One challenge with classroom discussion is ensuring that all participants have opportunities to speak freely. Instructors can overtly or implicitly dominate discussion—by simply speaking more than others, by unduly restricting the boundaries of discussion, or by subtly indicating “right” and “wrong” responses. Outspoken students may also dominate discussion and shut down others’ participation. Because open discussion requires instructors to take a less directive role, it can be both “unpredictable and risky” as well as “enjoyable and exciting” (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005, p. 45; see Keeping Voice in Balance for more ideas).

The degree of regulation an instructor exercises in a discussion has many implications. Observational analysis suggests that high instructor regulation correlates to high content quality, more frequent student-teacher interaction, and higher percentage of students participating (often because of instructor assigning turns or actively inviting contributions from specific individuals). On the other hand, high student regulation correlates to more “genuine” discussion, more student-student interaction, and more domination of the discussion by a few students (Schuitema et al, 2018).

What are Students Learning?

Discussions necessarily include a range of voices; therefore tensions, contradictions, and seemingly disconnected ideas may arise. Consider your learning objectives: if you require memorizing many facts or understanding major categories and concepts, you may want to regularly summarize or close the discussion with a reiteration of main points. Similarly, because discussion necessarily gives greater control to students, a discussion may get stuck on narrow or tangential topics or fail to draw forth well-supported and diverse arguments. Instructors who aim for high content quality may need to ask pointed questions, introduce key information, and press students to reply to one another, expand on their views, and support their positions with evidence and logic.

Some, however, believe that for discussion to be authentic, the instructor must not move the conversation to a predetermined conclusion—that “guided discussion,” in this sense, is an oxymoron (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005). Student ownership of discussion may be especially important if a learning objective is productively participating in discussion as a democratic practice (Hess, 2009).

Abercrombie, M. L. J. (1979). Aims and techniques of group teaching. Guilford: Society for Research into Higher Education.

Bligh, D. A. (2000). What’s the use of lectures? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brookfield, S., & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classroom s. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hess, D. (2009). Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. New York: Routledge.

Schuitema, J., Radstake, H., van de Pol, Janneke, & Veugelers, W. (2018). Guiding classroom discussions for democratic education. Educational Studies, 44 (4), 377-407.

Zakrajsek, T. (2017). Students who don’t participate in class discussions: They are not all introverts. The Scholarly Teacher . https://www.scholarlyteacher.com/blog/students-who-dont-participate-in-class-discussions .

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Teaching Students How to Have an Academic Discussion

This teacher-created scaffolding tool can elevate classroom dialogue, empowering students to express themselves while learning from the ideas of others.

Illustration of a puzzle conversation bubble filled with clouds in the night sky

Ever been in the midst of a classroom discussion where students are bubbling over with ideas, eager to share? It can look and sound like lots of voices calling out and talking over each other while quieter students try to find a place to enter the fray. You don’t want to squash anyone’s enthusiasm, but how do you ensure that every student has the opportunity to truly express themselves and hear the ideas of their classmates?

Students’ ability to clearly communicate with others in conversation is a critical literacy skill. While goals for speaking are a part of elementary school standards, beginning in kindergarten, teaching talk can feel tricky; it’s often hard for students to know where to begin or the next best place to go when responding to someone. A “Progression of Talk” chart can be very helpful in this work—defining starting and ending points for students, as well as all the points in between, when engaging in conversation.

The “Progression of Talk,” by Cynthia Satterlee, begins with a student saying anything at all and grows to a student saying something relevant, adding on to what was previously said or disagreeing, clarifying, improving, revising their thinking, provoking more thought, or extending and elaborating—all necessary skills for any form of discourse.

When Cynthia shared this progression during a workshop, I nodded and thought, “Yes, just what I’ve been looking for!” She helped me see how talk could grow across a range of grade levels and subject areas. As I studied the progression, I thought it could become an even more powerful tool for students and teachers by adding a series of sample talk prompts at each level.

Photo of a scaffold tool to help student conversation

Observation

The first step of teaching kids how to lift the level of their talk begins with observation: simply paying attention to what students are saying to each other. Is it connected to the original speaker’s sentiments or wildly off-topic? Are they putting thoughts into words and able to keep a conversation going or inadvertently shutting it down? Match your observations to steps on the progression and then lean into instruction.

What this looks like inside the classroom:

Many elementary-aged children love to share their opinions when they disagree with others. I have heard children do this with short phrases—“That’s not right!”—or by sharing how they see things differently without acknowledging the original speaker’s ideas.

Providing students with talking prompts like “I agree…” or “I feel differently…” can help them make a connection between what the speaker is saying and what they are adding to grow the conversation.
Similarly, empowering kids to use the phrase “I’d like to add…” helps build a bridge from someone else’s idea to their own.

Introducing Talk Prompts

Displaying talk prompts once you have introduced them to your class can be a powerful scaffold. It’s best to write them with students while explicitly explaining the thought process behind the prompts:

“One way we are adding on to what other kids in class have to share is to start by saying, ‘Something you just said…’ Let’s write that on a big sticky note and place it here on the board where we can all see it. We can work on growing our talk by using this language whenever we want to share something connected to the conversation.”

This note can then be referred to prior to conversations, with a reminder: “Remember, we are trying to grow our talking skills by saying something that connects to what the person before you said.”

Next, point to and provide the talk prompts to help scaffold this work. Slowly building a progression tool with students is much more powerful than displaying it in its entirety at the onset of digging into these skills.

The Evolution of Talk

This process takes time. Support conversations with the talk prompts until students make them their own. If a child begins speaking without them, you can gently say the prompt and encourage them to try again, scooping up this language as their running start. When I am doing this, it reminds me of helping someone learn how to float. At first, my hands are firmly under the person, but soon my words become gentle fingertips just beneath the surface—providing reassurance, stability, and support.

I take my figurative hands completely away when I hear kids incorporating the language of this progression in natural back-and-forths. This might sound like a child adding on to something they’ve said to clarify a point—“Let me try to say that in a clearer way” or “I’d like to add on to what I said before.” And another child sharing how their thinking has changed as a result of considering the thoughts and perspectives of others—“I used to think… but now I think…”

Not only does this exchange sound good, but it honors the thoughts of all speakers and helps kids see how their words are interconnected.

It’s important to remember that this progression chart isn’t a set of discrete steps or tied to particular grade levels; it can be more fluid depending on what students are saying, how they are interacting, or the focus of your curriculum. For example, with fifth graders in a debate unit, lean into talk prompts that allow students not only to press for more information but to respectfully express differing viewpoints.

As kids grow in this work and try on other successful ways to lift their talk, notice, name, and celebrate what they are saying, then add it to your shared chart. Empower students to use this cocreated visual to gauge their own progress, connect their language to the progression, and set goals to grow. Elevating talk skills in a dynamic way enables students to truly express themselves both in and out of the classroom, shifting responses like “What?!” to “I’d love to hear you say more…”

Eberly Center

Teaching excellence & educational innovation, discussions.

(Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999)

Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evaluate evidence.

While discussions provide avenues for exploration and discovery, leading a discussion can be anxiety-producing: discussions are, by their nature, unpredictable, and require us as instructors to surrender a certain degree of control over the flow of information. Fortunately, careful planning can help us ensure that discussions are lively without being chaotic and exploratory without losing focus. When planning a discussion, it is helpful to consider not only cognitive, but also social/emotional, and physical factors that can either foster or inhibit the productive exchange of ideas.

Cognitive factors:

Determine and communicate learning objectives, plan a strategy.

Ask good questions
Provide direction and maintain focus
Bring closure

Social/emotional factors:

Demonstrate relevance
Encourage participation
Make high-quality participation “count”

Evaluate the discussion

Physical factors:.

Creating a setting conducive for discussion

Cognitive Factors

For discussions to accomplish something valuable, they must have a purpose. Consider your goals for each discussion. How do the ideas and information to be discussed fit into the course as a whole? What skills, knowledge, perspectives, or sensibilities do you want students to walk away from the discussion with? Your goals for a particular discussion should be consistent with your course objectives and values as an instructor. You might, for example, want students to be able to:

Articulate the arguments made by the authors of two assigned readings and assess the evidence used to support them. Evaluate the arguments alone and in comparison with one another and discuss their contemporary policy implications. Or…
Formulate arguments and counter-arguments for a legal position. Or…
Imagine a particular approach to the design of cities and discuss the impact such a design would have on the lives of people in different socioeconomic categories. Suggest and justify design changes to optimize the benefits for the most number of people.

When you can clearly envision the purpose of the discussion, it is easier to formulate stimulating questions and an appropriate strategy for facilitating the discussion. Communicating your objectives to your students, moreover, helps to focus their thinking and motivate participation.

After determining the objectives for your discussion, ask yourself: How will I make sure that students meet these objectives? Plan the discussion out, even if you end up deviating from your plan. Some of the questions to consider when formulating a plan include:

How do I want students to prepare: read a case study? (if so, in class or as homework?) do a team exercise? watch a documentary? reflect on a set of questions?
What questions will I pose to spark or guide discussion? to encourage deeper analysis?
Will I open the discussion to the entire class or ask students to discuss the issue in pairs, small groups, or some combination of the above?
What will I do if students simply aren’t participating? If certain students dominate the discussion?
How will I allocate and manage the time I have?
How will I deal with digressions or unanticipated shifts in topic?
How will I correct students’ misconceptions or inaccuracies without stifling participation?
How will I (or my students) synthesize the ideas at the end of the class period?

Your answers to these questions will depend on your goals. For example, correcting factual inaccuracies might be critical in some circumstances, less so in others. Digressions may be productive if your primary purpose is to explore connections, and undesirable if the goal of your discussion is more focused.

One of the most important things to consider when formulating a strategy is how to get the discussion jump-started. Davis (1993) and Frederick (1981) provide a number of excellent suggestions.

Ask Good Questions

Good questions are the key to a productive discussion. These include not only the questions you use to jump-start discussion but also the questions you use to probe for deeper analysis, ask for clarification or examples, explore implications, etc. It is helpful to think about the various kinds of questions you might ask and the cognitive skills they require to answer. Davis (1993) lists a range of question types, including:

Exploratory questions: probe facts and basic knowledge
Challenge questions: interrogate assumptions, conclusions or interpretations
Relational questions: ask for comparisons of themes, ideas, or issues
Diagnostic questions: probe motives or causes
Action questions: call for a conclusion or action
Cause-and-effect questions: ask for causal relationships between ideas, actions, or events
Extension questions: expand the discussion
Hypothetical questions: pose a change in the facts or issues
Priority questions: seek to identify the most important issue(s)
Summary questions: elicit synthesis

These question types can be mapped onto Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives, which shows increasing levels of cognitive complexity as students move from fairly simple tasks (such as recall of information) to more complex tasks (such as synthesis, evaluation, or creation.) While you might frame the entire discussion in terms of a Big Question to grapple with, it is a good general strategy to move from relatively simple, convergent questions (i.e., questions with correct answers, such as “According to this treatise, what is Argentina’s historical claim on the Falklands?” or “What kinds of tax cuts does this bill propose?”) to more complex, divergent questions (i.e., questions with many valid answers, such as “Why did Argentina invade the Falklands?” or “To what extent would this bill’s proposed tax increases resolve the budget deficit?”) (examples from Davis, 1993). Starting with convergent questions helps discussion participants to establish a base of shared knowledge and builds student confidence; it also gives you, the instructor, the opportunity to correct factual inaccuracies or misconceptions before the discussion moves into greater complexity and abstraction. Asking a variety of types of questions can also help to model for students the ways that experts use questions to refine their analyses. For example, an instructor might move an abstract discussion to a concrete level by asking for examples or illustrations, or move a concrete discussion to a broader level by asking students to generate a generalization or implication.

When instructors are nervous that a discussion might flag, they tend to fall prey to some common questioning errors. These include:

Asking too many questions at once: Instructors often make the mistake of asking a string of questions together, e.g., “What do you think the author is trying to say here? Do you agree with him? Is his evidence convincing? Did you like this article?” Students may get confused trying to figure out which question to address first. Asking a number of questions together may also conflate issues you really want to help students distinguish (for example, the author’s thesis versus the kinds of evidence he uses to support it).

Asking a question and answering it yourself: We have all had the experience of asking a question only to encounter blank stares and silence. The temptation under these circumstances is to jump in and answer your own question, if only to relieve the uncomfortable silence. Don’t assume, though, that students’ silence necessarily indicates that they are stumped (or unprepared); sometimes they are simply thinking the question through and formulating an answer. Be careful not to preempt this process by jumping in too early.

Failing to probe or explore the implications of answers: One mistake instructors can make in leading a discussion is not to follow up sufficiently on student contributions. It is important not only to get students talking, but to probe them about their reasoning, ask for evidence, explore the implications of what they say, etc. Follow-up questions push students to think more deeply, to substantiate their claims, and consider the practical impact of particular perspectives.

Asking unconnected questions: In the best discussions, there is a logical progression from question to question so that, ultimately, the discussion tells (or reveals) a story. When you are planning your discussion questions, think about how they fit together.

Asking yes/no or leading questions: Asking questions with a yes/no answer can be the starting point of a good discussion, but only if there is a follow-up question that calls for explanation or substantiation. Otherwise, yes/no questions tend to be conversation-stoppers. By the same token, discussions can stall if the instructor’s questions are overly leading, i.e., if there is clearly an answer the instructor wants, and the students’ task is simply to guess it, rather than to think for himself.

Ignoring or failing to build on answers: If students do not feel like their voices have weight in discussion, their motivation to participate drops. Thus, it is important to acknowledge student contributions, responding enthusiastically when they are insightful (“That’s an excellent point, Sarah; could you elaborate further?”) and pointing out when they contain inaccuracies or problematic reasoning (“Take another look at the article, Tranh; is that really what the author is claiming?”). If you do not wish to play such a directive role yourself – and want students to develop the habit of assessing and responding to one another’s contributions – you can throw student comments back to the class for evaluation (for example, “Do the rest of you agree with John’s recommendation? What would be some possible consequences if this plan of action were followed?”)

Provide Direction and Maintain Focus

Discussions tend to be most productive when they have a clear focus. It may be helpful to write out a few questions that the discussion will address, and return to those questions periodically. Also, summarize key issues occasionally as you go and refocus student attention if the discussion seems to be getting off track (for example, “How do the issues that have just been raised relate to the question originally posed?” or “That’s an interesting point, Alexis, and one we will return to later in the course.”)

While some lulls in discussion are to be expected (while participants are thinking, for example) the instructor must be alert to signs such as these that a discussion is breaking down (Davis, 1993):

Excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking
Repetition of points
Private conversations
Participants taking sides and refusing to compromise
Apathetic participation

If the discussion seems to be flagging, it can help to introduce a new question or alter the task so as to bring a fresh kind of thinking or a different group dynamic to bear. For example, you might switch from discussing an ethical issue in the abstract to a concrete case study, or shift from large-group discussion to small group or pair-work.

Bring Closure

It is important to leave time at the end of the discussion to synthesize the central issues covered, key questions raised, etc. There are a number of ways to synthesize. You could, for example, tell students that one of them (they won’t know who in advance) will be asked at the end of every discussion to identify the major issues, concerns and conclusions generated during discussion. You could also ask students individually to write down what they believe was the most important point, the overall conclusion, and/or a question the discussion raised in their mind (these can be collected and serve as the basis of a follow-up lecture or discussion.) You might also provide students with a set of 2 or 3 “take-home” points synthesizing what you thought were the key issues raised in discussion. Synthesizing the discussion is a critical step for linking the discussion to the original learning objectives and demonstrating progress towards meeting those objectives.

Social and Emotional Factors:

Demonstrate relevance.

While students generally enjoy discussions, they may have difficulty recognizing what they gain from participating in them – in contrast with lectures, in which students may take copious notes and have a sense of having covered clearly discernable ground. This can be particularly true for international students from cultures <link to Cultural Variations> in which discussions are not a regular or valued part of the educational curriculum.

It is helpful to tell students up front how you think the skills they gain from participating in discussion will help them in academic and future pursuits. For example: “The ability to articulate and defend a position thoughtfully and respectfully will serve you well in the work world when you are arguing for a particular policy solution or course of action. Discussions for this class will give you the opportunity to practice that skill.”

Beyond explaining the relevance of discussion in general, it is a good idea to point out the relevance of particular discussions vis-à-vis contemporary social issues, your students’ future plans, etc. For example, “Today we’ll be discussing the advantages of Chinese traditional medicine over Western medicine in the treatment of pain and chronic illness. As we talk, think about a conversation with a colleague in medical school and imagine how you would articulate this argument and suggest a productive fusion of both approaches to medicine.”

Encourage Participation

Many issues can affect students’ willingness to participate in discussions, from cultural background (Are discussion classes new and unfamiliar to them?) to preparedness (Have they done the background work – reading, for example – to prepare for the discussion?) to the kinds of questions asked (Are the questions too difficult or, alternatively, are the answers too obvious?). Below are some strategies that can help encourage meaningful student participation.

Create a discussion climate early. If you want to use discussion in your class, encourage active student participation from the first day of class <link to first day of class html page>. Plan an icebreaker early in the semester that gets students talking and interacting, preferably while doing an activity that is integral to the content material for the course. Also, create a climate in which students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks: respond to their comments respectfully, even when you correct or challenge them, and make sure (perhaps by establishing clear behavioral ground rules) that their peers do as well.

Require students to prepare for discussion. Discussions often break down because students simply haven’t done the reading or work upon which the discussion is based. Discussions tend to be most productive when students have already done some preparatory work for them. It can be helpful to give assignments to help students to prepare for discussion. This could be a set of questions to answer, a question or two to write, an informal one-page (or paragraph) “reflection” on a reading, film, work of art, etc. Brookfield and Preskill (1999), for example, recommend “structured, critical pre-reading” focused on these kinds of questions:

Epistemological questions probe how an author comes to know or believe something to be true
Experiential questions help the student review the text through the lens of his/her relevant personal experiences
Communicative questions ask how the author conveys meaning and whether the forms clarify or confuse
Political questions ask how the work serves to represent certain interests and challenge others

Preparatory assignments help students focus their reading and their thinking, thus facilitating a higher-quality discussion. It is important to note that assigning preparatory work does not necessarily add significant extra work for the instructor, who can collect student prep assignments, glance over them quickly to assess overall comprehension or to identify questions to address in class, and simply mark them Credit/No Credit.

Get to know your students. Students are more likely to participate if they feel that they are recognized as individuals. If at all possible, learn your students’ names and encourage them to learn and use one another’s names. Some faculty members require individual students (or groups of students) to come to their office hours once early in the semester, to get to know them better; others use ice-breaking exercises <link to> early in the semester to lower inhibitions and encourage interaction.

Model exemplary discussion behavior. Often, students must learn how to enter meaningfully into a discussion. One way to encourage students to engage in the style of intellectual exchange you desire is to model good discussion techniques in your own behavior, using language that demonstrates, among other things:

how to build on another individual’s contribution (“As Sunil pointed out…”)
how to ask for clarification (“I’m not sure what you mean, Allie. Can you give a concrete example from one of the readings we’ve had?”)
how to disagree politely (“I’ve got a different take on that issue…”)
how to marshal evidence to support a position (“There are three things in the book that led me to this conclusion. They are…”)

In the interests of modeling a particular style of intellectual exchange, some instructors invite a colleague to their class and engage in a scholarly discussion or debate for the benefit of their students.On its own, instructor modeling is not likely to affect student behavior, however. It is also important to explicitly point out the kinds of discussion skills illustrated above and to distinguish high-quality contributions (e.g. claims that are substantiated with evidence, comments which effectively build on other student comments) from lower-quality contributions (e.g. unsubstantiated claims, opinions based purely on personal taste, etc.)

Create ground rules. Explicit ground rules or guidelines can help to ensure a respectful environment for discussion. The ground rules you use will depend on your class size and goals, but may include provisions such as these:

speak respectfully to one another, even when disagreeing
avoid using put-downs (even humorous ones)
avoid disrupting the flow of thought by introducing new issues before the discussion of the previous issue has come to its natural end
keep in confidence any information shared by a student in class

You can set these ground rules yourself and specify them in your syllabus, or have students help create them. Click on these links to see examples of ground rules and a template for creating student-generated ground rules.

Monitor group dynamics. One of the instructor’s responsibilities is to manage the personalities and dynamics within the discussion group, so that all students feel that their contributions (if thoughtful and appropriate) are welcome. Cultural <link to CV doc> as well as personality differences influence the ways in which students enter into (or hesitate to enter into) the discussion.If a subset of students seems reluctant to speak up in class, you might consider ways for them to share their ideas and engage with the material in an alternative forum, such as via discussion board or e-mail. You can then bring these students’ contributions to the attention of the class as a way of acknowledging their perspectives and encouraging further participation (“Felipe made an interesting observation in a post to the discussion board yesterday. He pointed out that…”). Giving students time to write down their thoughts before opening the floor to discussion can also help quiet students get more involved. So too can the use of pair-work and small-group discussions. While some faculty are reluctant to call on quiet students for fear of embarrassing them, it should be pointed out that calling on students can also liberate them: not all students who are quiet are shy; they may simply have trouble finding a way into the discussion.Sometimes the problem is not shy students but overly domineering or aggressive students who monopolize discussion. Sometimes a subtle approach to reining in these students can be effective (for example: “Jake, I see your hand and want to hear your perspective, but I’d like to give some of the other students a chance to answer first.”); other times it may be necessary to take a domineering student aside after class to discuss changing the behavior.Handling strong emotions and disagreement that arise in a discussion can be a challenge for instructors. A certain amount of disagreement is desirable, yet if the conversation gets too heated or antagonistic, it can inhibit participation and squelch a productive exchange of ideas. When emotions are high, remind students to focus on ideas and refrain from personal comments (this stipulation can be included in your ground rules as well). You might also consider asking students to take a minute to write about their reactions to what has been said so they can cool off, focus their thoughts, and consider one another’s perspectives before re-entering the discussion.Also, consider in advance how you will handle sensitive discussion topics. Certainly one of the goals of education is to challenge and unsettle students’ assumptions and beliefs. Discussions that do so may not be comfortable for some participants yet still have the desired effect. On the other hand, done poorly such discussions can stifle rather than stimulate engagement and learning. Thus, it is important to anticipate where the “hot spots” will be and make sure you accord them the time and sensitivity they deserve. Also, think about whether the discussion environment in your classroom is sufficiently inclusive of all your students, regardless of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, political persuasion, religion, etc. (link to principle about inclusivity).

Assign pair and small-group work. As a prelude or addition to full-class discussion, consider giving pairs or small groups of students the task of discussing a question or problem. Group work tends to work best when the task is clearly defined and concrete. It can facilitate group work to assign roles within the group. For example, one member of the group could be charged with breaking the task down into steps and posing questions to the group; another could be charged with managing time and keeping the group on task; another could have the job of recording the group’s thoughts or recommendations and reporting back to the full class. (Assigning this last task to a quiet student can help to draw him or her out.) Click on this link for more on group work.

Make high-quality participation count

While we all want students to participate in discussions for the sheer joy of intellectual exchange, not all students may be equally motivated to jump in – at least not initially. Providing extrinsic motivations can be helpful to establish the behavioral patterns that lead, ultimately, to intrinsic motivations. For this reason, many instructors include a participation grade as part of the reward structure of their courses.

In making participation “count”, however, one runs the risk of encouraging talk for the sake of talk, rather than for the purpose of meaningful and thoughtful exchange. For this reason it can be helpful to define what you consider high-quality contributions to discussions and distinguish them from low-quality contributions by using a rubric for discussion that makes your expectations and grading criteria clear. One instructor, for example, defines high-quality participation as: “raising thoughtful questions, analyzing relevant issues, building on others’ ideas, synthesizing across readings and discussions, expanding the class’ perspective, and appropriately challenging assumptions and perspectives.” She assesses student discussion performance on the basis of whether they make such contributions to discussion regularly, sometimes, rarely, or never.

How will you know if a discussion accomplished what you hoped it would? How will you assess your own performance as a discussion leader? There are a number of ways to evaluate discussions. For example, immediately following the discussion, you might ask students to write briefly about what they learned, how their thinking changed, or how the discussion relates to other course materials. An alternative is to ask students to reflect on the quality of the discussion, answering questions such as: What kinds of contributions were and were not helpful? When were and weren’t digressions productive? Did everyone who wanted to get a chance to speak? If not, why not?

Brookfield and Preskill suggest that students “keep a weekly audit of their participation in class discussions and then summarize and analyze their entries in an end-of-semester learning portfolio” (1999, p. 218). Another possibility is to videotape the discussion and analyze it after the fact; this can be helpful because instructors facilitating a discussion are busy juggling many things at once (time management, the flow of ideas, group dynamics), and often cannot assess the discussion as a whole. Davis provides a useful inventory for analyzing the behavior of discussion participants in videotaped discussions (1993, p.72).

Of course, discussions can be evaluated less formally, simply by asking yourself a set of questions after the fact, for example: Who participated? Who didn’t? What might explain the patterns of participation? What questions proved most fruitful and why? How might the discussion be improved to promote deeper inquiry, more student-student interaction, etc.?

Physical Factors

Try to arrange the physical set-up of your classroom so that it is conducive to discussion. Some instructors prefer that chairs be in a circle, others in a U-shape, while for small group discussions or debates chairs must be moved and assembled differently. Our intention here is not to recommend a “best way” of organizing the discussion space, but to raise some questions to consider when determining how to arrange your classroom.

First, what are your objectives? If one of your goals is for students to enter into a dialog with one another, then it is particularly important that they be able see and address each other directly. Obviously, the traditional classroom arrangement, with the instructor positioned before rows of student chairs does not serve this objective. On the other hand, if the style of discussion (or quasi-discussion) is Socratic, with the instructor asking questions and students answering, then a more traditional seating arrangement could be successful. In keeping with your objectives, you might also ask yourself what the arrangement of physical space communicates. Do you want to set yourself apart from other discussion participants, or position yourself as one of them? Do you want to make it difficult for students to avoid participation or do you believe they have the right to opt out? (Some authors, for example, have applied a Foucaultian analysis to discussions, arguing that the traditional circle-format is coercive in that students cannot hide from the instructor’s disciplinary gaze! (citation).

Second, what discussion format(s) will you use? If you are engaging in a brainstorming session and plan to write on the board, you will need to have students sit where they can see the board. If you want students to work in small groups, you might consider how chairs and tables can be positioned so that you can walk from group to group, or have students do so if the task demands it. If your discussion is part of a group project that involves hands-on construction or manipulation (perhaps of a flow-chart or design), the physical space must be organized accordingly.

As a general rule, it is a good idea to set up the classroom so that students can (a) see each other and (b) see progress (e.g., to watch an evolving list of brainstormed ideas take shape, to focus their participation around a central question, to see several synthesizing points written on the board.) Clearly, the configuration of the room itself can limit your options, as can class size. If you are teaching a class of 120 in an auditorium with bolted-down seats and poor acoustics, the traditional circular discussion arrangement is untenable. However, you would be surprised how much discussion can be accomplished even in large classes (link to lament) and sub-optimal physical settings.

In conclusion…

While there are a lot of issues to consider when planning and leading a discussion, the time you spend up-front thinking through the cognitive, social/emotional, and physical aspects of discussion will pay off later in more lively, productive, and rewarding discussions as well as greater student learning.

Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (1999) Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. G. (1993) Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Frederick, P. (1981) “The Dreaded Discussion: Ten Ways to Start”. Improving College and University Teaching. 29(3).

Teaching Tips

The Ultimate Guide to Facilitating Classroom Discussions

Get proven strategies, effective techniques and practical tips to facilitate vibrant and enriching classroom discussions in this ultimate guide

Top Hat Staff

The Ultimate Guide to Facilitating Classroom Discussions

Facilitating engaging and meaningful classroom discussions is a fundamental aspect of higher education teaching. Class discussions provide a valuable opportunity for students to actively participate, critically analyze ideas, and develop their communication skills. However, creating an environment that encourages open dialogue and fosters productive discussions can be a challenging task for educators. In this ultimate guide, we will delve into proven strategies, effective techniques, and practical tips that will empower higher education instructors to facilitate vibrant and enriching classroom discussions, with an understanding of how to improve classroom discussions.

Whether you are a seasoned educator looking to refine your discussion strategies or a new instructor seeking guidance on how to kick-start in-class discussion activities, this guide will provide you with valuable insights. We will explore various aspects of facilitating classroom discussions, including setting the stage for productive discourse, preparing for effective discussions, implementing classroom discussion strategies, and enhancing the overall discussion experience for both instructors and students. By following the strategies outlined in this guide, you will be equipped with the tools necessary to create a dynamic learning environment where students actively engage, learn from one another, and develop critical thinking skills that extend far beyond the classroom walls.

Setting the Stage for Productive Classroom Discussions

Creating an atmosphere conducive to fruitful classroom discussions is crucial for student engagement and participation. Here are some strategies to consider:

1. Establishing Ground Rules

To promote respectful and inclusive discussions, one important class discussion strategy is to establish clear expectations and guidelines. Discuss with your students the importance of active listening, speaking respectfully, and challenging ideas rather than individuals. Encourage them to embrace diverse perspectives and create a safe space where everyone feels comfortable sharing their thoughts.

2. Building Rapport and Trust

Nurture a supportive classroom environment where students feel valued and respected. Take the time to learn their names, demonstrate a genuine interest in their ideas, and provide constructive feedback. Encourage collaboration and emphasize the notion that everyone’s contributions are valuable. When students trust that their voices will be heard and respected, they will be more likely to actively participate in discussion strategies in the classroom.

3. Icebreaker Activities

Commence each discussion strategy example with icebreaker activities to help students feel more comfortable sharing their thoughts. These activities can be as simple as a quick classroom discussion strategy or thought-provoking questions related to the topic at hand. Icebreakers not only help students become acquainted with one another but also establish a positive and welcoming atmosphere that sets the tone, serving as a great strategy to engage students in classroom discussions.

4. Setting Clear Learning Objectives

Clearly communicate the learning objectives for each discussion session as a group discussion facilitation technique. When students understand the purpose and desired outcomes, they can better focus their contributions and actively engage with the material. Share with them the skills they will develop through participation in discussions, such as critical thinking, effective communication, and the ability to consider multiple perspectives.

By setting the stage for classroom discourse strategies and activities through ground rules, building rapport, incorporating icebreakers, and defining clear learning objectives, you create an environment that encourages open dialogue and active engagement. In the next section, we will explore effective discussion strategies for preparing and structuring instructional strategies and classroom discussions to achieve the desired learning outcomes.

Preparing for Effective Classroom Discussions

To ensure productive and engaging classroom discussions, adequate preparation is key. Here are some steps to consider:

1. Define Discussion Goals

Before each discussion session, establish clear objectives aligned with the course curriculum and learning outcomes. What specific knowledge, skills, or perspectives do you want students to gain from the discussion? Clearly communicate these goals to students, so they understand the purpose and relevance of the upcoming student-led discussion strategies or whole-class discussion strategies.

2. Selecting Discussion Topics

Choose topics that are relevant, thought-provoking, and aligned with the course objectives. Consider incorporating real-world examples, current events, or controversial issues that will captivate students’ interest and stimulate lively discourse. Aim for a balance between challenging topics that require critical thinking and topics that relate directly to students’ experiences and interests.

3. Preparing Discussion Prompts

Craft classroom discussion starters that encourage critical thinking, reflection, and the exploration of multiple perspectives. Avoid questions with definitive answers, as they may hinder discussion. Instead, pose questions that spark intellectual curiosity, challenge assumptions, or require students to apply course concepts to real-world scenarios. Provide students with clear instructions and guidelines for responding to the prompts to help illustrate why class discussions are important.

4. Resource and Material Preparation

Gather relevant resources, such as articles, case studies, multimedia materials, or primary sources, to support the discussion topic. Share these resources with students in advance, allowing them sufficient time to review and analyze the material. Encourage students to come prepared with notes or questions, fostering a deeper engagement with the topic and facilitating more meaningful discussions.

5. Structuring Discussion Time

Consider the time allocation for discussions carefully. Determine whether the discussion will take place during a single class session or be spread across multiple sessions. If time is limited, plan for focused and concise discussions. If discussions span multiple sessions, create a clear structure or agenda to guide the flow of conversation and ensure that all important points are covered. Top Hat’s classroom discussion tool sparks conversations, where students are encouraged to share their ideas in multiple ways, regardless of class size.

6. Anticipating Challenges and Preparing Strategies

Reflect on potential challenges that may arise during discussions, such as student reticence, dominance by a few individuals, or tangential conversations. Develop strategies to address these challenges, such as incorporating think-pair-share activities to encourage participation, assigning roles or responsibilities to students, or using gentle prompts to refocus the discussion. Being proactive in addressing potential obstacles will help maintain a productive and inclusive discussion environment.

By carefully preparing for classroom discussions by defining goals, selecting relevant topics, crafting discussion prompts, gathering resources, structuring discussion time, and anticipating challenges, you can maximize the potential for productive and engaging exchanges among your students. In the next section, we will explore effective strategies and techniques for implementing classroom discussions to enhance student learning and participation.

Effective Strategies for Classroom Discussions

Employing a variety of discussion strategies can promote active participation, critical thinking, and collaborative learning. Here are several proven techniques to enhance your classroom discussions:

1. Think-Pair-Share

The think-pair-share strategy encourages active engagement and peer learning. Begin by posing a thought-provoking question or prompt. Give students a few moments to individually reflect and generate their ideas. Then, have them pair up with a classmate to discuss their thoughts. Finally, invite pairs to share their ideas with the whole class. This strategy fosters deeper thinking, builds confidence, and provides opportunities for students to learn from one another.

2. Socratic Seminars

Inspired by the Socratic method , this student-led discussion strategy promotes critical thinking and analysis. Select a specific text, case study, or concept as the focus of the seminar. Assign students different roles, such as discussion leader, devil’s advocate, or summarizer, to ensure active participation and a variety of perspectives. Encourage students to pose thoughtful questions, challenge each other’s ideas respectfully, and construct well-supported arguments. As the facilitator, your role is to guide the discussion, ask probing questions, and ensure that all voices are heard.

3. Fishbowl Discussions

The fishbowl discussion technique creates a dynamic learning experience by providing students with an opportunity to observe effective discussion strategies. Arrange chairs in two concentric circles. Select a small group of students to sit in the inner circle as active participants in the discussion while the rest of the class sits in the outer circle as observers. The inner circle engages in the discussion while the outer circle listens attentively. After a set period, the roles can be reversed. This technique allows students to witness effective discussion skills, observe different perspectives, and learn from their peers.

4. Jigsaw Technique

The jigsaw technique encourages collaborative learning and deepens understanding of complex topics. Divide a challenging topic or problem into smaller subtopics and assign each subtopic to a small group of students. Within their groups, students become experts on their assigned subtopic through research and discussion. Afterward, regroup the students, ensuring representation from each initial group, and have them share their findings. This strategy promotes collaboration, allows for comprehensive coverage of the topic, and encourages students to consider multiple perspectives.

5. Incorporating Visual Tools and Technology

Visual tools and technology can enhance classroom discussions by facilitating engagement and interaction. Use whiteboards, interactive displays, or digital tools to capture and organize student ideas during discussions. Online discussion boards, collaborative platforms, or polling applications can extend classroom discussions beyond the physical space, enable asynchronous participation, and promote active engagement.

Remember, it is crucial to select the most appropriate strategy for your learning objectives, the nature of the topic, and the dynamics of your class. Experiment with different techniques, adapt them to suit your specific context and encourage student feedback to continually refine your approach.

In the next section, we will explore additional methods for enhancing classroom discussions by integrating technology, incorporating role-playing, and incorporating reflective practices.

Enhancing Classroom Discussions

To further enrich the classroom discussion experience and maximize student engagement, consider the following strategies:

1. Integrating Technology

Embrace technology tools that can enhance classroom discussions that engage all students. Online platforms, such as discussion forums, video conferencing, or collaborative document sharing, can provide opportunities for students to engage in discussions beyond the confines of the physical classroom. These tools allow for asynchronous participation, encourage thoughtful responses, and enable students to build on one another’s ideas. Additionally, multimedia resources, interactive presentations, or online polling tools can help stimulate discussions and make them more dynamic and engaging. Top Hat’s discussion features allow students to Incorporate video, images or good old-fashioned plain text to spark lively conversations and drive the debate.

2. Role-Playing and Simulations

Incorporate role-playing and simulations to immerse students in real-world scenarios and encourage active participation. Assign students specific roles or characters related to the topic of discussion and have them engage in structured debates, negotiations, or problem-solving activities. This technique promotes critical thinking, empathy, and understanding of multiple perspectives. It also provides a safe space for students to explore different viewpoints and develop their communication and teamwork skills.

3. Reflective Practices

Integrate reflective practices into your classroom discussions to deepen learning and enhance metacognition. Encourage students to reflect on their own contributions, the quality of their arguments, and the effectiveness of their communication skills. Provide opportunities for students to journal or write post-discussion reflections, allowing them to consolidate their learning and identify areas for improvement. Reflection prompts can include questions about what they learned from their peers, how their perspectives evolved, and what strategies they found most effective.

4. Cultivating a Supportive Feedback Culture

Foster a culture of constructive feedback within your classroom discussions. Encourage students to provide feedback to their peers, focusing on the substance of their arguments and the clarity of their communication. Model and reinforce constructive feedback by providing your own comments and suggestions. This feedback culture promotes critical thinking, fosters a sense of community, and helps students refine their communication skills.

5. Assessing and Recognizing Participation

Implement fair and transparent assessment methods to recognize and evaluate student participation in classroom discussions. Consider criteria such as frequency and quality of contributions, active listening skills, and the ability to build on others’ ideas. Provide timely feedback to students, emphasizing their strengths and areas for improvement. Recognize and celebrate exemplary contributions to encourage ongoing engagement and active participation. Every interaction in Top Hat leads to actionable data you can use to help students and personalize your teaching. Educators can capture results from graded discussions in the Top Hat gradebook, along with quizzes, polls and tests.

By integrating technology, incorporating role-playing, promoting reflective practices, cultivating a supportive feedback culture, and implementing fair assessment methods, you can enhance the quality and impact of your classroom discussions. Remember that flexibility and adaptation are essential; continually assess the effectiveness of your strategies and make adjustments based on student feedback and evolving learning needs.

Facilitating dynamic and meaningful classroom discussions is an art that requires careful planning, a supportive environment, and effective strategies. By implementing the discussion strategies, classroom discourse techniques, and student-led discussion strategies outlined in this ultimate guide, you can foster engaging and transformative learning experiences for your students.

Remember, it’s important to establish ground rules and create a safe space that encourages respectful dialogue. Additionally, adequate preparation, well-crafted discussion prompts, and a variety of discussion strategies will contribute to successful classroom discussions. Don’t shy away from embracing technology and integrating reflective practices to further enhance engagement and learning outcomes.

As an educator, you have the power to create a vibrant and interactive learning environment where students can explore diverse perspectives, challenge assumptions, and develop critical thinking skills. By mastering the art of facilitating classroom discussions, you empower your students to become active participants in their own learning.

So, go ahead and apply these strategies, experiment with different techniques, and continuously seek feedback from your students. With practice and persistence, you will cultivate an environment that fosters rich and engaging classroom discussions, ultimately enriching the learning experience for everyone involved.

Happy facilitating!

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What the Future of Education Looks Like from Here

Posted December 11, 2020
By Emily Boudreau

After a year that involved a global pandemic, school closures, nationwide remote instruction, protests for racial justice, and an election, the role of education has never been more critical or more uncertain. When the dust settles from this year, what will education look like — and what should it aspire to?

To mark the end of its centennial year, HGSE convened a faculty-led discussion to explore those questions. The Future of Education panel, moderated by Dean Bridget Long and hosted by HGSE’s Askwith Forums , focused on hopes for education going forward, as well as HGSE’s role. “The story of HGSE is the story of pivotal decisions, meeting challenges, and tremendous growth,” Long said. “We have a long history of empowering our students and partners to be innovators in a constantly changing world. And that is needed now more than ever.”

Joining Long were Associate Professor Karen Brennan , Senior Lecturer Jennifer Cheatham , Assistant Professor Anthony Jack, and Professors Adriana Umaña-Taylor and Martin West , as they looked forward to what the future could hold for schools, educators, and communities:

… After the pandemic subsides

The pandemic heightened existing gaps and disparities and exposed a need to rethink how systems leaders design schools, instruction, and who they put at the center of that design. “As a leader, in the years before the pandemic hit, I realized the balance of our work as practitioners was off,” Cheatham said. “If we had been spending time knowing our children and our staff and designing schools for them, we might not be feeling the pain in the way we are. I think we’re learning something about what the real work of school is about.” In the coming years, the panelists hope that a widespread push to recognize the identity and health of the whole-child in K–12 and higher education will help educators design support systems that can reduce inequity on multiple levels.

… For the global community

As much as the pandemic isolated individuals, on the global scale, people have looked to connect with each other to find solutions and share ideas as they faced a common challenge. This year may have brought everyone together and allowed for exchange of ideas, policies, practices, and assessments across boundaries.

… For technological advancements

As educators and leaders create, design, and imagine the future, technology should be used in service of that vision rather than dictating it. As technology becomes a major part of how we communicate and share ideas, educators need to think critically about how to deploy technology strategically. “My stance on technology is that it should always be used in the service of our human purpose and interest,” said Brennan. “We’ve talked about racial equity, building relationships. Our values and purposes and goals need to lead the way, not the tech.”

… For teachers

Human connections and interactions are at the heart of education. At this time, it’s become abundantly clear that the role of the teacher in the school community is irreplaceable. “I think the next few years hinge on how much we’re willing to invest in educators and all of these additional supports in the school which essentially make learning possible,” Umaña-Taylor said, “these are the individuals who are making the future minds of the nation possible.”

Cutting-edge research and new knowledge must become part of the public discussion in order to meaningfully shape the policies and practices that influence the future of education. “I fundamentally believe that we as academics and scholars must be part of the conversation and not limit ourselves to just articles behind paywalls or policy paragraphs at the end of a paper,” Jack said. “We have to engage the larger public.”

… In 25 years

“We shouldn’t underestimate the possibility that the future might look a lot like the present,” West said. “As I think about the potential sources of change in education, and in American education in particular, I tend to think about longer-term trends as the key driver.” Changing student demographics, access to higher education, structural inequality, and the focus of school leaders are all longer-term trends that, according to panelists, will influence the future of education.

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Learning Through Discussion

Discussions can be meaningful and engaging learning experiences: dynamic, eye-opening, and generative. However, like any class activity, they require planning and preparation. Without that, discussion challenges can arise in the form of unequal participation, unclear learning outcomes, or low engagement. This resource presents key considerations in class discussions and offers strategies for how instructors can prepare and engage in effective classroom discussions.

Identifying your Course Context

Plan for Classroom Discussion
Warm up Classroom Discussion
Engage in Classroom Discussion
Wrap up Classroom Discussion

Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces

References and Further Reading

The CTL is here to help!

Seeking additional support with discussion pedagogy? Email [email protected] to schedule a 1-1 consultation. For support with any of the Columbia tools discussed below, email [email protected] or join our virtual office hours .

Interested in inviting the CTL to facilitate a session on this topic for your school, department, or program? Visit our Workshops To Go page for more information.

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2021). Learning Through. DIscussion. Columbia University. Retrieved [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/learning-through-discussion/

The What and Why of Class Discussion

Class discussion can take many forms, from structured prompts and assignments to more casual or informal conversations. Regardless of class context (e.g.: a seminar, large lecture, or lab course) or the form (e.g.: in-person or asynchronous) discussion takes, it offers a number of benefits to students’ learning. As an active learning technique, class discussion requires students to be co-constructors of their learning. Research shows that students learn more when they actively participate in their learning, rather than passively listen. Furthermore, studies have also shown that “student participation, encouragement, and peer-to-peer interaction was consistently and positively related to the development of critical thinking skills” (Howard, 2015, pp. 6). Class discussion has also been linked to greater student motivation, improved communication skills, and higher grades (Howard, 2015). But just like effective lectures or assignments require planning and preparation, so too does class discussion.

The following sections offer a framework and strategies for learning through discussion. These strategies are organized around four key phases: planning for classroom discussion, warming up for classroom discussion, engaging in classroom discussion, and wrapping up classroom discussion.

While the strategies and considerations provided throughout this resource are adaptable across course contexts, it is important to recognize instructors’ varied course formats, and how discussion might differ across them. This section identifies a few of these contexts, and reviews how these contexts might shape instructors’ engagement with both this resource and class discussion more broadly.

I teach a discussion-based course

Small classes and seminars use discussion-based pedagogies, though it can be challenging to get every student to contribute to discussions. It is important to create multiple opportunities for engagement and not just rely on whole group discussion. Pair and small group discussions can create trust among students and give them the confidence to speak up in the larger group. Instructors of discussion-based courses can extend in-class discussions into the asynchronous space. These inclusive moves allow students to contribute to discussions in multiple ways.

I do not teach a discussion-based course

Whether teaching a large lecture course, a lab course, or other non-discussion based course, students will still benefit from interacting with each other and learning through discussion. Small group or pair discussion can be less intimidating for students regardless of class size and help create a sense of community that impacts learning.

I teach a course that may have some Hybrid/HyFlex meetings.

In-person classes might sometimes offer hybrid or HyFlex opportunities for students to accommodate extenuating circumstances. In a hybrid/HyFlex course session, students participating in-person and remotely should have equal opportunities to contribute to discussions. To make this a reality, advanced preparation involves thinking through the logistics using discussion activities, roles and responsibilities (if working with TA(s)), classroom technologies (e.g., ceiling microphones available in the classroom; asking in-person students to bring a mobile device and headset if possible to engage with their remote peers), and determining the configurations if using discussion groups or paired work (both in a socially distanced classroom, and if asking both in-person and remote students to discuss together in breakout groups).

Planning for Classroom Discussion

Regardless of your course context, there are some general considerations for planning a class discussion; these considerations include: the goals and expectations, the modality of discussion, and the questions you might use to prompt discussion. The following section offers some questions for reflection, alongside ideas and strategies to address these considerations.

Goals & Expectations

What is the goal of the discussion? How will it support student learning? What are your expectations of student participation and contributions to the discussion? How will you communicate the goals and expectations to students?

Articulate the goals of discussion : Consider both the content you want your students to learn and the skills you want them to apply and develop. These goals will inform the learner-centered strategies and digital tools you use during discussion.

Communicate the purpose (not just the topic) of discussion: Sharing learning goals will help students understand why discussion is being used and how it will contribute to their learning.

Specify what you expect of student contributions to the discussion and how they will be assessed: Be explicit about what students should include in their contributions to make them substantive, and model possible ways of responding. Guide students in how they can contribute substantively to their peers’ live responses or online posts. You might consider asking students to use the 3CQ model:

Compliment—I like that ___ because…;
Comment—I agree/disagree with (specific point/idea) because…;
Connection—I also thought that…;
Question—I wonder why…

Establish discussion guidelines: Communicate expectations for class discussion. Be sure to include desired behaviors/etiquette and how technologies and tools for discussion will be used. Students in all classes can benefit from discussion guidelines as they help to clearly identify and establish expectations for student success. For more support with getting started, see the Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy’s resource on Crafting Community Agreements . Additionally, while there are some shared general discussion guidelines, there are also some specific considerations for asynchronous discussions:

Sample Discussion Guidelines:

Refer to classmates by name.
Allow everyone the chance to speak (“Take Space, Make Space”).
Constructively critique ideas, not individuals.
Listen actively without interrupting.
Contribute questions, ideas, or resources.

Sample Asynchronous Discussion Guidelines:

Respond to discussion posts within # of hours or days.
Review one’s own writing for clarity before posting, being mindful of how it may be interpreted by others.
Prioritize building upon or challenging the strongest ideas presented in a post instead of only focusing on the weakest aspects.
Acknowledge something someone else said.
Build on their comment by connecting with course content, adding an example or observation.
Conclude with critical thinking or socratic questions.

Invite students to revise, contribute to, or co-create the guidelines. One way to do this is to facilitate a discussion about discussions, asking students to identify what the characteristics of an effective discussion are. This will encourage their ownership of the guidelines. Post the guidelines in CourseWorks and refer to them as needed.

In what modality/modalities will the discussion take place (in-person/live, asynchronous, or a blend of both)?

The modality of your class discussion may determine the tools and technologies that you ask students to engage with. Thus, it is important to determine early on how you would like students to engage in discussion and what tools you will use to support their engagement. Consider leveraging your asynchronous course spaces (e.g., CourseWorks), which can help students both prepare for an in-class discussion, as well expand upon and continue in-class discussions. For support with setting up asynchronous discussions, see the Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces section below.

What prompts will be used for discussion? Who will come up with those prompts (e.g.: instructor, TA, or students)?

The questions you ask and how you ask them are important for leading an effective discussion. Discussion questions do not have to be instructor-generated; asking students to generate discussion prompts is a great way to engage them in their learning.

Draft open-ended questions that advance student learning and inspire a range of answers (avoiding closed-ended, vague, or leading questions). Vary question complexity over the course of a discussion. If there’s one right answer, ask students about their process to get to the right answer.

The following table features sample questions that increase in cognitive complexity and is based on the six categories of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.


Questions that assess basic knowledge or recollection of subject matter.		“What is the purpose of X?” “Describe/define X.” “What happened after X?” “Why did X happen?”
Questions that ask students to explain, interpret, or give examples.		“What was the contribution of X?” “What was the main idea?” “Give an example of X…”
Questions that ask students to use their knowledge/skills in new ways.		“How is X an example of Y?” “How is X related to Y?” “Can you apply this method to…?”
Questions that ask students to draw connections.		“Compare/contrast X and Y.” “What’s the importance of X?” “How is this similar to X?”
Questions that ask students to make judgements and assessments.		“How would you assess X?” “Is there a better solution to X?” “How effective is X?”
Questions that ask students to combine ideas and knowledge.		“How would you design X?” “What’s a new use for X?” “Other ways to achieve X?”

Warming up for Classroom Discussion

Get students comfortable talking with their peers, you, and the TA(s) (as applicable) from the start of the course. Create opportunities for students to have pair or small group conversations to get to know one another and connect as a community. Regardless of your class size or context (i.e.: seminars, large-lecture classes, labs), for discussions to become a norm in your course, you will need to build community early on in the course.

Get students talking early and often to foster community

How will you make peer-to-peer engagement an integral part of your class? How can you get students talking to each other?

To encourage student participation and peer-to-peer interaction, create early and frequent opportunities for students to share and talk with each other. These opportunities can help make students more comfortable with participating in discussion, as well as help build rapport and foster trust amongst class members. Icebreakers and small group discussion opportunities provide great ways to get students talking, especially in large-enrollment classes where students may feel less connection with their peers (see sample icebreakers below ). For additional support with building community in your course, see the CTL’s Community Building in Online and Hybrid (HyFlex) Courses resource. (Although this resource emphasizes online and hybrid/HyFlex modalities, the strategies provided are applicable across all course modalities.)

Establish class norms around discussion and participation

How can you communicate class norms around discussion and participation on day one?

The first class meeting is an opportunity to warm students up to class discussion and participation from the outset. Rather than letting norms of passivity establish over the first couple of weeks, you can use the first class meeting to signal to students they will be expected to participate or interact with their peers regularly. You might ask students to do a welcoming icebreaker on the first day, or you might invite questions and syllabus discussion. No matter the activity, establishing a norm around discussion and participation at the outset will help warm students up to participating and contributing to later discussions; these norms can also be further supported by your discussion guidelines . Icebreakers: Icebreakers are a great way to establish a positive course climate and encourage student-student, as well as instructor-student, interactions. Some ideas for icebreaker activities related to discussion include:

(Meta)Discussion about Discussions: In small groups during class, or using a CourseWorks discussion board , students introduce themselves to each other, and share their thoughts on what are the qualities of good and bad discussions.
Course Content: Ask students to share their thoughts about a big question that the course addresses or ask students what comes to mind when they think of an important course concept. You could even ask students to scan the syllabus and share about a particular topic or reading they are most excited about.

Engaging in Classroom Discussion

With all of your preparation and planning complete, there are some important considerations you will need to make with both your students and yourself in mind. This section offers some strategies for engaging in classroom discussion.

Involve students in discussion

How will you engage all of your students in the discussion? How will you make discussion and your expectations about student participation explicit and integral to the class?

Involving your students in class discussion will allow for more student voices and perspectives to be contributed to the conversation. You might consider leveraging the time before and after class or office hours to have informal conversations and build rapport with students. Additionally, having students rotate roles and responsibilities can keep them focused and engaged.

Student roles: Engage all students by asking them to volunteer for and rotate through roles such as facilitator, summarizer, challenger, etc. In large-enrollment courses, these roles can be assigned in small group or pair discussions. For an asynchronous discussion, roles might include: discussion starter / original poster, connector to research, connector to theory. Additional roles might include: timekeeper, notetaker, discussion starter, wrapper, and student monitor:

Discussion starter / original poster: Involve students in initiating the discussion. Designate 2–3 students per discussion to spark the conversation with a question, quotation, an example, or link to previous course content.
Discussion wrapper: Engage students in facilitating the discussion. Help students grasp take-aways. Designate 2-3 students per discussion to wrap up the discussion by identifying themes, extracting key ideas, or listing questions to explore further.
Student monitor: Ask a student (on a rotating basis) or TA(s) if applicable, to monitor the Zoom chat (in hybrid/HyFlex courses) or the CourseWorks Discussion Boards (when leveraging asynchronous discussion spaces). The monitors can then flag important points for the class or read off the questions that are being posed.

Student-generated questions: Prepare students for discussion and involve them in asking and answering peer questions about the topic. Invite students to post questions to a CourseWorks Discussion before class, or share their questions during the discussion. If students are expected to respond to their peer’s questions, they need to be told and guided how to do so. Highlight and use insightful student questions to prime or further the discussion.

Student-led presentations: In smaller seminar-style classes or labs, invite students to give informal presentations. You might ask them to share examples that relate to the topic or concept being discussed, or respond to a targeted prompt.

Determine your role in discussion

How will you facilitate discussion? What will your presence be in asynchronous discussion spaces? What can students expect of your role in the discussion?

Make your role (or that of your co-instructor(s) and/or TA(s)) in the discussion explicit so that students know what to expect of your presence, reinforcement of the discussion guidelines, and receipt of feedback.

Actively guide the discussion to make it easy for students to do most of the talking and/or posting. This includes being present, modeling contributions, asking questions, using students’ names, giving timely feedback, affirming student contributions, and making inclusive moves such as including as many voices and perspectives and addressing issues that may arise during a conversation.

For in-class discussions , additional strategies include actively listening, giving students time to think before responding, repeating questions, and warm calling. (Unlike cold calling, warm calling is when students do pre-work and are told in advance that they will be asked to share their or their group’s response. This technique can minimize student anxiety, as well as produce higher quality responses.)
For asynchronous discussions , additional strategies include having parallel discussions in small groups on CourseWorks, and inviting students to post videos, audio clips, or images such as drawings, maps, charts, etc.

Manage the discussion and intervene when necessary : Manage dynamics, recognizing that your classroom is influenced by societal norms and expectations that may be inherently inequitable. Moderate the ongoing discussion to make sure all students have the opportunity to contribute. Ask students to explain or provide evidence to support their contributions, connect their contributions to specific course concepts and readings, redirect or keep the conversation on track, and revisit discussion guidelines as needed.

For large-enrollment courses, you might ask TAs or course assistants to join small groups or monitor discussion board posting. While it’s important for students to do most of the talking and posting, TAs can support students in the discussion, and their presence can help keep the discussion on track. If you have TAs who lead discussion sections, you might consider sharing some of these discussion management strategies and considerations with them, and discuss how the discussion sections can and will expand upon discussions from the larger class.

Give students time to think before, during, and after the discussion

Thinking time will allow students to prepare more meaningful contributions to the discussion and creates opportunities for more students, not just the ones that are the quickest to respond, to contribute to the conversation. Comfort with silence is important following a posed question. Some thinking time activities include:

“ Silent meeting ” (Armstrong, 2020): Devote class time to students silently engaging with course materials and commenting in a shared document. You can follow this “silent meeting” with small group discussions. In a large enrollment class, this strategy can allow students to engage more deeply and collaboratively with material and their peers.
Think-Pair-Share : Give students time to think before participating. In response to an open-ended question, ask students to first think on their own for a few minutes, then pair up to discuss their ideas with their partner. Finally, ask a few pairs to share their main takeaways with the whole class.
Discussion pause : Give students time to think and reflect on the discussion so far. Pause the discussion for a few minutes for students to independently restate the question, issue, or problem, and summarize the points made. Encourage students to write down new insights, unanswered questions, etc.
Extend the discussion: Encourage students to continue the class discussion by leveraging asynchronous course spaces (e.g.: CourseWorks discussion board). You may ask students to summarize the discussion, extend the discussion by contributing new ideas, or pose follow-up questions that will be discussed asynchronously or used to begin the next in-class discussion.
Polls to launch the discussion : Pose a poll closed-ended question and give students time to think and respond individually. See responses in real time and ask students to discuss the results. This can be a great warm up activity for a pair, small group, or whole class discussion, especially in large classes in which it may be more challenging to engage all students.

Wrapping up Classroom Discussion

Ensure that the discussion meets the learning objectives of the course or class session, and that students are leaving the discussion with the knowledge and skills that you want them to acquire. Give students an opportunity to reflect on and share what they have learned. This will help them make connections between other class material and previous class discussions. It is also an opportunity for you to gauge how the discussion went and consider what you might need to clarify or shift for future discussions.

Debrief the Discussion

How will you know the discussion has met the learning objectives of the course or class session? How will you ensure students make connections between broader course concepts and the discussion?

Set aside time to debrief the discussion. This might be groups sharing out their discussion take-aways, designated students summarizing the key points made and questions raised, or asking students to reflect and share what they learned. Rather than summarizing the discussion yourself, partner with your students; see the section on Student Roles above for strategies.

Closing Reflection: Ask students to reflect on and process their learning by identifying key takeaways. Carve out 2-5 minutes at the end of class for students to reflect on the discussion, either in writing or orally. You might consider collecting written reflections from students at the end of class, or after class through a Google Form or CourseWorks post. Consider asking students to not only reflect on what they learned from the discussion, but to also summarize key ideas or insights and/or pose new questions.

Collect Feedback, Reflect, Iterate

How will you determine the effectiveness of class discussion? How can you invite students into creating the learning space?

Feedback: Student feedback is a great way to gauge the effectiveness and success of class discussion. It’s important to include opportunities for feedback regularly and frequently throughout the semester; for feedback collection prompts and strategies, see the CTL’s resource on Early and Mid-Semester Student Feedback . You might collect this through PollEverywhere, a Google Form, or CourseWorks Survey. Classes of all sizes and modalities can benefit from collecting this type of feedback from students.

Reflect: Before you engage with your students’ feedback, it’s important to take time and reflect for yourself: How do you think the discussion went? Did your students achieve the learning goals that you had hoped? If not, what might you do differently? You can then couple your own reflection with your students’ feedback to determine what is working well, as well as what might need to change for discussions to be more effective.

Iterate: Not all class discussions will go according to plan, but feedback and reflection can help you identify those key areas for improvement. Share aggregate feedback data with your students, as well as what you hope will go differently in future discussions.

Asynchronous discussion spaces are an effective way for students to prepare for in-class discussion, as well as expand upon what they have already discussed in class. Asynchronous discussion boards also offer a great space for students to reflect upon the discussion, and provide informal feedback.

Columbia Tools to Support Asynchronous Discussion

There are a number of Columbia tools that can support asynchronous discussion spaces. Some options that instructors might consider include:

CourseWorks Discussion boards : CourseWorks discussion boards offer instructors a number of customizable options including: threaded or focused discussions , post “like” functionality , graded discussion posts , group discussions , and more. For further support with your CourseWorks discussion board, see the CTL’s CourseWorks Support Page or contact the CTL at [email protected] to set up a consultation.
Ed Discussion (via CourseWorks): Starting in Fall 2021, instructors will have access to Ed Discussion within their CourseWorks site. For support on getting started with Ed Discussion, see their Quick Start Guide , or contact the CTL at [email protected] . For strategies and examples on how to enhance your course’s asynchronous discussion opportunities using Ed Discussion’s advanced features, refer to Enhance your Course Discussion Boards for Learning: Three Strategies Using Ed Discussion .

References and Further Reading

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

Armstrong, B. (2020). To Spark Discussion in a Zoom Class, Try a ‘Silent Meeting .’ The Chronicle of Higher Education. November 18, 2020.

Barkley, E.F. (2010). Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Jossey-Bass.

Barkley, E.F.; Major, C.H.; and Cross, K.P. (2014). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy. (2021). Crafting community agreements .

Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2016). The Discussion Book: 50 Great Ways to Get People Talking . Wiley.

Cashin, W.E. (2011). Effective Classroom Discussions . IDEA Paper #49. Retrieved from www.ideaedu.org

Center for Research on Teaching and Learning. Guidelines For Classroom Interactions. Retrieved from http://www.crlt.umich.edu/examples-discussion-guidelines

Davis, B.G. (2009). Tools for Teaching , 2 nd Edition.

Hancock, C., & Rowland, B. (2017). Online and out of synch: Using discussion roles in online asynchronous discussions. Cogent Education, 4(1).

Howard, J.R. (2015). Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating in Person and Online . Wiley.

Howard, J.R. (2019) How to Hold a Better Class Discussion: Advice Guide. Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/interactives/20190523-ClassDiscussion

The K. Patricia Cross Academy. Making Good Use of Online Discussion Boards. Retrieved from https://kpcrossacademy.org/making-good-use-of-online-discussion-boards/

Read more about Columbia undergraduate students’ experiences with discussion

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Tips on Facilitating Effective Group Discussions

Effective facilitation of a discussion involves the recognition and employment of different perspectives and different skills to create an inclusive environment. In order to do so, it is important to consider the features of effective discussions, and conditions that promote small group interaction and engagement. Discussion is a powerful mechanism for active learning; a well-facilitated discussion allows the participant to explore new ideas while recognizing and valuing the contributions of others.

Roles of Discussion Leaders

adapted from Handelsman et al. 2006

1. Create an inclusive environment

Opportunities for reflection.

What do the participants bring to the group? (“Characteristics that may give you a unique perspective”)
Self-awareness; awareness of others

What do I bring to the group? What surprises or challenges me?

What behaviors am I most familiar or comfortable with?

What behaviors challenge me?

Allow participants to introduce themselves – you can even set up an ice breaker to have pairs of students introduce each other.
Be clear up front about expectations and intentions amongst participants and the facilitator.
Use inclusive language.
Ask for clarification if unclear about a participant’s intent or question.
Treat participants with respect and consideration.
Develop an awareness for barriers for learning (cultural; social; experiential, etc).
Provide sufficient time and space for participants to gather their thoughts and contribute to discussions.
Provide opportunities for participants to pair-share.
Use certain conventions or language that will exclude certain groups from understanding the context of the discussion, or make them feel uncomfortable.
Assume participants all have the same expectations when the group first convenes.
Over-generalize behavior or have stereotypical expectations of participants (tokenism).
Use (or allow others to use) disrespectful language or tone, or disrespectful non-verbal communication.
Convey a sense of self-importance or superiority.
Allow only the dominant or more verbal participants to take over the conversation.
Discourage alternate views or counter-arguments.
Try to be someone else - be yourself.

2. Keep discussions constructive and positive

Make the discussion functional by clarifying the goals of each session to the group.
Establish ground rules:

Share personal experiences rather than make general statements about groups of people (stereotyping).

Ask dominant participants to allow others to speak.

Give all participants a voice- at the start highlight the value of a diversity of perspectives as an essential part of the process.

Go over constructive and destructive group behaviors at the start of the course / workshop.

Request that if participants challenge others’ ideas, they back it up with evidence, appropriate experiences, and/or appropriate logic.

Try to keep the group on task without rushing them.
If the group starts to veer in the direction of negativity and/or pointless venting, ask them how they would like to address this.
Step back when a group is functional/functioning – help participants become independent learners; take control of their learning.

3. Encouraging participants

Encouraging participation can be accomplished by:

Writing participants’ comments on the whiteboard.
Asking follow-up questions, and paraphrasing the comments for everyone to ponder. A combination of initiating and probing questions can be an effective approach to bring out participants’ ideas further.
Asking the contributor for further clarification and/or elaboration.
Re-visiting past contributions and incorporating them into subsequent discussions.
Encouraging others to add their reactions or ideas to build on someone’s comment.
Not being afraid to admit your own ignorance or confusion if you don’t know something – invite others to provide resources, and use the opportunity to discuss with the group how one might go about researching the issue.
Discomfort and silence are ok, but balance with a clearly stated context and purpose.

Potential Problems in Discussions

adapted from: Center for Integration of Research, Teaching and Learning Handbook, accessed July 2008

Maintaining discussions often means dealing as smoothly as possible with the problems that arise. Here are some common problems with suggestions for how to deal with them.

The participant who talks too much:

A way to approach the dominant participant and pull in non-participants is to redirect the discussion to another person or another topic. Alternatively, you may wish to reframe their comments, making them viable additions to the discussion. Facilitators might also ask one or more members of the group to act as observers for a few sessions, reporting back their observations to the group. Perhaps assigning the avid talker to the observer role would help the person develop sensitivity. Another approach is to break down the group into still smaller task groups.

The member who will not talk:

A way to approach non-participants is to provide opportunities for smaller group discussions or pair-share discussions. Smaller groups may help put some students at ease. A second strategy is to ask opinion questions occasionally (e.g., “How do you feel about this?”). This may encourage participation by reducing participants’ fear of answering incorrectly. Another strategy is to have participants write out their answers to a question. Having the words written out may make it easier for a shy or fearful person to speak up.

The discussion that turns into an argument:

In good discussions, conflicts will sometimes arise. If such conflicts are left ambiguous, they may cause continuing trouble. Here are some ways to resolve them:

If the solution depends on certain facts, the facilitator can ask participants to refer to the text or another authority.

If there is an experimentally verified answer, the facilitator can use the opportunity to review the method by which the answer could be determined.

If the question is one of values, the facilitator may use the occasion to help participants become aware of the values involved.

The facilitator can list both sides of the argument on the board.

The facilitator can take a strong position as moderator, preventing participants from interrupting each other or speaking simultaneously. She or he can lay ground rules for discussion, such as asking participants to focus conflict on ideas rather than people and to resist being judgmental.

Unclear or hesitant comments:

The facilitator can encourage participants making unclear contributions to give examples and factual evidence of their points. The facilitator can also restate points for verification or rejection by the participants, or give enthusiastic nonverbal cues and patience.

The discussion that goes off track:

Some facilitators keep discussions on track by listing the questions or issues they want to cover on the board or summarizing the discussion on the board as it proceeds. Stopping and asking a participant to summarize where the discussion is at the point it appears to go off track may also help.

The student who attacks the facilitator:

When participants argue for the sake of argument, facilitators will usually lose if they take the bait. Participants or students who attack often want attention, so simply giving them some recognition while firmly moving on often takes care of the problem. If participants are simply trying to embarrass the facilitator, they may seek to make him or her defensive with such comments as, “How do you really know that…?” or “You’re not really saying that…?” Such questions can be handled by playing boomerang. The facilitator might say, “What I’m saying is…, but now I'd like you to share your perspective.” Turning the question back to the questioner forces him or her to take responsibility for his or her opinion. Other ways to handle these situations include:

Confrontation - Facilitators can confront the questioner with their reactions to his or her behavior. “I’m uncomfortable with the imprecision of your questions. What I really hear you saying is...”

Active listening - Facilitators can paraphrase the message they heard and check out the accuracy of their assumptions before responding.

Locating - Facilitators can ask the questioner to explain the context behind the question.

Reframing - The focus can be on clarifying the assumptions behind the person’s argument and then inviting her or him to see alternative possibilities.

Deferring - Often, the best strategy is to invite participants to come up after the session and arrange for a time to talk about the disagreement further, and then move the discussion on to another topic.

Boice, R. (1996) First-Order Principles for College Teachers: Ten Basic Ways to Improve the Teaching Process (Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Co.)

Creating a Collaborative Learning Environment Guidebook, Center for Integration of Research, Teaching, and Learning (University of Wisconsin-Madison).

Feito, J. (2007) Allowing Not-Knowing in a Dialogic Discussion . The International Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, accessed July 2008. http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/ijsotl/v1n1/feito/ij_feito.htm

Gelula, M.H. (1997) Clinical discussion sessions and small groups . Surgical Neurology, 47:400-403.

Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2006) Scientific Teaching: Diversity, Assessment, Active Learning (New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.)

Sellers, S.L., Roberts, J., Giovanetto, L., Friedrich, K. & Hammargren, C. (2007) Reaching All Students-A Resource for Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics (Second Edition) (Madison, WI: Center for the Integration of Research, Teaching, and Learning)

Steinert, Y. (2004) Student perceptions of effective small group teaching . Medical Education, 38:286-293.

Tuckman, B. & Jensen, M. (1977) Stages of Small Group Development . Group and Organizational Studies, vol. 2, pp.419-427.

University of Queensland: Designing Culturally Inclusive Environments , accessed July 2008. www.tedi.uq.edu.au/cdip

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6 Online Discussion Tools to Fuel Student Engagement

Topics: Classroom Media & Tools Social & Emotional Learning Relationships & Communication Digital Citizenship

Give students a chance to connect with each other and be heard.

5 Online Discussion Tools to Fuel Student Engagement

Creating a classroom community where meaningful conversations can happen isn't easy—it's an ongoing process that takes time. But using online discussion tools can be one great way to help your students build these skills. Plus, the ability to engage in online discussions responsibly is a great 21st-century skill in and of itself.

Online discussions often lead to better in-class discussions afterward—you know, the kind where students raise their hands and speak out loud. With online discussions, students have a chance to engage with each other virtually, often having their thoughts and opinions validated. Afterward, they're typically much more willing to share out loud in class and often share in thoughtful ways.

Still not convinced? Here are a few more reasons to consider using online discussions:

Because comments are more permanent, students tend to think a bit more critically about what they say.
Especially for more introverted students, online discussions can be less intimidating than speaking in front of the class.
It's easier for students to share dissenting opinions or "outside-the-box" ideas.
As students type responses, they often share more nuanced and compelling points. Plus, typed reponses are easier to use as formative assessments !
Anonymous posting (though still teacher-moderated), a key feature with some discussion tools, can help erase the fear of public judgment or ridicule.
Everyone has ample opportunities to be heard and connect with other classmates, ensuring equity among all voices in your classroom.

If you're looking for an online discussion tool, you've got a variety of options. Here are a few top picks and teacher favorites:

Backchannel Chat

Price : $15/year/class; $299/year/school Platforms : Android, iOS, and web Grades : 6-12

Backchannel Chat's moderated online discussions are intended to engage students and encourage them to share. Think of it as a teacher-moderated, private version of Twitter, where students can discuss topics that might just transcend the virtual space. Setup is quick and easy: Teachers sign up, name their chat, and give students the URL. Students can join with only a name; no other personal information is required. Teachers can moderate discussions, remove messages, and "lock" the chat at any time.

Flip site page about using as discussion tool.

Price : Free Platforms : Android, iOS Grades : K-12

Though "online discussion" may mean text responses to most, Flip's video-based responses also invite discussion. It's also a great way to involve students who are less comfortable with written language, and younger kids may especially love participating in Flip's playful video features. Depending on the purpose of the discussion, the combination of videos and comments might not be the format you're looking for, but between the cost (free!) and the accessibility features, it's definitely a tool to consider.

Kialo Edu

Price : Free Platforms : Web Grades : 7–12

Kialo Edu is a free platform designed to foster thoughtful debate and discussion. Students can browse for and participate in existing discussions or create their own. Once they've chosen a discussion, students then choose their side—pro or con—and add their own opinions via "claims." Kialo Edu is a good platform for teaching the importance of reasoned, respectful arguments when trying to persuade others. Most teachers likely will want to create private discussions limited to their students to focus on a curriculum- or class-related topic.

Price : Free Platforms : Web Grades : 4-12

NowComment is a document-annotation and -discussion platform that allows students to mark up and discuss texts. Upload a document (in any number of formats) to create an online discussion area. Paragraphs for text are numbered, with the document shown on the left and the comment panel on the right. You can control when students can comment on a document and when they can see each others' comments. For group projects or peer-reviewed activities, you can have students upload their own documents.

Price : Contact for pricing Platforms : iOS and web Grades : 3-12

Known mostly as an online plagiarism detector, Turnitin has some lesser-known tools, too, including a built-in discussion platform. While the discussion tool may not be as robust as some other choices, Turnitin's tool does offer anonymous posting and teacher-moderation options. Plus, if your students are already signed up and have accounts, getting started will be a cinch.

Price : Free Platforms : Web Grades : 6–12

YO Teach! is a backchannel web app teachers can use to create and moderate chat rooms for real-time student interaction. The admin features allow teachers to delete posts, mute students, control room access, and use the interactive features. Students can interact with teacher and peer posts by sharing text messages, replying to others' posts, voting, responding to polls, sharing and annotating pictures, and submitting drawings. YO Teach! can be an engaging way to encourage collaboration and social interaction among students.

Image courtesy of Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for American Education: Images of Teachers and Students in Action.

I'm the Director of Marketing for Common Sense's Education platform. Prior to my work at Common Sense, I was an editor and classroom teacher. I'm an advocate for the creative, thoughtful, and responsible use of technology, and I thrive on sharing his knowledge, experience, and perspectives with others.

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Over 170 Prompts to Inspire Writing and Discussion

Here are all of our Student Opinion questions from the 2020-21 school year. Each question is based on a different New York Times article, interactive feature or video.

By The Learning Network

Each school day we publish a new Student Opinion question, and students use these writing prompts to reflect on their experiences and identities and respond to current events unfolding around them. To introduce each question, we provide an excerpt from a related New York Times article or Opinion piece as well as a free link to the original article.

During the 2020-21 school year, we asked 176 questions, and you can find them all below or here as a PDF . The questions are divided into two categories — those that provide opportunities for debate and persuasive writing, and those that lend themselves to creative, personal or reflective writing.

Teachers can use these prompts to help students practice narrative and persuasive writing, start classroom debates and even spark conversation between students around the world via our comments section. For more ideas on how to use our Student Opinion questions, we offer a short tutorial along with a nine-minute video on how one high school English teacher and her students use this feature .

Questions for Debate and Persuasive Writing

1. Should Athletes Speak Out On Social and Political Issues? 2. Should All Young People Learn How to Invest in the Stock Market? 3. What Are the Greatest Songs of All Time? 4. Should There Be More Gender Options on Identification Documents? 5. Should We End the Practice of Tipping? 6. Should There Be Separate Social Media Apps for Children? 7. Do Marriage Proposals Still Have a Place in Today’s Society? 8. How Do You Feel About Cancel Culture? 9. Should the United States Decriminalize the Possession of Drugs? 10. Does Reality TV Deserve Its Bad Rap? 11. Should the Death Penalty Be Abolished? 12. How Should Parents Support a Student Who Has Fallen Behind in School? 13. When Is It OK to Be a Snitch? 14. Should People Be Required to Show Proof of Vaccination? 15. How Much Have You and Your Community Changed Since George Floyd’s Death? 16. Can Empathy Be Taught? Should Schools Try to Help Us Feel One Another’s Pain? 17. Should Schools or Employers Be Allowed to Tell People How They Should Wear Their Hair? 18. Is Your Generation Doing Its Part to Strengthen Our Democracy? 19. Should Corporations Take Political Stands? 20. Should We Rename Schools Named for Historical Figures With Ties to Racism, Sexism or Slavery? 21. How Should Schools Hold Students Accountable for Hurting Others? 22. What Ideas Do You Have to Improve Your Favorite Sport? 23. Are Presidential Debates Helpful to Voters? Or Should They Be Scrapped? 24. Is the Electoral College a Problem? Does It Need to Be Fixed? 25. Do You Care Who Sits on the Supreme Court? Should We Care? 26. Should Museums Return Looted Artifacts to Their Countries of Origin? 27. Should Schools Provide Free Pads and Tampons? 28. Should Teachers Be Allowed to Wear Political Symbols? 29. Do You Think People Have Gotten Too Relaxed About Covid? 30. Who Do You Think Should Be Person of the Year for 2020? 31. How Should Racial Slurs in Literature Be Handled in the Classroom? 32. Should There Still Be Snow Days? 33. What Are Your Reactions to the Storming of the Capitol by a Pro-Trump Mob? 34. What Do You Think of the Decision by Tech Companies to Block President Trump? 35. If You Were a Member of Congress, Would You Vote to Impeach President Trump? 36. What Would You Do First if You Were the New President? 37. Who Do You Hope Will Win the 2020 Presidential Election? 38. Should Media Literacy Be a Required Course in School? 39. What Are Your Reactions to the Results of Election 2020? Where Do We Go From Here? 40. How Should We Remember the Problematic Actions of the Nation’s Founders? 41. As Coronavirus Cases Surge, How Should Leaders Decide What Stays Open and What Closes? 42. What Is Your Reaction to the Inauguration of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris? 43. How Worried Should We Be About Screen Time During the Pandemic? 44. Should Schools Be Able to Discipline Students for What They Say on Social Media? 45. What Works of Art, Culture and Technology Flopped in 2020? 46. How Do You Feel About Censored Music? 47. Why Do You Think ‘Drivers License’ Became Such a Smash Hit? 48. Justice Ginsburg Fought for Gender Equality. How Close Are We to Achieving That Goal? 49. How Well Do You Think Our Leaders Have Responded to the Coronavirus Crisis? 50. To What Extent Is the Legacy of Slavery and Racism Still Present in America in 2020? 51. How Should We Reimagine Our Schools So That All Students Receive a Quality Education? 52. How Concerned Do You Think We Should Be About the Integrity of the 2020 Election? 53. What Issues in This Election Season Matter Most to You? 54. Is Summer School a Smart Way to Make Up for Learning Lost This School Year? 55. What Is Your Reaction to the Senate’s Acquittal of Former President Trump? 56. What Is the Worst Toy Ever? 57. How Should We Balance Safety and Urgency in Developing a Covid-19 Vaccine? 58. What Are Your Reactions to Oprah’s Interview With Harry and Meghan? 59. Should the Government Provide a Guaranteed Income for Families With Children? 60. Should There Be More Public Restrooms? 61. Should High School-Age Basketball Players Be Able to Get Paid? 62. Should Team Sports Happen This Year? 63. Who Are the Best Musical Artists of the Past Year? What Are the Best Songs? 64. Should We Cancel Student Debt? 65. How Closely Should Actors’ Identities Reflect the Roles They Play? 66. Should White Writers Translate a Black Author’s Work? 67. Would You Buy an NFT? 68. Should Kids Still Learn to Tell Time? 69. Should All Schools Teach Financial Literacy? 70. What Is Your Reaction to the Verdict in the Derek Chauvin Trial? 71. What Is the Best Way to Stop Abusive Language Online? 72. What Are the Underlying Systems That Hold a Society Together? 73. What Grade Would You Give President Biden on His First 100 Days? 74. Should High Schools Post Their Annual College Lists? 75. Are C.E.O.s Paid Too Much? 76. Should We Rethink Thanksgiving? 77. What Is the Best Way to Get Teenagers Vaccinated? 78. Do You Want Your Parents and Grandparents to Get the New Coronavirus Vaccine? 79. What Is Your Reaction to New Guidelines That Loosen Mask Requirements? 80. Who Should We Honor on Our Money? 81. Is Your School’s Dress Code Outdated? 82. Does Everyone Have a Responsibility to Vote? 83. How Is Your Generation Changing Politics?

Questions for Creative and Personal Writing

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Posted in in ESL Conversation Questions

60 ESL conversation questions about education, school, and university

Posted by by Cameron Smith
May 13, 2023

Get everyone talking with these ESL conversation questions about education, school, and university.

Almost everyone in the world has had direct experience with education in some way, shape, or form. So get your students talking and sharing their experiences on the education system they experienced in their home country, and their take on the way other countries educate their populations.

ESL conversation questions about school

Is the education system different in your country? How?
Do you think that education is important for everyone?
Should free education be a basic human right? Why or why not?
What attributes does someone need to be a great teacher?
Would you like to be a teacher? Why or why not?
Do you think that teachers are paid enough for the work that they do? Why or why not?
What improvements would you like to make to your country’s education system?
What are some of the things that your country’s education system does better than any other country?
Is education highly valued in your country? Why or why not?
Are teachers respected in your country?
Is it common for students to graduate from high school in your country?
Is it a legal requirement for children to attend school in your country?
Is education completely free in your country?
Does your country offer high quality education to all students? Why or why not?
What would the world look like without education?
Which country is doing the best job at educating its population?
Are there any disadvantages to attending university, versus getting real-world training?
Has education changed since you were young?
How do you think education will evolve in the years to come?
How will AI change education in the near and distant future?
Did you enjoy going to school?
Did you prefer primary school or high school? Why?
What were your favorite subjects in high school?
What were your least favorite subjects in high school?
Who was your favorite teacher in school? What made them such a great educator, in your opinion?
What is your favorite memory from school?
What is your least favorite memory from school?
When you were younger, what did you want to be when you grew up? Did that goal change by the time you graduated from high school?
Do you prefer to study with books or a computer?
Did you enjoy doing your homework?
Do you think that homework is important for students? Why or why not?
What improvements could we make to the education system?
If you could go back to school and do it all over again, what would you do differently this time?
Did you ever go on any school trips? Describe them.
What sports did you excel at during your school years?
What extracurricular activities did you participate in during your school years?
Did you ever win any awards at school?
What is a typical school lunch in your country? Describe it.
At what age do children start to attend school in your country?
How old are students when they graduate from high school in your country?

ESL conversation questions about university

What are you studying / What will you study at university?
Is university free in your country?
Do you think that university is too expensive?
Do you think that secondary education should be provided free to all citizens? Why or why not?
Does your future career require a university degree?
If you have graduated, are you still using the knowledge that you learned at university?
How can students balance their university commitments with other life commitments (e.g. a job)?
What are some of the challenges that students deal with in secondary or tertiary education?
Do you think that every career should require a university degree?
Do you think that someone can learn more from practical on-the-job experience versus a university degree? Why or why not?
How has online learning impacted universities?
Do you think that in-person education is more effective than online or remote education?
Do you prefer studying alone or in a group?
Do you enjoy participating in clubs, organizations, or extracurrucular activities at your university?
Do you think that networking is important for students while they are at university? Why or why not?
What are some of the advantages of obtaining a university degree?
What are some of the downsides of obtaining a university degree?
What is your best advice for someone who is about to attend university?
Do you think that everyone should attend university? Why or why not?
What are some of the differences between secondary education (high school) and tertiary education (university)?

Subscribe to our newsletter for more free ESL learning resources!

Cameron Smith

I'm an English Communication Coach based in Vancouver, Canada. I'm on a mission to help millions of people speak English with confidence. Thanks for visiting this site! If you want longer video content, please follow me on YouTube for fun English lessons and helpful learning resources!

Posted in in Reviews

The Best Books to Learn English in 2023

May 12, 2023

The Best ESL Books for Teachers: 13 Must-Read Resources

May 15, 2023

Meet your AI assistant for education: Microsoft Copilot

Content Type
Microsoft Copilot

With new advancements in AI happening faster than ever before, you might be wondering how you can use these tools in your classroom to save you time and energy. Educators worldwide are making strides to understand and integrate AI into their work and often find it to be a valuable tool. You can use AI to save time creating rubrics, personalized content for students, and educational materials such as quizzes and lesson plans. 

Generative AI is a newer piece of technology and a unique category of AI that focuses on creating new content. With generative AI you can generate new content like text, images, code, or audio. It achieves this by learning patterns from existing data and understanding the context and intent of language. This provides you with new opportunities for content creation, personalization, and innovation. Because this technology is creating new content, checking for accuracy in generative AI is essential—especially in the field of education. 

Microsoft Copilot is a tool that uses generative AI to serve as a helpful assistant to you in the classroom. Copilot can help you save time, differentiate instruction, and enhance student learning. With Copilot, you can easily create lesson plans, quizzes, rubrics, and other class resources for any level of learner.

5 ways to use Copilot in education

Here are just a few examples of the many ways you can use Microsoft Copilot to save time and energy:

Personalized learning: Copilot can support personalized learning by helping you create content, tailored feedback, and guidance for students based on their individual needs and learning styles.
Brainstorming: You can use Copilot to brainstorm new ideas for activities, lesson plans, supporting materials, and assignments.
Lesson planning: Copilot can help you plan lessons by suggesting or drafting activities, resources, and assessments that align with learning objectives. You can also use Copilot to start a rubric for the lessons.
Provide feedback: Copilot can help you draft initial feedback and ideas for students on their work, which you can edit and personalize for your students.
Get quick answers: Copilot can help you get quick answers to your questions without having to read through multiple search results. Also, Copilot provides links to content sources so you can assess the source or dive deeper into the original content.

Microsoft Copilot showing suggested prompts for educators. Copilot uses generative AI to serve as a helpful assistant to you in the classroom.

Getting started with Microsoft Copilot

To get started with Microsoft Copilot, you can follow these steps:

Open copilot.microsoft.com or select the Copilot icon on the sidebar in your Microsoft Edge browser.
Type your prompt into the chat window.
Review the sources linked at the bottom by “Learn more.” You can fact-check the information provided or dive deeper into a topic by accessing the original articles, studies, or reports.
Review the response to make sure the output is what you want and accurate. You are the expert, and you decide what goes into the classroom.
To get the most out of Copilot, you can keep the conversation going by following up on your prompts. This helps you collaborate with Copilot to gain more useful, tailored responses.

You can also give feedback to Copilot based on the quality of its responses to help the AI learn and match your preferences.

How to write a prompt for AI

To effectively guide generative AI, you want to give it clear and concise instructions, known as prompts. A well-crafted prompt enhances the generative AI’s output in the quality, relevance, and diversity. A good prompt should be clear, specific, and aligned with the goal of the generation task. A bad prompt can lead to ambiguous, irrelevant, or biased output. To get the best response from Copilot, consider the following tips:

Define clear objectives.  Determine the main goal of the prompt and the role AI should take. Whether creating a syllabus, drafting a quiz, or revising lesson content, have a clear vision of the end goal.
Be specific.  Chat experiences operate best when given detailed instructions. Specify grade level, subject, topic, or any other relevant parameters. For instance, “secondary math quiz on algebraic expressions” is clearer than “math quiz.”
Structure the prompt.  Break complex tasks into smaller parts. Instead of asking the AI to draft an entire lesson, request an outline, then delve into specific sections.
Iterate and refine.  The first response from AI might not always align perfectly with expectations. Don’t hesitate to rephrase the prompt, ask follow-up questions, or provide more context based on the initial output.
Combine expertise.  Use AI as a tool to enhance and streamline work but remember to overlay its suggestions with your educational expertise. AI can suggest content, but the educator decides the best way to edit and present it to their audience.

An infographic that explains how to craft effective prompts for AI tools and provides five key elements: conversation style, specific instructions, tailor for audience, specify length, specify format.

A infographic about how to write AI prompts to get better answers from Copilot. A good prompt should be clear, specific, and aligned with the goal of the task.

Want a fun way to practice creating effective prompts? Minecraft Education just announced Prompt Lab for Minecraft Educators , a free playbook on how to use Microsoft Copilot to write compelling prompts, develop interactive learning content and assessments, and generate creative ideas for Minecraft lesson plans.

Create images from text with Copilot

You can use Image Creator from Designer in Copilot to create personalized, engaging visuals for all sorts of lessons or topics. You can type in a description of an image, provide additional context like location or activity, and choose an art style. Image Creator generates an image straight from your imagination. Prompts can begin with “draw an image” or “create an image.” You can use this tool to create images for a class newsletter, lesson, or Teams post.

Get started in Copilot prompting “create an image…”
Then build out your prompt with adjective + noun + verb + style.
Click on your favorite image to open the result in a new tab and save the image.

An example would be “Create an image of an adorable black puppy wearing a hat in photorealistic style.”

A Microsoft Copilot chat displaying four generated images of a black puppy wearing a hat in photorealistic style, with options to ask anything or continue the conversation.

An example of Copilot creating an image of a black dog wearing a hat in a photorealistic style, based on text descriptions.

Try creating an image in Copilot for your lesson, or just for fun!

Protected AI-powered chat

At Microsoft, our efforts are guided by our AI principles and Responsible AI Standard and build on decades of research on grounding and privacy-preserving machine learning. Copilot provides commercial data protection and delivers a secure AI-powered chat service for educational institutions. This means user and organizational data are protected, chat prompts and responses in Copilot are not saved, Microsoft has no eyes-on access to them, and they aren’t used to train the underlying large language models. Additionally, our  Customer Copyright Commitment  means education customers can be confident using our services and the output they generate without worrying about copyright claims.

Get to know your Copilot

Dive deeper into the world of generative AI and unlock its full potential for your classroom.

The new  AI for Educators Learning Path  on  Microsoft Learn is made up of three modules to help educators learn about and benefit from AI.
Prompt Lab for Minecraft Educators demonstrates how to use Microsoft Copilot with Minecraft Education to design engaging learning experiences. Level up your Minecraft teaching with this useful new resource!
AI classroom toolkit provides instructional information for educators and students to use generative AI safely and responsibly.
AI for education on  Microsoft Learn is a collection of resources and courses on how to use AI for educational purposes.

Ready to elevate your teaching with Microsoft Copilot? Start using Copilot today! copilot.microsoft.com

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Open access
Published: 11 June 2024

Perception of enhanced learning in medicine through integrating of virtual patients: an exploratory study on knowledge acquisition and transfer

Zhien Li 1 ,
Maryam Asoodar 1 ,
Nynke de Jong 2 ,
Tom Keulers 3 ,
Xian Liu 1 &
Diana Dolmans 1

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 647 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

97 Accesses

Metrics details

Introduction

Virtual Patients (VPs) have been shown to improve various aspects of medical learning, however, research has scarcely delved into the specific factors that facilitate the knowledge gain and transfer of knowledge from the classroom to real-world applications. This exploratory study aims to understand the impact of integrating VPs into classroom learning on students’ perceptions of knowledge acquisition and transfer.

The study was integrated into an elective course on “Personalized Medicine in Cancer Treatment and Care,” employing a qualitative and quantitative approach. Twenty-two second-year medical undergraduates engaged in a VP session, which included role modeling, practice with various authentic cases, group discussion on feedback, and a plenary session. Student perceptions of their learning were measured through surveys and focus group interviews and analyzed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis.

Quantitative data shows that students highly valued the role modeling introduction, scoring it 4.42 out of 5, and acknowledged the practice with VPs in enhancing their subject matter understanding, with an average score of 4.0 out of 5. However, students’ reflections on peer dialogue on feedback received mixed reviews, averaging a score of 3.24 out of 5. Qualitative analysis (of focus-group interviews) unearthed the following four themes: ‘Which steps to take in clinical reasoning’, ‘Challenging their reasoning to enhance deeper understanding’, ‘Transfer of knowledge ‘, and ' Enhance Reasoning through Reflections’. Quantitative and qualitative data are cohered.

The study demonstrates evidence for the improvement of learning by incorporating VPs with learning activities. This integration enhances students’ perceptions of knowledge acquisition and transfer, thereby potentially elevating students’ preparedness for real-world clinical settings. Key facets like expert role modeling and various authentic case exposures were valued for fostering a deeper understanding and active engagement, though with some mixed responses towards peer feedback discussions. While the preliminary findings are encouraging, the necessity for further research to refine feedback mechanisms and explore a broader spectrum of medical disciplines with larger sample sizes is underscored. This exploration lays a groundwork for future endeavors aimed at optimizing VP-based learning experiences in medical education.

Peer Review reports

In Medical Education, a persistent challenge lies in the bridge between acquiring theoretical knowledge and applying it in real-world clinical scenarios. Many medical students struggle with translating their classroom learning into practical settings. The primary challenge lies in effectively translating the concepts students have learned into authentic patient interactions. This gap is particularly concerning because it affects the quality of patient care, as medical students are not just learning to acquire knowledge but must be able to apply this knowledge in complex healthcare settings.

One approach to address this challenge is the use of Virtual Patients (VPs), a computer-based simulation of real-life clinical scenarios for students to train clinical skills [ 1 ]. Research has shown that using VPs in the classroom can effectively improve various aspects of learning, from core knowledge and clinical reasoning to decision-making skills and knowledge transfer [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The VPs provide students with the opportunity to practice skills in a safe and controlled simulation environment.

Recent studies have focused on optimizing the design and arrangement of VPs as part of learning activities to facilitate both knowledge acquisition and retention [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. For instance, Verkuyl, Hughes [ 8 ] demonstrated that using VPs as gamification tools can improve students’ confidence, engagement, and satisfaction.

However, studies focusing on the specific factors that contribute to these improvements when integrating VPs into the classroom are limited, particularly in understanding how to use VPs in the classroom to facilitate the transfer of knowledge students’ gain from the class to the subsequent studying stage of their education and eventual practice.

Acquisition and transfer of knowledge are critical factors in medical education, as medical students must be able to apply their knowledge and skills to real-world clinical scenarios [ 9 ]. Research suggests that for the effective transfer of knowledge, students should be immersed in authentic environments, enabling the transition of learned competencies to advanced stages [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Despite the consensus on the efficacy of VPs as a tool, there is a gap in understanding how to integrate VPs in the classroom to optimize students’ learning, especially in facilitating learning transfer. The effectiveness of VPs is not just in their use but also in how they are used by students to enhance their understanding on how to reason and make decisions about medical treatments when dealing with clinical cases. Without a clear and deep understanding, we risk underutilizing their potential and losing opportunities for medical students to become well prepared for real-world clinical scenarios.

Certain elements, such as role modeling instruction [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], using various authentic cases [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], and engaging in peer discussions on feedback [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], emerge as potential key components that could be integrated to maximize the knowledge acquisition via VPs. For instance, Stalmeijer, Dolmans [ 23 ] show how an expert, serving as a role model, provides guidance that facilitates student learning by demonstrating clinical skills and reasoning out loud. While there is ample evidence supporting the advantages of inclusion of VPs in education, there is not enough research focusing on the detailed aspects of effective instructional design techniques. This paper delves into these components, seeking to understand how the VP integration influences students’ learning and knowledge transfer. Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of how integrating VPs in class affects students’ learning and might impact the transfer of learning in a simulated VP environment to practice.

Relationship of implementing, impact factor, and transfer of training

This exploratory study aims to investigate how instructional design elements such as role modeling, various authentic cases, and peer dialogues on feedback within VP sessions affect students’ learning from the learner’s perceptions. The core research question in this study focuses on how the implementation of role modeling, various authentic cases, and peer dialogue on feedback in VPs, influences learners’ perception of knowledge gain and transfer in personalized medicine.

The study was conducted at Maastricht University in the elective course, “Personalized Medicine in Cancer Treatment and Care”. This course is open to second-year undergraduate medical students of Maastricht University.

Participants

Initially, 24 students enrolled in this course for the academic year of 2022–2023, and 22 students participated in the Virtual Patient session. In total, 19 students voluntarily completed the survey designed to evaluate their experiences and perceptions of the Virtual Patients session. Thereafter, 9 of the 19 survey respondents voluntarily agreed to participate in three focus group interviews, with 2–4 students in each focus group. Students were informed that participation in this research study had no impact on student’s academic performance or their continuation in their studies.

Intervention

The instructional approach for the VP cases was structured in a specific format for the students. Figure 2 shows the instructional design for VP integration. The first stage was a role-modeling phase, where an expert demonstrated the clinical reasoning process using VP Case A. This was followed by a practice session where students worked in pairs on two different VP cases (Case B and C). After that, students formed two larger groups each including 5 or 6 students, and discussed the system feedback that was provided by VP platform. Finally, the expert summarized the session and addressed students’ questions. The whole intervention lasted 120 min. Figure 1 gives an overview of the intervention steps.

The flow of integrated virtual patient session

1. Role modeling (30 min): The intervention started with an expert, a clinician with teaching experience, demonstrating a clinical case (Case A) and showing the clinical reasoning process by thinking aloud. The expert served as a role model in showcasing the approach toward clinical problem-solving, provided supportive information, and demonstrated how to proceed through the case. The aim of the role modeling session was to empower students to apply the insights and methodology gained from experts in case A to solve subsequent cases (case B and case C), Although these cases shared similarities in underlying principles, they diverged on patient characteristics such as age, complications, and smoking history that can influence patient treatment outcomes.

2 and 3. Two VP pair tasks (20 min each): In this segment, the 22 participating students were paired, resulting in 11 pairs. These pairs were then divided into two groups. Group 1 (6 pairs) and group 2 (5 pairs) alternated in going through Case B and Case C to account for the practice effect. These cases were variations of the clinical cases introduced during the role-modeling demonstration, differing in patient characteristics such as age, complications, and smoking history to challenge the students’ reasoning. Students were encouraged to work collaboratively.

4. Feedback discussion (30 min): Upon completion of the VP cases, an automated feedback is immediately provided about the reasoning analysis. Participants were instructed to save this feedback for later discussion. After that, Students were organized into groups of six, based on the sequence in which they engaged with the cases. For instance, those who first practiced with Case B and then proceeded to Case C formed Group (1) Conversely, students who started with case C and then moved on to case B were assembled into Group (2) To foster meaningful dialogue, students engaged in discussions focused on the feedback generated by the Virtual Patient system, guided by a printed discussion guide distributed to each group (see Appendix 2 ). The discussion aimed to deepen students’ understanding and enrich their conversations about the cases they had just completed.

5. Plenary (15 min): This part lasted 15 min. Hosted by the expert to summarize the session and address questions or doubts raised by students.

During the practice and discussion sessions, the expert circulated among the groups to offer additional guidance and support.

The virtual patient cases

Three Virtual Patient (VP) cases (Case A, B, and C) were created to enhance students’ comprehension of specific concepts, knowledge, and skills in clinical reasoning. The VP practice was developed on the P-Scribe ( www.pscribe.nl ) learning platform, a web-based e-learning system based in the Netherlands. The platform facilitates the design and implementation of text-based VP sessions (Appendix 4 ).

While these cases shared a foundation on authentic head and neck cancer treatment, they were characterized by varying patient characteristics in terms of age, gender, and medical history (anamnesis).

VP case flow chart

Within each VP case, students were presented with a scenario related to neck cancer. Figure 3 shows the chart of a VP case. Each case starts with an overview of the patient and their medical history which students had to use to make an initial assessment. After this, students encountered a mix of multiple-choice and open-ended practice questions. These questions guided students in planning diagnostics, formulating a diagnosis, and devising a treatment plan tailored to the patient’s specific needs. Immediate feedback was provided after students submitted each response, and comprehensive summative feedback was given at the conclusion of each case to foster understanding and learning from any potential misjudgments or oversights (See Appendix 4 ).

Measurement instruments

Learning-perception survey : The survey (Appendix 1 ) consisted of 20 items, structured into five primary sections: general experience, intended learning outcome, role modeling, practicing with various authentic cases, and reflection on peer dialogue around feedback. The first item asked about students’ general experience through the whole session. The second item focused on their perception of intended learning outcomes. Six items then focused on the students’ perceptions of learning through role modeling followed by 5 items addressing perceptions related to their learning on practicing with authentic cases. The final seven items explored students’ perception of learning from dialogue around feedback. Participants indicated their level of agreement for each statement using a 5-point Likert scale: 1 denoting “Strongly Disagree”, 2 for “Disagree”, 3 for “Neutral”, 4 for “Agree”, and 5 for “Strongly Agree”. For interpretation, average scores below 3 were considered as “in need for improvement”, those of 4 or higher as ‘good’, and those between 3 and 4 as ‘neutral’.

Focus group interviews : Three focus group interviews (Appendix 3 ) were conducted to dive deeper into students’ perceptions of their learning experience, knowledge gain, and knowledge transfer in real-world settings. The focus group took place after the survey and the survey data did not affect the development of the focus group questions. In focus group 1, two students, in focus group 2, two students and in focus group 3, five students participated. The interviews were structured around a series of questions that explored students’ perceptions of their learning across specifically designed sections. These sections included Role Modeling, Practice with Various Authentic Cases, and Dialogue around Feedback. The structure aimed to understand students’ perspectives on each key component of the learning sections.

The analysis of the survey data was conducted by calculating the mean, standard deviation, and the Alpha Coefficient for the responses pertaining to each of the five key dimensions of the survey. The mean score provided an indicator of the average student perception, while the standard deviation offered insights into the variability of the responses. The Alpha Coefficient, a measure of internal consistency, was computed to assess the reliability of the survey dimensions. Through these statistical measures, an overall understanding of the students’ perceptions regarding the various aspects of the Virtual Patients was attained, facilitating a robust analysis aligned with the research objectives.

The focus-group interview data were analyzed following the thematic analysis procedure set out by Braun and Clarke [ 24 ]: (1) familiarize yourself with your data, (2) generate initial codes, (3) search for themes, (4) review themes, (5) define and name themes, and (6) produce the report. The interview was guided by pre-existing frameworks or theories in medical education. This ensured the capture of major aspects of the VP learning experience as underscored in the existing literature: role modeling, using various authentic cases, and peer dialogue around feedback [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 21 ]. The focus group interview was recorded, transcribed, and coded by three team members and ordered in initial themes (Z.L, M.A, and X.L). These themes were discussed with the larger team. We used a process of inductive and deductive analysis and used the three design principles of role modeling, practice with various authentic cases, and group discussion on feedback as sensitizing concepts to study the data [ 24 ]. Thereafter, quantitative and qualitative analyses were collectively appraised, compared, and checked for inconsistencies. In this triangulation, the themes identified in focus-group interviews were explanatory to the descriptive statistics of the survey.

Trustworthiness

Several measures were taken to enhance the study’s trustworthiness. First, triangulation was achieved by employing multiple data collection methods, including surveys and focus group interviews. The interview data collection continued until saturation was reached, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the student’s experiences and perceptions. Secondly, the coding process followed an iterative approach. Team members initially coded transcripts independently, and then met to reach a consensus before moving on to code subsequent transcripts. Three researchers conducted the coding independently to minimize bias and enhance the validity of the findings. Finally, a member check among a sample of the focus group interviewees was conducted. In response to the question asking whether they agreed with summaries of preliminary results and would provide comments, confirmatory responses were received as well as some minor additional comments and clarifications. The latter were taken into account in the analysis and interpretation of the data.

Ethical approval

The Maastricht University Ethical Committee reviewed and approved this study. The approval number is FHML-REC/2023/021.

The findings from both the survey data and focus group interviews were presented to explore students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the Virtual Patient (VP) Session in enhancing their clinical reasoning skills.

Survey data

The survey explored students’ perceptions across five key dimensions: General Experience, Intended Learning Outcome, Role Modeling, Practicing with Various Authentic Cases, and students’ reflection on Peer Dialogue around Feedback. The students scored the VP sessions on 20 items (Table 1 ). The scores varied between M = 2.95 to M = 4.58, on a scale of 1–5.

For the General Experience of Virtual Patient Session (Items Q1-Q2) the average score was M = 4.13 (SD = 0.70). Specifically, the overall experience was positively rated at M = 4.11. The component that assessed the improvement of clinical reasoning skills received an average score of M = 4.16.

Regarding the Students’ Perception of Learning from Role Modeling (Items Q3-Q8), the average score was M = 4.38 (SD = 0.61). Students agreed that the expert demonstration at the start of the session helped them understand the intended learning outcomes and was useful in guiding them through the Virtual Patient cases, with scores ranging from M = 4.26 to M = 4.58.

Students’ perception of learning from practicing with various authentic cases (Items Q9-Q13), received an average score of M = 4.00 (SD = 0.86). The scores measured the students’ perception of how well the provided Virtual Patient cases matched their current level of understanding, enhanced their comprehension of the subject matter, and helped them grasp the complexities inherent in real-world clinical scenarios.

For their perception of learning from Peer Dialogue around Feedback (Questions 14–20), the average score was M = 3.24 (SD = 1.05). These scores measure the students’ perception of the effectiveness of peer dialogue in enhancing understanding, generating strategies to address feedback, and prioritizing areas of improvement.

Focus group interview data

The interviews revealed five themes: ' Which steps to take in clinical reasoning’, ' Asking challenging questions to enhance deeper understanding of knowledge’, ‘The variety in cases helps to enhance transfer to the real world’, and ‘Deeper understanding of reasoning through reflections’.

Which steps to take in clinical reasoning

Students acknowledged the expert’s initial demonstration helped them to develop structured knowledge and gain understanding of the clinical reasoning process.

I think it (Role modeling) helps to find a pattern in clinical reasoning as well. At first, it (the expert) explained to us. For example, are there possible lymph nodes? Yes or no. Then you need to do this and this…Then you can make kind of…pattern that differs for the diagnosis and the prognosis. So you can make kind of a diagram in your head. Which you can use later on. And your knowledge becomes more structured. (Focus Group 2, Student B)

Students also perceived that the integrated practice with Virtual Patients helped them to anticipate the subsequent steps in clinical reasoning. They indicated the patterns learned through practicing with virtual Patients helped them understand the procedures they needed to follow to evaluate the patient.

I think now I know the steps which they (the procedural) followed to evaluate the patient, so first we can do this and then that. First, you determine the TNM (Tumour, Node, Metastasis) staging and do the endoscopy, then the TNM staging, and then you make the treatment plan. Now it’s more clear how they do those steps. (Focus Group 1, Student A)

Moreover, students thought the pair work and dialogue helped them think and clarify with each other what steps they needed to do in clinical reasoning when they had different opinions.

Yeah, that (pair working) was really nice because you can discuss, like I think do this and the other one says, you know, I think do that step, and then you’re already discussing the answers which is really nice to have. (The discussion) really make you think about the steps. (Focus Group 1, Student b)

Challenging their reasoning to enhance deeper understanding

Students reported how the course design differed from other blocks. According to the students, the VP practice was particularly beneficial in helping them integrate knowledge, and make the knowledge their own.

It (the VP practice) helps you to integrate knowledge because other blocks are really only lectures, they are all listening and listening. So the virtual patient was really nice to make this stuff our own. (Focus Group 2, Student A)

Students indicated the examples given by the expert helped them get a better understanding of the more detailed TNM (Tumor, Node, Metastasis) table, that are used in clinical reasoning.

Yeah, she (the expert) gave examples and guided the reading of the tables for TNM (Tumor, Node, Metastasis) staging, and those were also in the Virtual Patient cases, but because she already used them once and explained how we have to use them, it became more clear to us, what these tables are for and how they are used (Focus Group 1, Student B) .

The students noted that in VP practice sessions, compared with passive learning in traditional lectures, they were challenged to engage directly with the material by making clinical decisions, such as selecting appropriate tests to reach a diagnosis.

In lectures, we passively learn the trajectory from symptoms to diagnosis. During Virtual Patient practice, we actively process it. So you have to make decisions and select the test etc. (Focus Group 2, Student B)

Students indicated that practicing with the VP cases challenged them to look up information and reasoned by themselves. They gave an example of the imaging practice in which they were tasked with examining specific body parts in medical images on their own, they thought they were challenged to reason about what they saw instead of getting the information directly.

Yeah, also the (medical) imaging in the assignments where you need to look at a specific part of the body, normally you just see a picture and someone says, yeah, this is the stomach or this is the heart, whatever, and now you need to look it up yourself and think about it yourself, what you see, so that really helps. (Focus Group 1, Student B)

Furthermore, they emphasized the questions asked by experts challenged them to think, put the knowledge in their own words and apply the knowledge with their own reasoning.

The questions she (the expert) asked really make you think about the things she’s learning(teaching). So if she asks questions, you’re really thinking, and yeah, you’re challenged to put it in your own words. (Focus Group 1, Student B) For instance, she (the expert) asked questions that not from official guidelines, instead, it came from where widely doctor worked and her personal experiences. I applied what she said with my own reasoning behind it. (Focus Group 2, Student B)

Transfer of knowledge

Students perceived that practicing with VP cases in different situations offered them hands-on experience, where they actively engaged with various situations, which prepared them for future patient interactions.

Having cases that are closer to the real world, like the comorbidity we discussed, would make it more realistic. (For instance, ) What if he also has obesity or diabetes? Those are the patients that we are going to see in the future. So it helps out a lot to have those different conditions as well. (Focus Group 2, Student B)

Students also indicated their preference for the structured approach of the VP session, where an initial demonstration by an expert, sharing their clinical experience, followed by hands-on practice with VP cases was perceived to enhance transfer to practice. This method, as described by the student, bridged the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. They think this structure made the knowledge clear and further helped them to transfer their knowledge from theory to practice.

You (the Virtual Patient session that integrated with role modeling, authentic VP practice, and peer discussion around feedback) made it (the clinical reasoning) clear for me because of the first case we discussed with the teacher. Well, he discussed it and showed us how to think, and how to get things from certain perspectives with risk factors, age, et cetera. And then we do it ourselves. We had to find out what was wrong and go on. So I quite liked it. It gave me a deeper understanding. (Focus Group 3, Student A)

Students indicated the sense of practical immersion is amplified by the “side information that you don’t really need” (Focus Group 3, Student E) from the cases. They highlighted the side information represented the interaction with real patients and made them think of clinical situations in real-world settings.

(Side) information would be more realistic, also side information that you don’t really need because a patient also tells you a lot of things, and some of those things aren’t as important, but you still need to decide if they are important or not. What do you see, why do you see it, what’s different than normal. (Focus Group 3, Student E)

Moreover, several students indicated that the hypothetical “what-if” discussions during the role modeling session helped them with reasoning, prompting them to consider complications that might arise in real-life medical situations.

So for example, about age, it’s more difficult to do a treatment above 70. (What if that patient) has things like smoking history and that kind of stuff. I think it’s really valuable because you have already had an example about it (Demonstrating Case A). (Focus Group 1, Student A)

Students indicated that the diagnosis practice in VP led them to realize the difference in real-world scenarios. They said while in the simulated environment might seem easy to choose multiple diagnostic options, in the real world, medical professionals must make more selective decisions due to limitations. They think this experience taught them to think of prioritizing and decision-making in a realistic medical setting.

Yeah, maybe also there (in VP cases) were also a question about which imaging techniques you would use and then it was Echo or CT, MRI, there was also an option where you could listen to the lungs and some of the people also checked that one, but it isn’t really necessary, so you think it only takes one minute, so why not, but in the real world there isn’t always time to do everything, so it’s also good to think what is really necessary and what’s not. (Focus Group 1, Student A)

Enhance reasoning through reflections

During the VP session, students received feedback and conducted conversations around the feedback provided by the Virtual Patient system. Students thought the peer dialogues around feedback provided opportunities for collective reflection and insights, allowing them to pinpoint areas of improvement.

I thought that (the peer dialogue) was really useful, because sometimes one person, for example, when the teacher explains everything, you don’t pick up everything he says. She (your peer) might pick up a different thing, and I pick up a different thing, and we can ask each other, do you know how this works? So I thought that was really useful. (Focus Group 3, Student B)

The students emphasized the importance of expressing and discussing different opinions. They noted that such interactions could provide new insights and perspectives that they would not have considered independently, thereby enriching their understanding.

When you do have different opinions, I think they (your peers) can give you insight that you maybe didn’t have for yourself. So you can add to each other’s knowledge. If somebody has another view, then we can discuss it. It (the discussion) brightens my tunnel view. Also having to say it (the knowledge) out loud and explaining your thoughts to someone else can also help, I think. (Focus Group 2, Student A)

When talking about the peer dialogues around feedback during the VP session, Some students highlighted the benefits of immediate feedback, which provided them with clarity and instant validation. However, others saw value in delayed feedback, as it fostered discussion and multiple interpretations.

I liked that the Virtual Patient program, that it gave you immediate feedback. That was really handy. And I also liked the discussion afterward so we could speak about it a bit more (Focus Group 3, Student B) . There was immediate feedback on most questions, so you knew if you had been correct or wrong. But for the learning process it might be handy to have that after the group discussion, because now we all have the same answer. (Focus Group 2, Student B)

The study demonstrated the perception of students’ learning and knowledge transfer by integrating VP cases with role modeling introductions, and peer dialogue around feedback, specifically in the context of personalized medicine in cancer treatment and care. The survey reflected a positive learning experience and students reported they gained a better understanding of the clinical reasoning process as well as which steps to take when dealing with a clinical case through this specific course design with integration of VP cases. Qualitative data showed that the integration of VPs into the educational setting clearly shifted the students from being passive observers in a traditional lecture-based format to active participants in a simulated clinical environment. This shift is in line with previous research findings, which suggest that the use of VPs in clinical training actively engages learners and encourages the application of their knowledge [ 4 ].

The quantitative data revealed that students highly valued the role modeling session, as indicated by the high average scores. Qualitative data explained that the role modeling session enabled students to not only observe the clinical process being demonstrated but also to engage in active thinking by interacting with the expert. As discussed by Cruess, Cruess [ 15 ], role modeling not only consciously imparts knowledge but also unconsciously influences students’ attitudes and behaviors, making the learning experience more relatable to the clinical environment. In this study, by sharing clinical reasoning and personal anecdotes during the class, experts made the learning experience more relatable to the clinical environment that students would face in the future. This mirrored the role modeling research by Morgenroth, Ryan [ 25 ] which emphasizes the importance of role models in shaping the self-concept and motivation of individuals. Moreover, the qualitative data showed that the demonstration by the expert serves as a fundamental pre-knowledge for students to cover the knowledge gap and prepare them with the following practice. This finding aligns with van Merrienboer’s scaffolding concept emphasizing the importance of initial expert guidance in learning processes [ 16 ].

Followed by the role modeling demonstration, students practiced on two VP cases in pairs and perceived that the VP practice enhanced their clinical reasoning skills, and also helped them understand the real-world clinical setting. The result showed that the variety and real-life complexity of cases in the VP sessions were perceived to be essential for students’ knowledge gain and transfer. The positive perception of various authentic cases aligns with previous research highlighting the importance of exposure to diverse and authentic scenarios in medical training [ 17 , 18 ]. Moreover, the hypothetical “what-if” scenarios further enhanced students’ analytical abilities, preparing them for the multifaceted challenges they would encounter in real-world medical situations. Survey responses (Q10, mean = 4.37; Q13, mean = 4.05 in Table 1 ) indicated a consensus among students on the improvement with this practice in understanding and applying knowledge. Our findings corroborate with Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano [ 26 ]’s study emphasis on the importance of authentic learning environments for effective knowledge transfer.

After the practice, students discussed the feedback provided by the VP system. Despite its mixed quantitative reception, the peer dialogue on feedback was qualitatively found to be a vital component for promoting critical thinking, discussion, and reflection. The Feedback from the VPs, both immediate and delayed, along with peer dialogue, emerged as crucial elements in students’ learning process. In this study, students showed different preferences for receiving feedback. Some students preferred immediate feedback, however, others preferred delayed feedback. How feedback was provided notably influenced peer interactions. Given that immediate feedback was dispensed upon submission of answers, the peer dialogues automatically started when students noticed disparities or encountered obstacles. Such dialogues not only served to resolve ambiguities but also fostered collective reflection, enhancing comprehension of the subject. By vocalizing their thoughts and engaging in active discussions, students were able to solidify their understanding and uncover nuances they might have missed otherwise. This aligns with the importance of engaging in peer discussions on feedback as outlined in the theoretical background [ 20 , 21 , 22 ].

When looking at the integration of VP cases with the particular course design, students perceived that the expert demonstration, followed by VP practice, and peer dialogue around feedback fostered a comprehensive understanding, allowing them to integrate diverse clinical knowledge, which in turn promoted understanding. The “Watch-think-do-reflect” structure not only ensured better knowledge retention but also enhanced students’ enthusiasm towards the subject. Observing model demonstrations enabled students to assimilate clinical nuances and contemplate real-world applications. Subsequent hands-on practice with VP cases fortified their cognitive structures, honing their clinical reasoning. Ultimately, students perceived that reflective peer discussions on feedback solidified their learnings, enhancing knowledge retention.

Limitations

This study employed a survey and focus group interviews that provided a comprehensive understanding of students’ perceptions of learning. However, there are several limitations. The study had a small sample size and was conducted in the context of an elective course, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, the study was exploratory in nature and did not measure actual learning outcomes or long-term retention, which are critical aspects of educational impact.

Implications for future research

Future research should investigate whether integrating Virtual Patients (VPs) into classroom activities enhance student learning outcomes by incorporating learning assessments and involving larger and more diverse participant groups to validate our findings. Additionally, a deeper analysis of students’ reasoning processes and interactions could provide insights into how and why knowledge gain and transfer are fostered or hindered. Furthermore, it is also important to understand the most beneficial moment for integrating VPs into educational settings to enhance transfer from a simulated to a real practice setting. This understanding could inform the development of more effective educational strategies and interventions.

The integration of Virtual Patients into classroom learning appears to offer a promising approach to enrich medical education. Key elements such as role modeling and various authentic cases contribute positively to students’ perception of learning, as well as peer dialogue on feedback. However, the approach to peer dialogue on feedback may need to be refined for more consistent benefits. Furthermore, studies with larger sample sizes and broader participant groups are essential to provide robust support for the efficacy of this educational approach and its components.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to all the participants and education workers who contributed to the study. ZL was supported by a scholarship granted by the China Scholarship Council. Thanks for the support of my family, and thanks Ang Li for joining our family.

ZL was supported by a scholarship granted by the China Scholarship Council (CSC, 202208440100).

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Department of Radiation Oncology (Maastro), GROW School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands

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ZL, MA, DD, and NJ conceived of the presented idea. MA and DD verified the analytical methods. TK and ZL contribute to the creation of learning materials. ZL analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript under the supervision of MA and DD. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

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Li, Z., Asoodar, M., de Jong, N. et al. Perception of enhanced learning in medicine through integrating of virtual patients: an exploratory study on knowledge acquisition and transfer. BMC Med Educ 24 , 647 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05624-7

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Received : 18 March 2024

Accepted : 03 June 2024

Published : 11 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05624-7

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Fall River teachers in discussion with school district as their contracts come to an end

by KENNEDY BUCK, NBC 10 NEWS

The school year has ended for students but the work is just starting for The Fall River Educators' Association and the city. (WJAR)

FALL RIVER, Mass. (WJAR) — The school year has ended for students, but the work is just starting for the Fall River Educators’ Association and the city.

“There are many districts that are paid better then Fall River,” said Keith Michon, who is the president of the Fall River Educators’ Association. “We’re looking for a fair contract, our priorities are competitive compensation, reasonable workloads, paid parental leave and health and safety in our schools.”

The teachers’ union’s contract with the district expires in August and Michon said deficiencies in the current contract have caused some teachers to leave.

Recruitment and retention is a challenge in education across the country but right now we’re seeing more of an issue because we don’t offer the highest pay and the job, its not the easiest job in the world,” continued Michon.

On Monday, a little over 200 teachers rallied outside of BMC Durfee High School holding up sings during a school committee meeting.

The teachers said that Fall River students deserve the best education and that means making sure teachers are being taken care of.

“Our belief is that teachers should be paid between $65,000 and $130,000 and right now we’re at about $47,000 thousand to $87,000,” said Michon.

ALSO READ: Inflation impacts school construction projects

Michon said that school committee members and the administration have been willing to hear some of their concerns and the next step now is getting it down on paper.

“We hope to make progress and have it ratified before the first day of school,” continued Michon.

NBC 10 News reached out to the Fall River School District about the unions’ complaints and are still waiting to hear back.

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Civics Lesson Plan: US Presidential Election

Hello colleagues, One of the most popular lessons in my classes has been an Electoral College Project . I can hear some of you asking, "Really?!" And my response is "Yes! Really!" We all know that the US President is determined by the results of the Electoral College rather than by the popular vote totals. Since other countries' elections are determined by the popular vote, our system is surprising and even quite confusing for many newcomers.

We typically talk about the results of the presidential election in terms of "red states" and "blue states." While viewing the results of the election on election night, we see a US map and states turning either red or blue depending on which candidate won the state. I wanted the students in my classes to understand what these red and blue state designations results mean for the outcome of the presidential election.

In the Electoral College Project in my classes, students work in teams of 2-3 and are assigned a set of 8-10 states (depending on how many students are in the class) to search online for data. I provide them with a handout as well as list of websites to complete a scavenger hunt to locate information, including:

state abbreviation
region where the state is located
population of the state
number of US representatives
# of electors in the state
red or blue in previous election
red or blue in current election (We fill in this column as a whole class after the election is over.)

The students then present their information to the rest of the class while their classmates fill in the information on their own handout. I've done this lesson with learners at the beginning level who have quite limited English skills with success.

If you'd like to try out this lesson between now and November, you can find the updated handouts I created below. Please feel free to adapt these resources to make them your own ! If you have any questions, let me know here in our community.

Electoral College Project Student Handout
Electoral College Project Scavenger Hunt Links to Resources for Students
Electoral College Project States listed by Geographic Region
Electoral College Project US Map by Region

Cheers, Susan Finn Miller

Moderator, English Language Acquisition Group

I am also looking at how to incorporate civics into summer and fall lessons right now. In 2016, there was some good-natured grumbling about why the electoral college was important and then... a real-life example of why.

Thanks for all the many helpful insights and resources you share--including this wonderful set of resources for learning and teaching about the electoral college! I will review and share these with colleagues!

Again, THANK YOU!

Happy Summer!

I got a "Page not found" message when I clicked on the links. Hmmm...

Thanks for the heads up, Dave. I'm checking on this now!

Thanks to our tech support, the links to the handouts above are are now valid.

Cheers, Susan

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How to Support and Sustain Rich Classroom Discussions
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Leading Effective Discussions
Leading Effective Discussions. Leading class and business case discussions requires agility in balancing course content while inviting diverse perspectives from students. This resource offers frameworks, examples, and tips from the GSB community for leading effective and inclusive discussions. We recommend focusing on a few that might be most ...
Discussions that Teach
Discussion is a flexible and effective method of interactive learning. As with other forms of interactive learning, discussion requires careful preparation and skill to achieve pedagogical goals. When done well, classroom discussion enhances student learning and helps students develop a range of intellectual and social skills.
Discussion Protocols That Engage All Students
Discussion Protocols That Engage All Students. Class discussions work best when everyone participates, and these strategies for grades 6 to 12 help ensure that happens. Students sharing their thoughts and showing what they know is an essential element of education, both for growing skills and for building connections.
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The school year has ended for students but the work is just starting for The Fall River Educators' Association and the city.
Civics Lesson Plan: US Presidential Election
Hello colleagues, One of the most popular lessons in my classes has been an Electoral College Project. I can hear some of you asking, "Really?!" And my response is "Yes! Really!" We all know that the US President is determined by the results of the Electoral College rather than by the popular vote totals. Since other countries' elections are determined by the popular vote, our system is ...
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In 2024, OhioLINK funded a group of member librarians to become Open Education Network Open Education Certified Librarians. In September, they will join nine OhioLINK librarians who are already certified. ... Directors Open Discussion, June 18, 3PM. Yolanda Cooper of Case Western Reserve University will moderate the next Directors' discussion ...
Case Intake Metrics Discussion (June 20, 2024)
Overview (Program Summary) This M&A call will be an open discussion on how department intake metrics can be developed and measured and how the metrics provide vital analysis to your department's value. Speaker: Elaine Darr, the Vice President, Regulatory & Legal Affairs, from DHL Supply Chain.
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What is education? A definition and discussion

Education is the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning and change undertaken in the belief that we all should have the chance to share in life.

Education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning

Acting in hope

Education – being respectful, informed and wise

Being respectful

Being informed

Education – acting so that all may share in life

Looking beyond process

Having the chance to share in life

Conclusion – so what is education?

The process of education

Further reading and references

The 10 Education Issues Everybody Should Be Talking About

No. 1: Kids are right. School is boring.

No. 2: Teachers have trust issues. And it’s no wonder why.

No. 3: Special education is broken.

No. 4: Schools are embracing bilingualism, but only for some students.

No. 5: A world without annual testing may be closer than you think.

No. 6: There are lessons to be learned from the educational experiences of black students in military families.

No. 7: School segregation is not an intractable American problem.

No. 8: Consent doesn’t just belong in sex ed. class. It needs to start a lot earlier.

No. 9: Education has an innovation problem.

No. 10: There are two powerful forces changing college admissions.

Wait, there’s more.

Sign Up for EdWeek Update

For immediate technical assistance during class time, call the GSB classroom support hotline: 1(650)736-3342

Leading Effective Discussions

Planning Ahead for Discussions

Tips for Handling Engagement Challenges

Discussion Moves

Teaching Strategies

GSB Faculty and Student Voices

Unless otherwise noted, you may copy and redistribute this resource in its unmodified form under the terms of the Creative Commons BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license (attribution, non-commercial, no-derivatives).

Discussions that Teach

Benefits of Discussion

Getting Students to Participate

Balancing Voices

What are Students Learning?

Academy for Teaching and Learning

Teaching Students How to Have an Academic Discussion

Observation

Introducing Talk Prompts

The Evolution of Talk

Eberly Center

Cognitive factors:

Social/emotional factors:

Evaluate the discussion

Cognitive Factors

Ask Good Questions

Provide Direction and Maintain Focus

Bring Closure

Social and Emotional Factors:

Encourage Participation

Make high-quality participation count

Physical Factors

In conclusion…

The Ultimate Guide to Facilitating Classroom Discussions

Top Hat Staff

Setting the Stage for Productive Classroom Discussions

1. Establishing Ground Rules

2. Building Rapport and Trust

3. Icebreaker Activities

4. Setting Clear Learning Objectives

Preparing for Effective Classroom Discussions

1. Define Discussion Goals

2. Selecting Discussion Topics

3. Preparing Discussion Prompts

4. Resource and Material Preparation

5. Structuring Discussion Time

6. Anticipating Challenges and Preparing Strategies

Effective Strategies for Classroom Discussions

1. Think-Pair-Share

2. Socratic Seminars

3. Fishbowl Discussions

4. Jigsaw Technique

5. Incorporating Visual Tools and Technology

Enhancing Classroom Discussions

1. Integrating Technology

2. Role-Playing and Simulations