how can a research project cause social change

Institute for the Study of Societal Issues

Center for research on social change.

The Center for Research on Social Change (CRSC), formerly named the Institute for the Study of Social Change (ISSC), was founded in 1976. CRSC researchers use a combination of qualitative and quantitative social science research methods to undertake empirical investigations into critical social issues in the United States and abroad, with a particular focus on how immigration, globalization, economic restructuring, and development of new technologies are shaping and changing the structure and culture of various spheres within societies throughout the world. Center research seeks to illuminate the lived experiences of people whose social locations are profoundly affected by broad processes of social change. Over the years, research projects at CRSC have helped to establish new research agendas and fields of study in the social sciences, and key findings have influenced academic research, public debate and social policy.

Center for Research on Social Change continues to examine pressing social issues concerning national and global processes of social change.

Center for Research on Social Change News

Aera awards in education research.

Two affiliates of the Center for Research on Social Change, Kris Gutiérrez and Travis Bristol , received awards from the American Educational ... Read more about AERA Awards in Education Research

Caste-Class Discrimination of Law Enforcement Officers

Cecilia Mo , Center for Research on Social Change faculty affiliate, is ... Read more about Caste-Class Discrimination of Law Enforcement Officers

Congratulations to Tianna Paschel!

Tianna Paschel , Center for Research on Social Change faculty affiliate, has been selected as this year's recipient of the Carol D. Soc Distinguished Graduate Student Mentoring Award for Early Career ... Read more about Congratulations to Tianna Paschel!

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Module 18: Social Movements and Social Change

Causes of social change, learning outcomes.

• Explain how technology, social institutions, population, and the environment can bring about social change

Collective behavior and social movements are just two of the forces driving social change , which is the change in society created through social movements as well as external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations. Essentially, any disruptive shift in the status quo, be it intentional or random, human-caused or natural, can lead to social change. Below are some of the likely causes.

Changes to technology, social institutions, population, and the environment, alone or in some combination, create change. Below, we will discuss how these act as agents of social change, and we’ll examine real-world examples. We will focus on four agents of change that social scientists recognize: technology, social institutions, population, and the environment.

Some would say that improving technology has made our lives easier. Imagine what your day would be like without the Internet, the automobile, or electricity. In The World Is Flat , Thomas Friedman (2005) argues that technology is a driving force behind globalization, while the other forces of social change (social institutions, population, environment) play comparatively minor roles. He suggests that we can view globalization as occurring in three distinct periods. First, globalization was driven by military expansion, powered by horsepower and wind power. The countries best able to take advantage of these power sources expanded the most, and exert control over the politics of the globe from the late fifteenth century to around the year 1800. The second shorter period from approximately 1800 C.E. to 2000 C.E. consisted of a globalizing economy. Steam and rail power were the guiding forces of social change and globalization in this period. Finally, Friedman brings us to the post-millennial era. In this period of globalization, change is driven by technology, particularly the Internet (Friedman 2005).

But also consider that technology can create change in the other three forces social scientists link to social change. Advances in medical technology allow otherwise infertile women to bear children, which indirectly leads to an increase in population. Advances in agricultural technology have allowed us to genetically alter and patent food products, which changes our environment in innumerable ways. From the way we educate children in the classroom to the way we grow the food we eat, technology has impacted all aspects of modern life.

Of course there are drawbacks. The increasing gap between the technological haves and have-nots––sometimes called the digital divide––occurs both locally and globally. Further, there are added security risks: the loss of privacy, the risk of total system failure (like the Y2K panic at the turn of the millennium), and the added vulnerability created by technological dependence. Think about the technology that goes into keeping nuclear power plants running safely and securely. What happens if an earthquake or other disaster, like in the case of Japan’s Fukushima plant, causes the technology to malfunction, not to mention the possibility of a systematic attack to our nation’s relatively vulnerable technological infrastructure?

Technology and Crowdsourcing

Millions of people today walk around with their heads tilted toward a small device held in their hands. Perhaps you are reading this textbook on a phone or tablet. People in developed societies now take communication technology for granted. How has this technology affected social change in our society and others? One very positive way is crowdsourcing.

Thanks to the web, digital crowdsourcing is the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people, and especially from an online community rather than from traditional employees or suppliers. Web-based companies such as Kickstarter have been created precisely for the purposes of raising large amounts of money in a short period of time, notably by sidestepping the traditional financing process. This book, or virtual book, is the product of a kind of crowdsourcing effort. It has been written and reviewed by several authors in a variety of fields to give you free access to a large amount of data produced at a low cost. The largest example of crowdsourced data is Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia which is the result of thousands of volunteers adding and correcting material.

Perhaps the most striking use of crowdsourcing is disaster relief. By tracking tweets and e-mails and organizing the data in order of urgency and quantity, relief agencies can address the most urgent calls for help, such as for medical aid, food, shelter, or rescue. On January 12, 2010 a devastating earthquake hit the nation of Haiti. By January 25, a crisis map had been created from more than 2,500 incident reports, and more reports were added every day. The same technology was used to assist victims of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami in 2011, and many more times in disasters since then.

The Darker Side of Technology: Electronic Aggression in the Information Age

One dark side of technology is known as “electronic aggression”. The U.S. Center for Disease Control (CDC) uses the term to describe “any type of harassment or bullying that occurs through e-mail, a chat room, instant messaging, a website (including blogs), or text messaging” (CDC, n.d.). We generally think of this as cyberbullying. Cyberbullying represents a powerful change in modern society.  A 2011 study by the U.S. Department of Education found that 27.8 percent of students aged twelve through eighteen reported experiencing bullying. From the same sample 9 percent specifically reported having been a victim of cyberbullying (Robers et al. 2013). A more recent study conducted in 2016 on 5700 high school and middle school students between the ages of 12 and 17 found that 34% of students reported being cyber-bullied in their lifetime ( [1]

Cyberbullying is a special feature of the Internet. Something unique to electronic aggression is that it can happen twenty-four hours a day, every day—it can reach a child (or an adult) even though she or he might otherwise feel safe in a locked house. The messages and images may be posted anonymously and to a very wide audience, and they might even be impossible to trace. Finally, once posted, the texts and images are very hard to delete. Its effects range from the use of alcohol and drugs to lower self-esteem, health problems, and even suicide (CDC, n.d.).

The Story of Megan Meier

According to the Megan Meier Foundation web site (2014a), Megan Meier had a lifelong struggle with weight, attention deficit disorder, and depression. But then a sixteen-year-old boy named Josh Evans asked Megan, who was thirteen years old, to be friends on the social networking web site MySpace. The two began communicating online regularly, though they never met in person or spoke on the phone. Now Megan finally knew a boy who, she believed, really thought she was pretty.

But things changed, according to the Megan Meier Foundation web site (2014b). Josh began saying he didn’t want to be friends anymore, and the messages became cruel on October 16, 2006, when Josh concluded by telling Megan, “The world would be a better place without you.” The cyberbullying escalated when additional classmates and friends on MySpace began writing disturbing messages and bulletins. That night Megan hanged herself in her bedroom closet, three weeks before what would have been her fourteenth birthday.

According to an ABC News article titled, “Parents: Cyber Bullying Led to Teen’s Death” (2007), it was only later that a neighbor informed Megan’s parents that Josh was not a real person. Instead, “Josh’s” account was created by the mother of a girl who used to be friends with Megan.

You can find out more of Megan’s story at her mother’s web site .

or through her Ted Talk, “What Kids Have To Say About Bullying And How To End It” .

Social Institutions

Each change in a single social institution leads to changes in all social institutions. For example, the industrialization of society meant that there was no longer a need for large families to produce enough manual labor to run a farm. Further, new job opportunities were in close proximity to urban centers where living space was at a premium. The result is that the average family size shrunk significantly.

This same shift toward industrial corporate entities also changed the way we view government involvement in the private sector, created the global economy, provided new political platforms, and even spurred new religions and new forms of religious worship like Scientology. It has also informed the way we educate our children: originally schools were set up to accommodate an agricultural calendar so children could be home to work the fields in the summer, and even today, teaching models are largely based on preparing students for industrial jobs, despite that being an outdated need. A shift in one area, such as industrialization, means an interconnected impact across social institutions.

Population composition is changing at every level of society. Births increase in one nation and decrease in another. Some families delay childbirth while others start bringing children into their folds early. Population changes can be due to random external forces, like an epidemic, or shifts in other social institutions, as described above. But regardless of why and how it happens, population trends have a tremendous interrelated impact on all other aspects of society. For example, because we are experiencing an increase in our senior population as baby boomers begin to retire, this will in turn change the way many of our social institutions are organized. For instance, there is an increased demand for housing in warmer climates, a massive shift in the need for elder care and assisted living facilities, and growing awareness of elder abuse. There is concern about labor shortages as boomers retire, not to mention the knowledge gap as the most senior and accomplished leaders in different sectors start to leave. Further, as this large generation leaves the workforce, the loss of tax income and pressure on pension and retirement plans means that the financial stability of the country is threatened.

Globally, often the countries with the highest fertility rates are least able to absorb and attend to the needs of a growing population. Family planning is a large step in ensuring that families are not burdened with more children than they can care for. On a macro level, the increased population, particularly in the poorest parts of the globe, also leads to increased stress on the planet’s resources.

The Environment

Turning to human ecology, we know that individuals and the environment affect each other. As human populations move into more vulnerable areas, we see an increase in the number of people affected by natural disasters, and we see that human interaction with the environment increases the impact of those disasters. Part of this is simply the numbers: the more people there are on the planet, the more likely it is that some will be affected by a natural disaster.

But it goes beyond that. Movements like 350.org describe how we have already seen five extinctions of massive amounts of life on the planet, and the crisis of global change has put us on the verge of yet another. According to their website, “The number 350 means climate safety: to preserve a livable planet, scientists tell us we must reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere from its current level of 400 parts per million to below 350 ppm” (350.org).

The environment is best described as an ecosystem, one that exists as the interplay of multiple parts including 8.7 million species of life. However dozens of species are going extinct every day, a number 1,000 times to 10,000 times the normal “background rate” and the highest rate since the dinosaurs disappeared 65 million years ago. The Center for Biological Diversity states that this extinction crisis, unlike previous ones caused by natural disasters, is “caused almost entirely by us” (Center for Biological Diversity, n.d.). The growth of the human population, currently over seven billion and expected to rise to nine or ten billion by 2050, perfectly correlates with the rising extinction rate of life on earth.

Hurricane Katrina: When It All Comes Together

We’ve mentioned that four key elements that affect social change are the environment , technology , social institutions , and population . In 2005, New Orleans was struck by a devastating hurricane. But it was not just the hurricane that was disastrous. It was the converging of all four of these elements, and the text below will connect the elements by putting the words in parentheses.

Before Hurricane Katrina (environment) hit, poorly coordinated evacuation efforts had left about 25 percent of the population, almost entirely African Americans who lacked private transportation, to suffer the consequences of the coming storm (demographics). Then “after the storm, when the levees broke, thousands more [refugees] came. And the city buses, meant to take them to proper shelters, were underwater” (Sullivan 2005). No public transportation was provided, drinking water and communications were delayed, and FEMA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (institutions), was headed by an appointee with no real experience in emergency management. Those who were eventually evacuated did not know where they were being sent or how to contact family members. African Americans were sent the farthest from their homes. When the displaced began to return, public housing had not been reestablished, yet the Superdome stadium, which had served as a temporary disaster shelter, had been rebuilt. Homeowners received financial support, but renters did not.

As it turns out, it was not entirely the hurricane that cost the lives of 1,500 people, but the fact that the city’s storm levees (technology), which had been built too low and which failed to meet numerous other safety specifications, gave way, flooding the lower portions of the city, occupied almost entirely by African Americans.

Journalist Naomi Klein, in her book The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, presents a theory of a “triple shock,” consisting of an initial disaster, an economic shock that replaces public services with private (for-profit) ones, and a third shock consisting of the intense policing of the remaining public. Klein supports her claim by quoting then-Congressman Richard Baker as saying, “We finally cleaned up public housing in New Orleans. We couldn’t do it, but God did.” She quotes developer Joseph Canizaro as stating, “I think we have a clean sheet to start again. And with that clean sheet we have some very big opportunities.”

One clean sheet opportunity was that New Orleans began to replace public schools with charters, breaking the teachers’ union and firing all public school teachers (Mullins 2014). Public housing was seriously reduced and the poor were forced out altogether or into the suburbs far from medical and other facilities (The Advocate 2013). Finally, by relocating African Americans and changing the ratio of African Americans to whites, New Orleans changed its entire demographic makeup.

Think It Over

• Consider one of the major social movements of the twentieth century, from civil rights in the United States to Gandhi’s nonviolent protests in India. How would technology have changed it? Would change have come more quickly or more slowly? Defend your opinion.
• Discuss the digital divide in the context of modernization. Is there a real concern that poorer communities are lacking in technology? Why, or why not?
• Which theory do you think better explains the global economy: dependency theory (global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations) or modernization theory? Remember to justify your answer and provide specific examples.
• Do you think that modernization is beneficial or detrimental to societies? Explain, using examples.
• https://cyberbullying.org/2016-cyberbullying-data ↵
• Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Rebecca Vonderhaar for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Social Change. Authored by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:vi4eB2eh@5/Social-Change . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]

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Addressing Trauma as a Pathway to Social Change

How understanding intergenerational trauma can help people working toward social change solve problems more effectively.

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By Ijeoma Njaka & Duncan Peacock Jan. 21, 2021

In the 1860s, American abolitionist Frederick Douglass noted that people invested in social change “ endeavor to remove the contradiction ” between “what ought to be” and “what is.” This contradiction seems ubiquitous today as social change advocates struggle to address multiple, overlapping crises. Systemic racism, climate change , the forced displacement of millions of people , a devastating global pandemic, and other widespread social issues highlight how far we are from “what ought to be.” And each of these problems requires urgent and sustained attention.

At the same time, another problem is inhibiting and limiting sustained attention to these complex crises: trauma. We are learning that trauma, or distress resulting from exposure to chronic or extreme mental or physical stress, is a common human experience with the power to spread across people and time. Research reveals that if nothing is done to mitigate the influence of traumatic experiences, individuals afflicted by today’s challenges may pass their trauma to the next generation. This kind of transfer, known as “intergenerational trauma,” isn’t new to human experience, but research on it didn’t begin in earnest until the 1960s. Currently, the American Psychological Association describes it as “a phenomenon in which the descendants of a person who has experienced a terrifying event show adverse emotions and behavioral reactions to the event that are similar to those of the person him/herself.” Intergenerational trauma can persist long after the memory of the initial traumatic event has faded.

Related concepts about the way sources, experiences, or effects of trauma include but are not limited to individuals also sheds light on the problem. Collective trauma, for example, is a shared traumatic experience that can negatively affect entire communities. The “demoralization, disorientation, and loss of connection” of survivors at the Buffalo Creek disaster of 1972 is just one example. It can also refer to mass suffering incurred by the kind of high death rates and economic and social shutdowns we’ve seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. While researchers and others make appropriate distinctions between terms such as collective, historical , cultural , multigenerational, transgenerational , and generational trauma based on context, each expresses the phenomena of inherited or shared trauma.

As previous articles in this series have discussed, change makers—those actively engaged in building a healthy and just society—not only face and address trauma among the populations they serve, but also commonly experience personal harm and trauma as a result of their work. There is also growing evidence that these experiences impair their ability to foster organizational and social change, and that supporting personal well-being lies at the heart of effectively addressing social challenges. Until we better recognize the impact trauma has on individuals, organizations, and society, those working for social change will be limited in their ability to support human dignity, well-being, and resilience. Indeed, we must better understand trauma, discuss it, and integrate awareness of it into the culture of social change if we are to effectively address issues in which trauma and intergenerational trauma are factors.

With this in mind, a think tank launched by The Wellbeing Project and Georgetown University recently started a research program to better understand the connection between inner work (including self-inquiry, reflection, and self-care), outer change (work that individuals do to effect change in the world), and intergenerational trauma. The program is exploring intergenerational trauma with the idea that understanding its impact might advance the well-being of individuals working toward social change and the communities they work with, as well as increase the impact of their work. An initial field scan and literature review conducted in 2020 has revealed a diverse range of perspectives on intergenerational trauma through human stories and a variety of research-based disciplinary approaches. Here’s a look at what we’ve learned so far.

Defining the Challenge

Intergenerational trauma was initially documented in 1960s and 1970s studies of the Holocaust. Helen Epstein’s article “ Children of the Holocaust ” investigates how the experience and wounds of Holocaust survivors effected the lives of the following generation. Over time, the field has expanded to examine intergenerational trauma as a result of war, genocide, refugee experiences , health disparities , apartheid in South Africa , India’s caste system , American slavery and its legacies, poverty , and the oppression and violence against Indigenous Peoples . These and similar phenomena have been the source of mass trauma that has directly or indirectly affected multiple generations. However, intergenerational trauma doesn’t necessarily result from widespread social calamity. It can also result from unresolved trauma endured by mothers, or from trauma experienced by parents, grandparents, and further descendants, who can, knowingly or unknowingly, pass it down through feelings, memories, and even language .

Defining the problem isn’t just about identifying historical or ongoing instances of violence that cause this sort of trauma; it’s also about using the questions, methods, and tools of different fields and disciplines, as well as human stories, to examine and ultimately heal the damage at hand. A range of documented cases that incorporate epigenetics , or the study of heritable changes in gene function that aren’t part of the genetic code, show that stressors and trauma can change gene expression, and thus pass between generations . Historical trauma, such as trauma resulting from the forced displacement and destruction of Native American communities, has deleterious effects on physiological, psychological, and social dimensions of generations of lives. In addition to biology, this complex challenge is therefore also a concern of psychology, economics, and education. Given the relationship between social media, mental health, and democracy, the spread of trauma is also a concern of technology and ethics .

We are all situated in relation to historical and cultural narratives. If marked by trauma, the narratives people tell themselves and concepts of self can be maladaptive and can become mechanisms of historical trauma . The arts and storytelling are necessary tools for creating healthier narratives, and for creating narratives that honor the past but enable healing in the present and future. Going forward, researchers and practitioners must use a wide spectrum of interdisciplinary approaches informed by cross-sector and global perspectives to explore and document this topic.

Intergenerational Trauma as a Lens for Practicing Social Change

Over the past year, we’ve gleaned five initial insights about the connection between intergenerational trauma and the social change sector. In addition to undergirding our future research, we hope these insights can offer thought-provoking framing for current social change leaders.

1. Finding root causes and compounding factors . Recognizing intergenerational trauma can help spotlight and define the roots of social change issues.

Consider the high costs of poverty in the United States . Getting to the roots of the problem includes recognizing that the problem is not simply about individual failures and shortcomings. Addressing poverty requires that we ask questions about underlying systemic factors, such as structural racism , which compounds impoverishment by the mechanisms of discrimination and racial health disparities. It also raises questions about the unequal distribution of power and wealth , which affects economic, social, and political agency, including mobility in any of these areas.

Poverty also creates major challenges to mental well-being, not only due to lack of access to vital resources, but also because the chronic stress of living through poverty can lead to atrophy of the prefrontal cortex , an area of the brain needed for higher reasoning and control, judgement, and decision making. In other words, trauma caused by poverty itself can become a compounding factor that makes it more difficult to exit the cycle of poverty.

By looking at root causes and compounding circumstances, social change makers can deepen their understanding of the challenges they wish to solve and, in turn, shape more effective, future interventions.

2. Supporting change makers and the communities they serve . Addressing intergenerational trauma can help support change makers who have experienced intergenerational trauma themselves, including those who have chosen to work in social change partly to address the source of their trauma.

During the Rhodes Must Fall movement at the University of Cape Town (UCT), for example, student activists demanded the removal of a statue of imperialist Cecil Rhodes, who implemented policies that enabled the institutionalization of apartheid. Although many of the students were born after apartheid formally ended, the legacy of apartheid and colonial trauma remained . In 2016, the students created The Fall , a play about two UCT movements: Rhodes Must Fall and Fees Must Fall. These activist-artists found the process of creating the play and sharing their experiences therapeutic and healing for both themselves and their audience.

This type of process, which links the inner work of confronting intergenerational trauma with social change focused on its effects, is an effective way to both enhance well-being for change makers and broaden the reach of social change.

3. Recognizing trauma in the interconnectedness of the world . We are also learning that there are porous boundaries between the social problems we face today and the collective trauma that exacerbates them. In some instances, foundations of trauma cascade across seemingly unrelated areas of life and society.

Road congestion and gridlock in Atlanta, Georgia, for example , have roots in its interstate’s design to accommodate racial segregation while prioritizing white neighborhoods. They also reflect resistance to expanded public transit access from predominantly white areas. More broadly, capitalistic mechanisms that lead to increased economic mobility for certain populations (for example, educated or corporate groups) have negative impacts on personal health and families and the futures of low-income children .

For social change leaders, examining interconnectivity adds nuance to the social problems they work on and expands the possible types of resources that may address these issues. The interconnectedness of the world necessitates the use of many disciplines and human perspectives in concert with one another.

4. Activating healing from trauma . In his book, “The Body Keeps the Score,” trauma expert Bessel Van der Kolk explains that trauma compromises a person’s agency and ability to cope with overwhelming situations, implicating the well-being of the body, brain, and mind. However, it’s important to note that factors such as social support can mitigate the degree to which trauma takes hold in any given individual, and how it impacts even those who experienced the same event or conditions . And while trauma has the pernicious ability to become a vicious cycle, the pursuit of agency, dignity, and well-being can create the reverse—a virtuous cycle of healing.

The story of Desmond Meade, president of the Florida Rights Restoration Coalition, provides an example on the individual level. Voting for the first time in 2020 motivated him more than ever to continue restoring millions of other people’s right to vote. The agency he experienced when voting helped him reconnect with a sense of dignity—his inherent value as a participant in the democratic process. It also helped his psychological well-being, particularly as he considered the challenges of both his life and the lives of his historically disenfranchised Black American ancestors.

Another example is the therapeutic storytelling practice Testimony Therapy , which has helped survivors of war and political violence, and political refugees heal from trauma by sharing their personal stories in a way that rigorously documents and preserves their testimony.

Social change initiatives of all kinds can also incorporate measures to heal trauma. For example, restorative-justice initiatives such as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa and the Colombia Peace Process both included reparation and rehabilitation measures, with the aim of giving formerly oppressed people a voice and fostering agency. And from their inception in the United States, both the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s , and the current Black Lives Matter movement have asserted the dignity of all, and demanded political, economic, and social agency for those who have been oppressed and excluded.

These examples illustrate how social change leaders can develop their own initiatives and movements in ways that use agency, dignity, and well-being as methods for addressing cycles of trauma.

5. Honoring the role of time and connection . When American civil rights leader Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. emphasized the maxim , “Justice too long delayed is justice denied,” he recognized the role of time in achieving justice. In a similar way, healing that is too long delayed not only is denied, but also can allow problems to worsen. The longer people experience traumatizing conditions or unresolved trauma, the more trauma can compound , and the more it can fatigue people , even spreading to others who otherwise may have remained resilient or whose particular experiences were radically different.

Scholar Suraj Yengde has described the traumas he and other generations of Dalits have endured from the caste system. In addition to shared conditions of diminished mobility, poverty, abuse , and cultural erasure , Yengde notes how trauma can even limit the dreams and aspirations other community members. Time is therefore of the essence when it comes to healing. And just as unaddressed trauma can permeate through generations over time , addressing trauma requires sustained attention and support .

Connection—between body to mind, one human to another, one generation to the next, and inner selves to outer environments—is another distinctive element of healing. Interoception (awareness of what’s going on in the body), somatic therapy (grounding in the body through movement), and relationships and a sense of belonging all facilitate healing by re-establishing connections that are fundamental for humans.

Writer and founder of the Academy of Inner Science Thomas Hübl suggests that one of the most important connections for healing collective and intergenerational trauma is between science and spirit, which he argues brings together the “double helix of ancient wisdom and contemporary understanding.” Humans experience well-being when we have agency, dignity, and health, and are connected to ourselves, each other, and our world in sustainable and life-giving ways. Trauma is the disconnection from these things. Those working on social change, therefore, need to identify the connections and disconnections in the issues they care about. They also need support when they experience disconnection in their own lives.

A Call to Action

The social sector needs to take a few steps to address intergenerational trauma, and achieve the inner well-being of individuals and communities. First, we must recognize intergenerational trauma as a widespread challenge to achieving well-being at scale—one that requires ongoing attention and healing in different forms for different human experiences. Second, we need to advocate for the active exploration of intergenerational trauma within the social change sector—indeed, for it to become a core focus, integrated with mainstream work. Third, we must deepen scholarship on intergenerational trauma using an interdisciplinary approach informed by a range of diverse human experiences and stories. And finally, we must develop methods and practices for healing that join inner and outer work, and connect dignity, agency, and well-being to avenues for social change.

Over the next year, The Wellbeing Project and Georgetown University—in conjunction with a global, multidisciplinary panel of experts and associate voices—will continue to explore the effects of intergenerational trauma on individuals, communities, and the social sector, with the following principles in mind:

1. Examine the roots, not just the symptoms of these problems. Instances of intergenerational trauma can often be broken down into a multitude of interrelated factors.

2. Synthesize a range of perspectives and connect them in new ways. This includes using many disciplines, examining many sectors of human life, and listening to many human stories to understand how intergenerational trauma begins and unfolds.

3. Establish a range of approaches to healing, including using varied forms of therapy or well-being practices , using the arts and storytelling, bridging cultural divides, advocating , researching , enacting policy, and changing laws .

4. Engage and contribute to the work of various sectors, including social change, policy, and education.

In a November 2020 interview , former US President Barack Obama said that the country will continue to fall short in the change Americans seek if we only address symptoms and ignore the underlying causes of social problems. He described how the deaths of too many Black Americans “is part and parcel with a legacy of discrimination, and Jim Crow, and segregation,” and that the only way to address the injustices of the criminal justice system is to look at the economy, housing, and other interconnected factors that impede progress. “The good news,” he said, “is that we can all take responsibility.” These insights also apply to social change leaders addressing intergenerational trauma and well-being. We can begin to address traumatic experiences that have permeated communities through identifying root causes, supporting change makers’ healing, and understanding interconnected problems and outcomes. The ubiquity of these obstacles means that the opportunity for change is ubiquitous as well.

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Read more stories by Ijeoma Njaka & Duncan Peacock .

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We're tackling these complex questions around social movement impacts and success factors using a cluster-thinking approach, where we try approach our research question from many different angles. See our various projects below. ​

What was the impact of the Insulate Britain campaign?

Insulate Britain were a campaign group who carried out a series of nonviolent disruptive actions on UK motorways between September and November 2021. Social Change Lab undertook an impact analysis of the campaign to assess the extent to which Insulate Britain achieved their aims and changed UK Government policy. We assessed quantitative evidence including media coverage, parliamentary mentions, Google searches, and opinion polls, and qualitative evidence from interviews with MPs, NGOs, academics, industry representatives and activists. You can read the full research report here .

The effects of different protest tactics and messaging strategies on attitudes towards animals

Animal Rising disrupted the 2023 Grand National, the biggest horse racing event in the UK, kickstarting a national conversation about society’s relationship with animals. We conducted nationally representative public opinion polling to understand the impact this had on UK public attitudes towards animals. Additionally, we used internal data from Animal Rising to understand the impact of this protest on their mobilisation of activists, donations and media coverage.

We discover mixed signals - whilst these protests led to significantly increased public salience of animal issues and increased sign-ups for Animal Rising's future actions, they had some negative consequences on UK public attitudes towards animals. This research report can also be read as a Google Document here . You can see our updated findings from 6-months later here .

We conducted a randomised controlled trial experiment with 4,757 participants to study how people’s attitudes towards animals are affected by descriptions of different animal rights protests and different messaging strategies. We tested the effects of three different protest campaign types (horse race disruptions, open rescues and KFC blockades) and three different messaging strategies (values/norms-led, problem-led and solution-led messaging). We found that most types of disruptive protest negatively affected participants' views, and that values/norms-led and problem-led messaging performed better than messaging focused on solutions. 

The short and long term effects of disruptive animal rights protest

February 2024

Social Change Lab evaluated the short and longer term effects of Animal Rising's protest at the 2023 Grand National, using nationally representative longitudinal and cross-sectional polls, a controlled vignette study, media analysis, and mobilisation analysis. Following the protest, there was a noticeable deterioration in people's attitudes towards animals linked to the extent to which they were aware of the protest. However, six months later, these negative effects had dissipated,. We also found an overall improvement in attitudes towards animals, regardless of people's awareness of the protest.

Mapping the UK Farmed Animal Advocacy Movement

December 2023

Social Change Lab surveyed 17 nonprofit organisations involved in the UK farmed animal movement. Collectively, these organisations account for over £13m of resources, which we believe is the vast majority of UK farmed animal funding. This report outlines the resource allocation within the sector, considering funding allocated to different strategies and stakeholders (e.g. corporate welfare campaigns vs government advocacy). 

We hope that having the whole farmed animal landscape mapped in this way will help organisations evaluate the approaches they are using or considering, as well as identify gaps and new opportunities in the movement as a whole. You can also read this report as a Google Doc here .

Animal Rising's Grand National protest: Public opinion impacts and beyond

August 2023

What do experts think about social movements and protest?

Working with Apollo Academic Surveys, we surveyed 120 academics who study social movements and protest, across Political Science, Sociology and other relevant disciplines.

We asked them a range of questions about disruptive protest, the main reasons social movements fail to achieve their goals, the most important factors for success, polarisation, and more . Check out the summarised results on the Apollo

website  here , or read our full report, with additional analysis and interpretation,  here .

How philanthropists can support social movements - and why it matters

In this piece , we examine the funding landscape for social movement organisations: How much do grassroots organisations get relative to more traditional nonprofits? And what role do these grassroots organisations play in the ecosystem of social change? 

We also explore common barriers for philanthropists in funding grassroots organisations, and offer five practical recommendations for how to meaningfully support social movement organisations.

What makes a protest movement successful?

January 2023

Social Change Lab undertook six months of research looking into what makes a protest movement successful. We examine factors such as numbers, nonviolence, diversity, external factors, the radical flank effect, and more. We conducted this research using a range of methods: literature review, public opinion polling, expert interviews and a case study.

You can also read a Google Docs version of the full report, as well as a summary blog post

How do radical tactics affect moderate groups? Public opinion polling from a Just Stop Oil campaign

December 2022

We conducted two longitudinal and nationally representative surveys (N=1415), using YouGov, to understand whether a Just Stop Oil campaign had any impact on support for or identification with more moderate climate organisations. This was for the November 2022 Just Stop Oil campaign targeting the M25 motorway.  In this polling, w e detected a positive radical flank effect, whereby increased awareness of Just Stop Oil resulted in increased support for and identification with Friends of the Earth.

Literature Review:  What makes a protest movement successful? 

October 2022

A literature review of existing sociological and political science literature on success factors for protest movements. We examine work primarily looking at nonviolence, numbers, the radical flank effect, and external contextual factors.

A case study of UK anti-animal testing activism: SHAC

November 2022

A case study looking at the successes, potential shortcomings and lessons from Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty, an animal rights campaign in the 2000s. We identify some key reasons why they achieved significant successes, as well as potential reasons that led to their later decline.

Protest Movements: How effective are they?

Social Change Lab undertook six months of research looking into the outcomes of protests and protest movements. In this report, we synthesise our research, which we conducted using various research methods, such as literature reviews, public opinion polling, expert interviews, policymaker interviews and a cost-effectiveness analysis. We focus specifically on examining the impact of protest movements on public opinion, policy change, public discourse and media coverage, voting behaviour, and corporate behaviour.

You can also read a Google Docs version  here.

Policymaker interviews

We interviewed 3 UK Civil Servants to understand the impact of protest movements on UK policymaking. We wanted to elicit questions such as

What role do protest movements play in policymakers' perceptions of public opinion?

Why do some social movements seem to be more successful in influencing policy?

See an analysis of our interviews here and our full summary notes of our conversations here.

Just Stop Oil: Public Opinion Polling

We conducted 3x 2,000 person nationally representative public opinion polls before, during and after a major protest campaign in the UK, Just Stop Oil.  Despite disruptive protests, there was no loss of support for climate policies, providing some evidence against the notion that disruptive protests tend to cause a negative public reaction. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the protests had increased respondents’ self-perceived likelihood of participating in environmental activism (p=0.09)

What are the key bottlenecks of social movement organisations?

This report presents results from an informal survey of 16 individuals across 13 grassroots social movement organisations, (SMOs) focusing on climate and animal advocacy. We discuss the key limiting factors of these SMOs, as well as recommendations for how funders or external actors can support them.

Animal Rebellion: Public Opinion Polling

We conducted 2 x 1,500 person longitudinal and nationally representative public opinion polls before and after a major animal advocacy campaign in the UK, organised by Animal Rebellion.

Expert Interviews

We've interviewed 12 academics and movement experts to elicit answers to questions that we believe are not yet answered in existing literature. Examples include:

How important are external factors relative to a movement's own strategy and tactics?

To what degree does existing literature generalise to other countries, issues or time periods?

See full summary notes from our conversations here.

Protest Outcomes: Literature Review

A literature review of existing sociological and political science literature on movement outcomes. We examined outcomes ranging from policy change, public opinion shifts, voting behaviour, public discourse, and corporate behaviour. 

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• Published: 29 May 2024

How does the circular economy achieve social change? Assessment in terms of sustainable development goals

• Dolores Gallardo-Vázquez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4749-6034 1 ,
• Sabina Scarpellini 2 ,
• Alfonso Aranda-Usón 2 &
• Carlos Fernández-Bandera 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  692 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Business and management

Achieving sustainable development is today a basic premise for all companies and governments. The 2030 Agenda has outlined an action plan focused on all areas and interest groups. Achieving economic growth and technological progress, social development, peace, justice, environmental protection, inclusion and prosperity represent the main areas to achieve social change. Furthermore, the circular economy is capable of improving the efficiency of products and resources, and can contribute to this social change, but there is a gap in the literature regarding whether the orientation of the companies in their circular economy strategy can lead to the achievement of the sustainable development goals. The objective of this study is to develop an initial circular economy-sustainable development goals (CE-SDGs) framework that considers the circular economy as the precedent and sustainable development goals as a consequence of implementing a circular economy. With respect to the methodology, the literature linking the relationship between the circular economy and sustainable development goals was reviewed first. A Structural Equation Model with the Partial Least Squares technique was also employed, analyzing two complementary models in enterprises involved in the Social Economy in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura (Spain). Regarding the results obtained, a link has been observed between professional profiles and training in people-oriented activities. The same does not occur for activities oriented toward the planet. Moreover, the existence of corporate reports that obtain data on circular activities is crucial to achieving orientation toward the sustainable development goals, for activities oriented toward both people and the planet. Finally, the results confirm that the existence of barriers and incentives determines the observed results, being aware that the lack of specialized training in human resources always has a significant incidence. Using resource and capability and dynamic capabilities theories, this study contributes with an initial framework by joining two lines of research and analyzing the CE-SDGs link in SE enterprises. Future research and empirical validations could contribute more deeply to the literature. As key recommendations, social economy managers must be committed to introducing circular economy practices to achieve people- and planet-oriented objectives, being proactive in fostering CE-SDGs frameworks .

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Introduction.

Sustainability-oriented social and environmental changes imply the need to reconsider ecosystem limitations within the framework of ecological transitions and economic inequalities to promote fairer, more equitable, and democratic economic models (Villalba-Eguiluz et al., 2020 ; Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ; Schaltegger et al., 2023 ). The problem of inequality is addressed from the context of the Social Economy (SE), seeing the Circular Economy (CE) as an economic model for sustainability and the approach to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) as a mirror of this sustainable model. The natural and social focus of these enterprises leads us to consider these actions being linked to severe repercussions, not only economic but also social and environmental.

Both the CE and the SDGs are interrelated concepts that complement each other in the context of the SE. Both approaches share similar objectives in terms of promoting environmental, social and economic sustainability (García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ). CE is intended to offer an alternative to the traditional linear economy, which is based on the extraction, manufacturing, use and disposal of resources (Bocken et al., 2014 ; Scarpellini, 2022 ). The SDGs provide a global vision of sustainable development, encompassing economic, social and environmental dimensions (Khaskheli et al., 2020 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023a ). SE entities can adopt circular approaches in their business operations, such as material reuse, product recycling, a sharing economy and cleaner production. They can also contribute significantly to the achievement of the SDGs by creating decent employment, reducing poverty, promoting gender equality, protecting the environment and promoting social inclusion.

More recently, the literature has highlighted the importance of these two lines of research as separate streams (Hussain et al., 2023 ). However, only a few studies have linked both lines or explored the importance of this connection (Merli et al., 2018 ; Dwivedi et al., 2022 ; García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ). Joint approaches in CE and SDGs have determined the existence of gaps between the orientation toward products/materials and toward people and socioeconomic aspects, and therefore toward social change (García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ). Other studies have linked CE and the SDGs in the technology sector as being capable of generating the corresponding social change (Dantas et al., 2021 ). The use of ICT tools is also missing, such as circular resources, capable of supporting circularity and generating circular value creation, as well as the identification of sustainable communities with a value-generating product-service orientation (Pollard et al., 2023 ). It should not be forgotten that innovation plays an important role in this transition toward a CE that promotes the development of new technologies, the creation of more efficient and sustainable production processes, and business models and practices that facilitate the reduction, reuse and recycling of resources, as well as reduction of the environmental impact (Ghisellini et al., 2016 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023b ). Innovation in the design of products and services will at the same time create more durable, repairable and recyclable products, facilitating the transition to a CE (Kirchherr et al., 2017 ). Innovation also can drive the creation of new business models that promote circularity, on-demand production and product services (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017 ). In terms of collaboration and co-creation, open innovation and collaboration between different actors (i.e., companies, governments, academic institutions and civil society) can boost CE by promoting the exchange of knowledge, resources, best practices and co-creation of sustainable solutions (Schiederig et al., 2012 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023b ). Economic and employment growth will be achieved with all of the above, important factors derived from successful innovation and in line with the 2030 Agenda (Szopik-Depczynska et al., 2018 ).

There are opinions focused on the need to establish policies that promote CE in all EU countries (Rodríguez-Antón et al., 2022 ). Recent opinions indicate that the incorporation of CE into companies will encourage a debate on the measurement of monetary value versus the value of the physical economy in the framework of sustainability (Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ), leading to economic and financial aspects being considered, as well as social variables. Furthermore, Scarpellini ( 2022 ) advocates the construction of a new conceptual framework that promotes the integration of CE with sustainability in new circular business models. Having identified possible gaps in the literature (social/economic orientation, application of ICTs, policies promoting CE, monetary value/sustainable value and creation of a conceptual framework), this research has focused on the last of them and, more precisely, with a SE-based approach, grouping together the experience of those entities capable of covering these social, economic and environmental areas, something which constitutes the novelty of the study.

The current concern is to delve into how the SE can contribute to the implementation of circular models in Extremadura, particularly within the framework of the “ Green and circular economy strategy. Extremadura 2030” (Junta de Extremadura, 2022 ). It is possible to identify synergies and complementarities between the SE and CE models and analyze different common aspects in which SE enterprises are involved within the framework of the aforementioned strategy. A comprehensive map of CE’s role as a driver of the CE-SDGs relationship has as a result yet to be developed (García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ). The resulting gap in the literature creates uncertainty about whether companies’ orientation in their CE strategy can affect their achievement of SDGs, namely, attaining economic growth while protecting the environment and society (Pomponi and Moncaster, 2017 ; Schöggl et al., 2020 ). The present study sought to answer the following research questions (RQ):

RQ1: Is it possible to achieve the sustainable development goals through involvement in circular economy and activities of this kind?

RQ2: Does the information on sustainability and circular economy make it possible to achieve the sustainable development goals?

RQ3: Do professional profiles and training in circular economy make it possible to achieve the sustainable development goals?

RQ4: Can the barriers and incentives to the circular economy strategy condition the achievement of sustainable development goals?

To answer these questions, this study developed a novel CE-SDGs framework, with CE as the precedent and SDGs as the consequence of joining the CE. More specifically, the proposed CE precedent model was tested to determine whether the enterprises involved in CE activities have adequately defined their professional profiles, provided sufficient training to their stakeholders, and gathered enough information on sustainability and the CE. In addition, the analysis focused on whether these organizations are oriented toward achieving SDGs and are capable of achieving them, especially in terms of people- and planet-oriented activities. These features are part of an SDG consequence model developed for this research that reflects the greater emphasis on these goals proposed by García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 , Rodríguez-Antón et al. ( 2022 ) and Dantas et al. ( 2021 ). The present study thus aimed to develop a more holistic perspective than that offered by other authors who have concentrated on CE strategies and their contributions to achieving SDGs (i.e., SDGs 8, 12, and 13 to a greater extent and SDGs 4, 5, 10, and 16 to a lesser extent) (García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ). The current results provide objective evidence of a relationship between the SDGs and the CE that the literature has previously failed to provide (Millar et al., 2019 ), thereby expanding the existing knowledge through more in-depth research (Schroeder et al., 2019 ).

To do this, the literature linking the relationship between CE and SDGs was reviewed first; secondly, two complementary structural equation models (SEMs), applying the partial least squares (PLS) technique, were used to analyze the models in Social Economy enterprises in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura (Spain). Using resources and capabilities and dynamic capabilities theories, this study contributes with an initial framework by joining two lines of research and analyzing the CE-SDGs link in SE enterprises.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the theoretical background for defining the hypotheses. Section 3 deals with the method applied, explaining the data analysis, samples, measurement scales, and the methodology employed. Section 4 presents the results of the empirical models, evaluates the measurement and structural models, and discusses their predictive power. Section 5 presents the discussion, and Section 6 concludes the paper with outlines, implications, limitations, and future research directions.

Literature review

Resources and capabilities theory, and dynamic capabilities theory.

With respect to the theoretical framework, this study contributes to a combination of resource-based view (RBV) and dynamic capabilities (DC) theories. According to the RBV, companies can be viewed as an integrated set of heterogeneously distributed resources and capabilities (R&C) incorporated into their strategy, generating social and environmental impacts (Sassanelli et al., 2020 ; Abeysekera, 2022 ). These R&C are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable assets that can obtain competitive advantage and contribute to sustainable value creation (Hitt et al., 2020 ; Asiaei et al., 2020 ; Caby et al., 2020 ). These intangible assets affect corporate performance (Asiaei et al., 2020 ; Asiaei et al., 2021 ), and companies must integrate and accumulate critical assets to create value-creating potential. Once the performance has been evaluated, the efficiency and effectiveness of actions can be quantified (Kamble and Gunasekaran, 2020 ), determining the possible benefits of the strategic resources used (Asiaei and Jusoh, 2017 ). Companies can support the integration and engagement of sustainability through their supply chains in particular and their different activities in general, implementing a business strategy that provides corporate performance through efficient resources (Gallardo-Vázquez and Valdez Juárez, 2022 ). The vision is that by implementing CE activities in companies, the resources and capacities applied in their development correspond to intangible assets and can influence organizational performance and generate an impact that results in the achievement of the SDGs.

The dynamic capabilities theory has its roots in resource-based theory, with this new approach seeking to take companies to a higher level of responsibility with a dual-benefit approach (i.e., company-society) (Gallardo-Vázquez and Valdez Juárez, 2022 ). In addition, this theory includes the detection and exploitation of opportunities in potential markets, helping organizations execute and apply internal and external resources to achieve sustainable results (Kachouie et al., 2018 ; Belhadi et al., 2022 ). Strategic and dynamic capabilities are pillars that can sustain an organization’s growth, such as CE activities and knowledge generated to facilitate the development and execution of strategic plans (Ledesma-Chaves et al., 2020 ; Bitencourt et al., 2020 ).

Social economy enterprises and circular economy: Precedent

The SE comprises a set of economic and business activities carried out by enterprises in the private sphere that pursue general economic or social interests, or both (Law 5/ 2011 , of March 29, on Social Economy). Its guiding principles are as follows: (i) Prioritizing people and the social purpose over profit, promoting autonomous, transparent, democratic, and participatory management; (ii) applying the results obtained to the corporate purpose of the entity; and (iii) promoting internal solidarity with society, contributing to local development, gender equality opportunities, social cohesion, the integration of people at risk of social exclusion, the generation of stable employment and quality, the reconciliation of personal, family, and work life, and sustainability in all its aspects.

The CE has in addition been proposed by different fields as an alternative to linear models based on extraction, production, use, and disposal, forecasting an adaptation of the current models to an economy of zero emissions and waste (Schaltegger et al., 2023 ; Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ; Ahmad et al., 2023 ). This includes both new business models based on the rental or leasing of services (Scarpellini, 2022 ), as well as the closing of material loops in different activities and sectors in the CE framework, and improving the efficiency of products in both the manufacturing and use phases (Benito-Bentué et al., 2022 ; Marco-Fondevila et al., 2021 ; Matos et al., 2023 ). This model of closing material loops is being introduced both at a macroeconomic level and in companies and organizations that are increasingly adopting CE principles in the production and provision of services (Aranda-Usón et al., 2020 ), and it is equally applicable to SE enterprises (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD, 2022 ).

With a holistic focus on the conservation of resources and an orientation toward obtaining corporate performance, this study addresses CE, which has the potential to bring economic activities back within environmental boundaries (Garcia-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano and van der Meer, 2022 ; Scarpellini, 2022 ; Ahmad et al., 2023 ; Skare et al., 2024 ). The CE seeks to convert waste into new resources and make innovative changes in current production systems to encourage regeneration within a sustainable development framework (Chaves Ávila and Monzón Campos, 2018 ; Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ). Consumption and production cycles can in this way become more sustainable while promoting economic prosperity and social equity (Kirchherr et al., 2017 ). Concurrently, the CE is expected to contribute to ensuring development that respects the environmental limits of natural resource exploitation, thereby enhancing environmental quality (Marco-Fondevila et al., 2018 ). This approach is oriented toward social, environmental, and technological change, which can come together within the CE.

In Spain, the First Circular Economy Action Plan 2021–2023 (Government of Spain, 2021 ) contemplates the active participation of SE enterprises in different areas of the CE, and it is worth mentioning the recycling of products, the market for second-hand goods (with the transfer of municipal spaces to SE associations and enterprises), the reuse of products within the social and solidarity economy (directly or indirectly through their prior preparation), or the promotion of responsible consumption and training activities. The Plan also recognizes that the SE has been a pioneer in the creation of employment linked to the CE and that its potential will be strengthened by the mutual benefits that support ecological transition and the reinforcement of social inclusion. There is a dynamic capacity for complementary resources and activities that determines sustainable development.

SE enterprises have pioneered the expansion of CE practices in the European Union. An analysis of complementarities between CE and SE has been undertaken in recent years at local and regional levels (FEMP, 2019 ; Villalba-Eguiluz et al., 2020 ), in the European Union (EU) (European Economic and Social Committee, 2016 ), internationally (OECD, 2022 ), and in Spain (Government of Spain, 2021 ). Among the most important aspects common to the SE and CE are those related to the principles of equity (which distinguishes between SE enterprises and private sector enterprises based on competitive advantage objectives) and democratic and collaborative governance, favoring a prioritization of the reduction/reuse of materials more typical of the CE in a framework of common good advocated by the SE and of undoubted interest in accountability practices (Pesci et al., 2020 ). However, the contribution of SE to CE has not yet been fully developed and requires further study for its definition and, in particular, for its measurement to define strategies and action plans that directly link these two fields.

Within this framework, the CE and SE have several aspects in common, as they are models based on sustainable development and people (European Economic and Social Committee, 2016 ). The CE primarily pursues the creation and retention of environmental and economic values, and there is a clear complementarity between the CE and SE models. SE and circular models can in particular reinforce the positive social impact of circular activities and accelerate the transition to a CE that requires creative and innovative capacity, particularly at a local level, in order to close material loops in the CE through integrated business models focused on proximity to the place of use of the product or service (Villalba-Eguiluz et al., 2020 ; Ahmad et al., 2023 ; Matos et al., 2023 ; Skare et al., 2024 ). The possibility of merging approaches based on SE, social innovation, and social entrepreneurship with the ecological potential of CE for the social good has therefore been explored (Soufani et al., 2018 ).

In the EU, the synergies of the SE with the CE arise from the fact that these enterprises carry out waste reuse and recycling processes in addition to being seen in sectors such as energy and agriculture (European Economic and Social Committee, 2016 ). The European Commission, in its EU action plan for CE, recognized that SE companies can make a key contribution to CE (European Commission, 2015 ), and the link between CE and SE can be viewed in the three pillars of sustainable development: Environmental, economic and social development, the latter being explored less (Scarpellini, 2022 ).

The common guidelines between the SE and CE models focus on collaborative and symbiotic governance measures that allow the introduction of business models in these enterprises. Among the points both models have in common, the following stand out (Villalba-Eguiluz et al., 2020 ; Dantas et al., 2021 ; Pollard et al., 2023 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023b ): (i) The principle of cooperation and collaboration in the face of free market competition. (ii) The need for regional and industry networks, prioritizing aspects of a local or regional scope. (iii) The centrality of work in both models with labor-intensive processes (such as repair, remanufacturing or recycling in the case of CE). (iv) The systemic transition proposed by the institutions based on the externalities generated. (v) The changes in market paradigms through servitization (typical of CE) and the collaborative economy (intrinsic to SE) that come together in both models.

Social economy enterprises and sustainable development goals: Consequence

SE enterprises have pioneered the expansion of sustainable social development (Khaskheli et al., 2020 ). SE supposes a complementary concept of business efficiency and the social responsibility of private institutions, giving rise to a rational and social reconciliation of private action that makes them ideal for contributing to the achievement of the SDGs and their objectives, as well as being undertaken according to the SDGs established (Mozas, 2019 ; Flores, 2021 ; García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 ; Allen et al., 2024 ). This situation makes these enterprises fundamental agents for the sustainable development of current societies, helping them to develop social innovation processes that implement sustainable actions oriented toward the triple bottom line, i.e., economic, social, and environmental benefits (Hoang et al., 2021 ; Henry et al., 2019 ).

Mention should be made of the United Nations General Assembly ( 2015 ) resolution in which a set of global objectives was approved and the SDGs were included in the 2030 Agenda, aiming to eradicate or at least alleviate some structural problems of various kinds that the planet is currently facing, and proposing a time horizon that extends to 2030 (Calabrese et al., 2021 ). These SDGs comprise an action plan that seeks to benefit people and the planet, as well as increasing prosperity to strengthen universal peace based on a broader concept of freedom. The goals also promote the eradication of poverty worldwide and the achievement of sustainable production and consumption (Khaskheli et al., 2020 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023a ).

The literature contains many studies that have focused on the achievement of different SDGs. More specifically, research has concentrated on SDG 1 (i.e., end of poverty), seeking to foster inclusive development by analyzing quality of growth, inequality, and poverty in developing countries (Asongu and Odhiambo, 2019 ). Other researchers have explored SDG 7 (i.e., affordable and clean energy) by evaluating the positive impact of foreign investment used to complete projects, but taking into account possible adverse environmental consequences for recipient countries (Schroeder et al., 2019 ; Aust and Isabel, 2020 ; D’Orazio and Löwenstein, 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2024 ). Studies of SDG 8 (i.e., decent work and economic growth) have analyzed participation and cooperation between governments, financial institutions, companies, and consumers, as well as examining the evolution of green finance, improvements in innovation capacity, and green economy transformation (John et al., 2019 ; Schroeder et al., 2019 ; Cui et al., 2020 ; Szopik-Depczynska et al., 2018 ).

Research on SDG 10 (i.e., reduction of inequalities) has found that sustainable banking plays an important role by generating two-way trust in loan recipients’ ability to overcome institutional limitations, especially in countries with a weak rule of law (Úbeda et al., 2022 ). Research has further focused on SDG 11 (i.e., sustainable cities and communities), highlighting the positive effect of urban green areas while identifying areas with a higher potential for improvement (Lorenzo-Sáez et al., 2021 ). Finally, researchers have examined specific aspects of SDG 12 (i.e., responsible consumption and production through the appropriate use of resources and energy), e.g., waste minimization and increased investment in optimizing operating systems (Rodríguez-Antón et al., 2019 ; Schroeder et al., 2019 ; Dantas et al., 2021 ) and of SDG 13 (i.e., climate action).

In the present research context, some studies have linked SE enterprises with the achievement and development of SDGs and the 2030 Agenda and have explored these organizations’ strategies (Silva and Bucheli, 2019 ; Cis, 2020 ; Calabrese et al., 2021 ). It should be noted that the SDGs with the most important place in the SE model are SDG 1. End of poverty , SDG 7. Affordable and clean energy , SDG 10. Reduction of inequalities and SDG 13. Climate action . Conversely, Canales Gutiérrez ( 2022 ) highlights compliance with SDG 8. Decent work and economic growth, SDG 11. Sustainable cities and communities, and SDG 12. Responsible consumption and production .

Social enterprises are a source of regional development (Mozas and Bernal, 2006 ; Li and Espinach, 2020 ), particularly in depressed or rural areas (Ruíz, 2012 ; Flores, 2021 ), which allows us to affirm that they are effective tools for achieving the goals associated with SDG 1. End of poverty . These enterprises seek to end poverty as a mechanism that generates entrepreneurship in areas where entrepreneurship and gross capital formation are low (Chaves and Pérez, 2012 ; Khaskheli et al., 2020 ; Blind and Heb, 2023 ).

Concerning the link between social enterprises and SDG 8. Decent work and economic growth , we mentioned that by establishing regulations, social enterprises, particularly employment companies, originated in response to the 1970 crisis in order to maintain and guarantee employment. This is carried out by promoting associations between workers to create a joint company in which decision-making is carried out through a model that is as associative and democratic as possible (Rodríguez-Antón et al., 2019 ; Schroeder et al., 2019 ; Dantas et al., 2021 ). Cooperatives also stand out as a means to comply with SDG 8 (Cermelli and Llamosas Trápaga, 2021 ). In these types of enterprises, particularly in cooperatives and worker-owned companies, economic growth is linked to the capacity to generate employment associated with cooperative entrepreneurship among workers (Generelo, 2016 ; Melián and Campos, 2010 ; Kolade et al., 2022 ). Currently, business models frequently pursue twin objectives: The environmental improvement of society and job creation, often for people at risk of exclusion. Thus, the participation of SE enterprises in SDGs and CE-related activities implies concern for local community social issues that gain in relevance, as well as the involvement of governments in the development of green financial and regulatory incentives to support the CE-SDGs framework (Mies and Gold, 2021 ).

Analyses of social enterprises’ impact on the achievement of SDG 10 (i.e., Reduction of inequalities) have shown that these organizations generate higher quality employment, which directly reduces inequalities by tackling the structures that produce gender-related problems, discrimination, exclusion, and diversity (Calderón Milán and Calderón Milán, 2012 ; Blind and Heb, 2023 ). In other words, SE enterprises adopt ways of understanding production relations that consider their ability to sustain SD, thereby constituting an effective tool to achieve SDGs. SDG 12 (i.e., responsible consumption and production) is in turn related to an adequate redistribution of resources so that these organizations can ensure economic growth that provides benefits—as defined by the triple bottom line model—and promotes socially responsible behaviors (Huang et al., 2023 ; Shah and Shah, 2023 ).

Involvement in circular activities

SE enterprises play an important role in the transition process from a linear to a circular economy because their activities in terms of sustainability entail greater value for society and other interest groups (Stratan, 2017 ). It is therefore necessary for CE to be included in the strategic policies of these enterprises and for their managers to be familiar with and motivated by the necessary actions to improve the level to which material loops are closed (Matos et al., 2023 ). The CE concept has therefore emerged as an important way for individuals, enterprises, and society to be more sustainable (Brown and Bajada, 2018 ; Cui and Zhang, 2018 ; Scarpellini, 2022 ). The CE transforms society into a more sustainable model (Dey et al., 2020 ). It is based on three principles: (i) Eliminate waste and pollution, (ii) keep products and materials in use, and (iii) regenerate natural systems (Fortunati et al., 2020 ), which would produce maximum economic and social value (Scarpellini, 2022 ). The CE model defines a regenerative system by substituting the traditional take-make-dispose economy (Ahmad et al., 2023 ).

CE activities contribute to the efficient use of resources, valuing the use of theories that support this study. Thus, organizations can optimize their costs and generate more benefits in a triple sense, i.e., economic, social, and environmental. This new CE model deals with the sustainable integration of economic activities and environmental well-being (Scarpellini et al., 2019 ; Yang et al., 2019 ; Scarpellini, 2022 ).

In Europe, SE is considered sensitive to the social implications of climate change and active participation in actions related to social and environmental matters for environmental improvement (OECD, 2022 ). The SE has been a pioneer in the implementation of CE activities from a practical and technological perspective, being aimed at the recovery and recycling of waste, renewable energy, and agriculture (Marco-Fondevila et al., 2021 ; Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ).

These enterprises have in addition been proactive in adapting their services and products to the CE and, particularly, to collaborative economy environments in which new information technologies allow new models with respect to collaborative consumption, work, production, financing, and so on (Chaves Ávila and Monzón Campos, 2018 ). Thus, SE favors collaboration between value chains and specific mechanisms to manage collaborative environments, thus expanding the potential for social innovation in circular and sharing economy models (OECD, 2022 ).

Attention to training and technology is a basic aspect of CE implementation. Digitization and the need to adapt processes to CE guidelines are specified as necessary conditions for companies to address SD (Pés, 2019 ). The establishment of norms and processes that allow a fair transition from the current labor market to the circular model, bearing in mind the sustainable use of natural resources, must be addressed by institutions (Pés, 2019 ). New processes and procedures must be evaluated and certified to ensure adequate quality management (Rodríguez Cortés, 2021 ) and efficiency control in compliance with social and environmental purposes.

Involvement in circular activities is significant in the management of human resources, given the need to define adequate professional profiles, adapt to the new requirements of the circular model, and provide continuous training in companies. However, there is evidence that companies that incorporate sustainability and circularity into their personnel management obtain important economic and social results.

Based on the existing literature, the present study proposes the following hypotheses:

H1 : Involvement in circular economy directly and positively impacts professional profiles and training .

H2 : Involvement in circular economy directly and positively impacts information on sustainability and circular economy .

Professional profiles and training, and sustainable development goals

From a social CE perspective, some studies have analyzed the skills of workers and the training for closing material loops and how specific training allows the development of these skills (Scarpellini, 2021 ), increasing labor productivity and employment management of the most innovative technologies for CE (Marín-Vinuesa et al., 2023 ; Portillo-Tarragona et al., 2022 ) and, in general, in terms of proactivity for sustainability (Delgado Ferraz and Gallardo-Vázquez, 2016 ). Khan et al. ( 2020 ) highlighted the importance of recruiting employees to CE objectives, and Marrucci et al. ( 2021 ) demonstrated the contribution of human resource management to the CE framework. Thus, we can argue that the social performance of CE related to employment also includes the development of employee skills and specific training (Scarpellini, 2022 ).

Training in the management of ISO 9001 standards implies integration into business strategies and compliance with strategic objectives, leading to the SDGs. In this regard, this framework can constitute an ideal environment for improving women’s employment and reducing inequality in labor and social environments (Blázquez Agudo, 2018 ). More specifically, the definition of adequate professional profiles and training are relevant in aspects such as female entrepreneurship (García Mandaloniz, 2018 ), work-life balance (Nieto, 2018 ), age and disability seen from a gender perspective (Blázquez Agudo, 2018 ), and decent work (Alameda, 2018 ).

The achievement of SDG 8. Decent work and economic growth is the greatest corporate concern in 23 Colombian firms ahead of climate action or other types of items included in the SDGs, being, in a way, an indicator of inequality (Pérez et al., 2020 ). Similarly, in labor relations, aspects of labor inclusion stand out, particularly, the execution of policies and implementation of measures by companies that mitigate the inequalities suffered by people at risk of social exclusion.

The achievement of SDG 10. Reduction of inequalities is also highlighted, including gender studies, and evidencing unequal access to work and unequal social and employment positions of women compared to men (Correa and Quintero, 2021 ; Baeza and Rúa, 2020 ; Verdiales, 2020 ). The difficulties of labor inclusion among immigrant groups (Canelón and Almansa, 2018 ) should also be highlighted, observing the opportunities and challenges that the SDGs pose to companies in terms of migration. Attention should in addition be paid to people with disabilities, whose approach to business strategy from the perspective of SDGs is also possible and affordable (Mercado et al., 2020 ; Riaño, 2019 ).

Based on the existing literature, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H3 : Professional profiles and training have a direct and positive effect on people-oriented activities .

H4 : Professional profiles and training have a direct and positive effect on planet-oriented activities .

Information on sustainability and circular economy and sustainable development goals

Sustainability information determines changes in non-financial information and accounting management and control (Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ; Scarpellini et al., 2020 ; Barnabè and Nazir, 2021 ). In the CE context, sustainability information indicators are used primarily in the framework of environmental management accounting to measure material and waste flows (Marín-Vinuesa et al., 2023 ; Portillo-Tarragona et al., 2022 ; Llena-Macarulla et al., 2023 ), manage responsibilities, or define the accounting capacities of companies for the introduction of circular models (Scarpellini et al., 2020 ). However, organizations rarely use specific indicators to report on CE (Benito-Bentué et al., 2022 ; Rabasedas and Moneva Abadía, 2021 ), even in the case of nonprofit enterprises such as those related to the SE (López-Arceiz et al., 2021 ).

Although information transparency has been used as a measure of social performance, it is necessary to implement integrated measurement systems designed for different interest groups capable of reporting the investments and impacts of circular activities (Marco-Fondevila et al., 2021 ; Moneva et al., 2023 ).

Analysis of SE enterprises in Extremadura’s perception of communication and dissemination practices in the CE highlights the need to incorporate environmental accounting as a tool for control and registration of the sustainable activities carried out by the company, which is useful in addition to evaluating these activities from the perspective of corporate social responsibility and the contribution of corporations to sustainable development. Some authors understand accounting as a system that must not only provide financial information, but also begin to incorporate indicators in aspects such as the contamination index for activities carried out or the replacement rates of resources used in the production process. This is the only way in which the accounting information system can become a complete and efficient tool for decision-making, particularly with regard to those decisions that affect the socially responsible behavior that the company intends to maintain over time. This aspect is particularly important with regard to enterprises that are part of the SE, whose nature and purposes require them to have environmental and social information mechanisms that serve business strategy and tactics, as well as for the evaluation of their processes and social and environmental procedures (Avellán, 2019 ; Muñoz, 2021 ).

When the 2030 Agenda is the focus of attention for the actions of several companies, the lack of consensus is criticized when proposing a universal model for presenting corporate reports based on SDGs. This leads to a lack of adequate communication at a corporate level (Goenaga, 2018 ). Given the concern in achieving an orientation toward the SDGs, some productive sectors have incorporated items from the 2030 Agenda into their management reports, checking those that may be functional and generate competitive advantages.

Based on the literature, the present study proposes the following hypotheses:

H5 : Information on sustainability and circular economy has a direct and positive impact on people-oriented activities .

H6 : Information on sustainability and circular economy has a direct and positive impact on planet-oriented activities .

Barriers and incentives and observed results on sustainable development goals achieved

With respect to the barriers that hinder the implementation of CE in SE enterprises, an increase in small-scale local experiences in Spain has revealed the lack of specialized training in human resources as a major barrier (Portillo-Tarragona et al., 2017 ; Scarpellini et al., 2020 ). It would therefore be interesting to analyze the perception of the need for specific training on the part of SE enterprises in order to propose aid for training plans or any other cross-cutting measures that improve the training of workers for CE-related activities.

However, several previous studies have highlighted the fact that the lack of financial resources hinders the implementation of CE in different types of investments (Aranda-Usón et al., 2018 ; Aranda-Usón et al., 2019 ) and that, therefore, specific public funding can favor its implementation in different organizations (Llera-Sastresa et al., 2020 ; Scarpellini et al., 2021 ).

Based on the existing research, the following hypothesis can be formulated:

H7: The greater the influence of barriers and incentives, the greater the observed results and benefits .

Figure 1 depicts the hypothesized relationships tested in this study. This indicates that the first two hypotheses integrate CE precedent model 1 , which leads to the fulfillment of the following four hypotheses oriented toward SDG consequence model 1 . At the bottom, CE precedent model 2 is observed with only one hypothesis toward the achievement of results from SGD consequence model 2 .

Model 1 has been defined based on five constructs (ICA, PPT, ISCE, POA and ORB). This model is made up of six hypotheses, stated in a positive sense. Model 2 has been defined from two constructs (BI and PRB), and is made up of a hypothesis also stated in a positive sense. The left part of both models represents the CE antecedent, while the right part refers to SDG consequence. Source: authors.

Sample and data collection

This study focuses on SE enterprises in Extremadura (southwest Spain). The Autonomous Community released the White Paper on the Social Economy at the end of 2022 to provide a view of the state-of-the-art of these enterprises in the region. It did at the same time send these enterprises an opinion questionnaire on SDGs and CE. At a time when social change is being proclaimed internationally, known as the “Momentum of the Social Economy ,” it is necessary to know the potential of these enterprise and to be able to forecast how the effort they carry out is materialized. The International Labor Organization (ILO) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) published recommendations on SE in May and June 2022, and the United Nations (UN) is working on a resolution on SE and SDGs.

A structured questionnaire was designed comprising two sections: (1) Characteristics of the entity: Name, type of SE entity, sector to which it belongs, and size of the entity; and (2) A set of actions on issues related to SDGs and CE to assess the level of knowledge of the entity, based on the perception of the person who answers the questionnaire. It is a Likert-type scale with ratings from 1 to 7 (1: knowledge is low; 7: knowledge is very high). The questionnaire was sent out by email at two specific times, with an interval of one week between each one, over 15 days in November 2022.

This study addresses a large group of SE enterprises, covering a complete typology. Given the great variety enterprise families that make up the SE, the degree to which each of them represents the existing total of social enterprises was also studied. Once the percentage presence of each family was assessed, the corresponding number was extracted from the total number of social enterprises existing in each family. The target universe was therefore made up of 250 social economy enterprises who received the emails. The final sample consisted of 90 enterprises, yielding a response rate of 36% (Table 1 ), the percentage of enterprises that agreed to answer the questionnaire.

Statistical analysis of the data (see Table 2 ) revealed that the largest number of enterprises participating in the study corresponded to cooperative societies (48.9% of the sample), followed by associations (21.1%), special employment centers (11.1%), and employment companies (8.9%). Participation was lower for foundations (5.6%), agricultural processing companies (3.3%), and special enterprises (1.1%). Companies related to social inclusion, mutual societies or insurance companies did not participate in the study.

With respect to sectors, 52.2% of enterprises belong to the tertiary and service sector, followed by 25.6% from the primary sector and 22.2% from the secondary sector.

Finally, with regard to the size of the entity, measured by the number of employees, the highest percentage corresponds to enterprises with less than five workers (51.1%). Enterprises with 6–10 workers and 11–25 workers had the same weight in the sample (13.3%). Next came enterprises with 26–50 workers and 51–100 workers, each with a weight of 7.8%. The remaining 6.7% were enterprises with more than 100 workers.

Data analysis

The research model was analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). This method has been chosen due to its fit with the conceptual model and what is intended to be obtained from the analysis. It is a statistical technique used primarily in social sciences and business research to analyze structural relationships between variables. It is particularly useful when the research model is complex, or when data may not meet the assumptions of other structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques like covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM). Overall, PLS-SEM provides researchers with a flexible and powerful tool for analyzing complex relationships between variables, making it particularly suitable for exploratory research or studies with small sample sizes. However, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of the research context and the assumptions underlying the PLS-SEM technique when applying it in practice.

This statistical technique was applied with the help of SmartPLS 4 software (Ringle et al., 2015 ). The model is based on a prediction-oriented econometric perspective and focuses on latent or unobserved variables inferred from indicators (Chin, 1998a ). These are second-generation multivariate models that allow two things: Firstly, the incorporation of abstract constructs that are not directly observable, specifying a measurement model. The second use is to determine the degree to which the measurable variables describe the latent variables, and the third is to incorporate the relationships between multiple predictor variables and the criteria. This technique is appropriate for exploratory research, does not require data normality and uses small sample sizes (Hair et al., 2014 ).

PLS models combine and test hypotheses emanating from prior theoretical knowledge based on empirically collected data (Chin, 1998b ). The analysis was carried out in three stages: First, the measurement model was evaluated (reliability and validity of the measurement scales), evaluating the strength and significance of the relationships between constructs (path coefficients); second, the structural model was evaluated, observing that the relationships between the constructs confirmed the completeness of the hypotheses, and which involves examining the significance of the path and assessing their effect sizes; and third, the goodness of fit of the model and its predictive capacity were analyzed.

Measurement scales

The ce precedent.

The constructs related to CE precedents in the first model ( Model 1 ) include: Involvement in circular activities (ICA), professional profiles and training (PPT), and information on sustainability and CE (ISCE). In the second model ( Model 2 ), barriers and incentives (BI) were introduced. The scales focusing on these constructs were based on Aranda-Usón et al. ( 2020 ), Scarpellini ( 2022 ), and Scarpellini et al. ( 2019 ). The ICA, PPT, and ISCE were measured using two items, while the BI used four items. All these are composite lower-order constructs (Mode A).

Sustainable Development Goal consequence

Constructs related to SDG consequences in the first model ( Model 1 ) are as follows: People-oriented activities (POA) and Planet-oriented activities (EOA). The observed results and benefits (ORB) were introduced in the second model ( Model 2 ). The scales focusing on these two constructs were based on Ogunmakinde et al. ( 2022 ), Elavarasan et al. ( 2022 ), and the Global Indicator Framework for Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2022 ). The POA used three items, the EOA used two items, and the ORB used four items. All these are composite lower-order constructs (Mode A).

Evaluation of the measurement model

The previous conceptual model (Fig. 1 ) developed by the researchers will describe the relationships between the variables, specifying hypotheses about how the different constructs are related to each other. In PLS-SEM, constructs are measured using observed indicators or variables. These indicators should be reliable and valid measures of the underlying constructs. The measurement model specifies how these indicators are related to their respective constructs. PLS-SEM proceeds to estimate the model and thereby estimates the parameters of both the measurement model (reflective or formative) and the structural model simultaneously. This estimation process involves iteratively adjusting the model to minimize the difference between observed data and the model’s predictions.

It is necessary to assess the reliability of the measurement instrument. Each item’s factor loading (λ) did therefore evaluate the individual reliability of each item (λ > 0.707). This condition indicates that the shared variance between an item and its construct is greater than the error variance (e.g., Chin and Dibbern, 2010 ; Hair et al., 2014 ). All item loading values obtained in the present research range from 0.766 to 0.946 in Model 1 , and from 0.840 to 0.937 in Model 2 , exceeding the recommended minimum value (see Tables 3 and 4 ). In addition, because the constructs represent Composite LOC Mode A, any indicators that define them must be correlated, and the correlation weights are analyzed (Rigdon, 2016 ; Henseler, 2017 ).

In addition, the internal consistency of each construct was checked by reviewing Cronbach’s alpha (CA) and the factor’s composite reliability (CR). This indicated how well a set of items measured a latent variable. The recommended minimum value of Cronbach’s alpha is above 0.7, which is complied with in the current study, except for two values ( Model 1 and Model 2 ) that are very close to the recommended minimum value (Hair et al., 2006 ). From Tables 3 and 4 , the CA values fall between 0.693 and 0.915 in Model 1 ; 0.667 and 0.926 in Model 2 . In Model 1 , the values were 0.693 for ISCE, 0.753 for EOA, 0.856 for POA, 0.914 for ICA, and 0.915 for PPT. In Model 2 , the values were 0.667 for BI, and 0.926 for ORB. These results confirm the scales’ high reliability (see Tables 3 and 4 ).

The factor composite reliability (CR) analysis also produced acceptable values, ranging from 0.867 to 0.947 in Model 1 and from 0.857 to 0.947 in Model 2 . A value of 0.867 was obtained for ISCE, 0.890 for EOA, 0.912 for POA, 0.936 for ICA, and 0.947 for PPT in Model 1 , and 0.857 for BI and 0.947 for ORB in Model 2 . Nunnally ( 1978 ) and Vandenberg and Lance ( 2000 ) recommend scores above 0.80 for advanced research (see Tables 3 and 4 ). The construct’s internal consistency was therefore confirmed.

The convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs was checked to assess the validity of the model. Convergent validity was analyzed by calculating the average variance extracted (AVE) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981 ; Hair et al., 2011 ). The AVE values range from 0.747 to 0.856 in Model 1 and 0.750 to 0.819 in Model 2 , higher than 0.5 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, and Tatham, 2010 ). More specifically, a value of 0.747 was obtained for ICA, 0.765 for ISCE, 0.776 for POA, 0.801 for EOA, and 0.856 for PPT in Model 1 , and 0.750 for BI and 0.819 for ORB in Model 2 . These results are satisfactory because the conditions of the recommended minimum are met; the convergent validity of the model constructs can therefore be considered satisfactory.

Finally, the discriminant validity of the constructs revealed the existence of differences between each construct and its items with respect to other constructs and their items. According to the Fornell and Larcker ( 1981 ) criterion, the square root of the AVE for each construct must be greater than the inter-construct correlations of the model. The values—shown diagonally and in bold in Table 5 —for vertical and horizontal AVE are below the correlations between constructs (Henseler et al., 2015 ; Roldán and Sánchez-Franco, 2012 ) (i.e., Model 1: 0.895 > 0.695, 0.744, 0.756, and 0.676; 0.864 > 0.695, 0.860, 0.783, and 0.864; 0.875 > 0.744, 0.860, 0.758, and 0.860; 0.881 > 0.756, 0.783, 0.758, and 0.759; 0.925 > 0.676, 0.864, 0.860, and 0.759; Model 2: 0.866 > 0.628; 0.905 > 0.628). These results confirmed the discriminant validity of the model according to Fornell and Larcker’s criteria.

Discriminant validity was calculated based on the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) (see Table 5 ). Henseler et al. ( 2015 ) and Roldán and Sánchez-Franco ( 2012 ) indicated that this ratio should be below 0.90. Not all the values included in Table 5 meet the HTMT criteria. However, they were very close to the recommended minimum and were valid. It can therefore be confirmed that all constructs in this study met the established discriminant validity criteria.

Evaluation of the structural model

In this stage, researchers validate the model by testing its generalizability on independent datasets or through cross-validation techniques. The weight and magnitude of the relationships between the model variables obtained from the research hypotheses were evaluated using a structural model (Wright et al., 2012 ). The predictor variables’ contribution to the explained variance of the endogenous variables was evaluated by analyzing the path coefficients (β) or standardized regression weights obtained. These weights need to present values exceeding 0.2 but ideally greater than 0.3 (Chin, 1998a ). However, in empirical research, one variable has a predictive effect on another when the first variable explains at least 1.5% of the variance in the endogenous variables (Falk and Miller, 1992 ) (see Table 6 ). In the present study, in Model 1 , the β values were 0.864***, 0.860***, 0.414**, 0.401*, 0.623***, and 0.140, with only one value not meeting Chin’s ( 1998a ) recommended minimum (i.e., H4). Moreover, in Model 2 , the β value was 0.628***. If Falk and Miller’s ( 1992 ) criteria are applied, the explained variance (R 2 ) can be observed as varying between 55.8% for EOA, 74% for ISCE, 61.8% for POA, and 74.6% for PPT in Model 1 and 0.395 for ORB in Model 2 ; all R 2 values exceeded the recommended minimum of 1.5% (see Tables 8 and 9 ).

To verify whether empirical support exists for the set of hypotheses formulated, the path coefficients’ significance was analyzed and if β coefficients were significant, the hypotheses were supported. Similarly, a nonparametric resampling technique (i.e., a bootstrapping procedure) was applied with 5,000 subsamples and a Student’s t -distribution based on a tail with n - 1 degrees of freedom, where n is the number of subsamples (Chin, 1998b ; Hair et al., 2011 ). This procedure provided both the standard error and values of the Student’s t -statistic for the parameters. The present test was conducted with the sample data and produced satisfactory results. We can affirm that the model is reliable, although confirmation of all the hypotheses posited in this study would have been preferable.

Table 6 reveals that all but one of the structural paths proposed in the model are significant, albeit at different levels of significance. Thus, five of the six hypotheses in Model 1 are supported by the results. In addition, one hypothesis of Model 2 is accepted. Despite the lack of a significant direct link between PPT and EOA (i.e., a β value of 0.140 and a p- value of 0.423), the other six relationships were validated by the data. For H1, H2, H3, H5, H6, and H7, the variables’ significant positive effects were confirmed with p  < 0.05, p  < 0.01, and p  < 0.001.

Finally, the bootstrapping procedure was used to analyze the percentile confidence intervals, (CI) as well as bias correction. These values exceed zero, as recommended by Chin ( 1998b ), except for H4, which was not accepted (see Table 7 ).

The models’ nomogram shows the signs, magnitudes, significance, and R2 values of the path coefficients for the dependent variables (Fig. 2 ).

Model´s nomogram. Source: Authors.

Predictive power of the model

PLS-SEM focuses more on the predictive power of the model and is often preferred when the main focus is on a prediction of dependent variables rather than an explanation. To measure the significance of the dependent constructs’ predictive power, PLS does as a result use the Q 2 value as a criterion, which is calculated following the PLS-predict procedure. If Q 2  > 0, the model has good predictive capability (Shmueli et al., 2016 ). All Q 2 predict  > 0 for the dependent constructs in both models (Tables 8 and 9 ). Next, we considered whether prediction errors are symmetrically distributed. As the skewness of the absolute value for most indicators is less than 1, the root mean squared error (RMSE) is used. In cases where the skewness of the absolute value is greater than 1, the MAE is used (Tables 10 and 11 ).

The model did not show any predictive power for PPT and ISCE using either RMSE or MAE. However, the model only shows low predictive power for POA, as SD9 has a positive Q 2 predict and negative differences for RMSE (recommended) and MAE; however, SD6 has a positive Q 2 predict but negative differences for RMSE (recommended) and positive differences for MAE. With respect to SD8, it has a positive Q 2 predict but positive differences for both RMSE (recommended) and MAE, and this indicator does not therefore contribute to the predictive value. Regarding the EOA construct, the model exhibits some predictive power because SD11 has a positive Q 2 predict and negative differences for RMSE (recommended) and MAE; however, SD5 has a positive Q 2 predict but negative differences for RMSE (recommended) and positive differences for MAE.

Finally, the model exhibits great predictive power for ORB, since SD13, SD14 and SD15 have positive Q 2 predict and negative differences for RMSE and MAE; only SD12 has a positive Q 2 predict but both negative and positive differences, meaning this indicator does not contribute to the predictive value. We can conclude by affirming the predictive validity of the model.

This study focused on the SE, CE, and SDGs as lines of interest for academics in accounting for nonprofit management. It has investigated how CE improves the efficiency of products and resources by using a sustainability accounting approach, primarily in companies (Marco-Fondevila et al., 2021 ; Scarpellini, 2022 ; Stewart and Niero, 2018 ; Skare et al., 2024 ). Socio-ecological transition entails developing CE as an equitable economic model under a territorial approach; so, the role of SE enterprises may be relevant. The SE can favor collaboration between close-at-hand actors for environmentally sustainable actions in a circular model that, in addition to closing material loops at a regional level, contemplates inclusion and resource redistribution in line with solidarity models. The findings indicate that the SE must be included in CE studies at a micro level because of its great potential at a regional level (Scarpellini et al., 2019 ).

The primary objective of this study is to develop a CE-SDGs framework based on the definition of two complementary models. In this framework, CE is considered to be the precedent, with SDGs being a consequence of the CE. Support in a theoretical framework defined by resources, capabilities and dynamic capabilities theories enabled us to find meaning in this model. In this regard, the paper shares the fact, with numerous authors, that enterprises incorporate a multitude of resources and capabilities into their strategies, generating social and environmental impact (Sassanelli et al., 2020 ; Abeysekera, 2022 ; Gallardo-Vázquez and Valdez Juárez, 2022 : Allen et al., 2024 ; Xiao et al., 2024 ), and making it possible to obtain competitive advantages and contribute to sustainable value creation (Hitt et al., 2020 ; Asiaei et al., 2020 ; Caby et al., 2020 ). Causal relationships between CE and SDGs are identified by quantifying their magnitude (Kamble and Gunasekaran, 2020 ). This study indicates that it is possible to use dynamic capabilities as pillars for the sustainable growth of organizations, obtaining social change that begins in the CE and ends in the SDGs (Ledesma-Chaves et al., 2020 ; Calabrese et al., 2021 ; Brodny and Tutak, 2023a ).

A major concern with the CE precedent model was whether the implications of CE activities could have determined the professional profiles and training of the stakeholders and whether the enterprises involved had adequate information on sustainability. The present results show that SDGs can be achieved by implementing CE strategies, as previously reported by García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 . The current findings further confirmed that involvement in circular activities determines organizations’ professional profiles and training. In this regard, the focus is in line with the First Circular Economy Action Plan 2021–2023 (Government of Spain, 2021 ) when considering training activities and job creation as responsible and circular actions capable of generating progress and social change. It is also important to consider the collaboration between different parties because the introduction of these measures in circular models generates value (Villalba-Eguiluz et al., 2020 ; Ahmad et al., 2023 ). In this CE model, it is necessary to maintain transparent information capable of reporting investments made, activities undertaken, and the impact generated by circular activities (Moneva et al., 2023 ).

The present research’s approach supported the idea that enterprises with a CE orientation are also capable of being adequately dedicated to achieving SDGs, which contributed to defining the SDGs consequence model. In particular, this study focused on activities related to people and the planet in order to refine García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 vision. The current results thus confirm other authors’ perceptions that the CE is a fundamental agent of sustainable development (Mozas, 2019 ; Flores, 2021 ; Cis, 2020 ).

The causal relationships determine the link between professional profiles and training in POA. Such profiles and skills improve productivity, employment, and results, confirming the findings (Scarpellini, 2021 ; Marrucci et al., 2021 ; Portillo-Tarragona et al., 2022 ). The same does not occur for activities oriented toward the planet; therefore, in this regard, the authors do not share the opinion of Pérez et al. ( 2020 ). With respect to the other causal relationships, the existence of corporate reports that obtain data on circular activities is crucial to achieving orientation toward the SDGs, for activities oriented toward both people and the planet. Finally, model 2 implies that the existence of barriers and incentives determines the observed results, being aware that the lack of specialized training in human resources always has a significant incidence (Portillo-Tarragona et al., 2017 ; Scarpellini et al., 2020 ).

Finally, and albeit with different objectives, both SE and CE subordinate economic activity to other factors and, therefore, have both raised the discussion about economic paradigms and associated underlying values (Sahakian and Dunand, 2015 ). The active participation of SE enterprises in different areas of CE will grow within the next few years in aspects such as product recycling, the second-hand goods market (with the transfer of municipal spaces to SE associations and enterprises), the reuse of products within the SE (directly or indirectly through prior preparation), or the promotion of responsible consumption and training activities. It should also be highlighted that SE has been a pioneer in generating employment linked to CE and that its potential will be strengthened by the mutual benefits provided by the ecological transition and the reinforcement of social inclusion.

Conclusions

This study sought to develop a CE-SDGs framework by considering two models based on CE actions and their incidence in SDGs. From our perspective, CE practices represent an precedent for enterprises, and SDGs are the consequence of these CE practices. Three particular actions were considered as part of the CE precedent model ( Model 1 ), and two more actions formed part of the SDG consequence model ( Model 2 ). Model 1 proposes a causal conceptual model between CE and the achievement of the SDGs, materializing in actions oriented toward people and the planet. Given the uncertainty of achieving full compliance with the proposed hypotheses, we asked whether the reason for not achieving it could be found in the existence of barriers to CE. The first model was as a result completed with a second one, Model 2, which shows the incidence of said barriers on the observed results. More precisely, the study examines whether the SE enterprises involved in CE activities have adequately defined professional profiles, and provide adequate training to their stakeholders and information on sustainability and the CE. These actions could determine the enterprises’ orientation toward the SDGs in such a way that they achieve people- and planet-oriented activities.

Testing the hypotheses allows us to deduce the orientation of these companies in their CE strategies, leading to the achievement of the SDGs and being able to answer most of the research questions raised (RQ1, RQ2, and RQ4). Regarding RQ3, this is partially answered because it is not possible to confirm H4. The results for Model 1 are positive, supporting all the hypotheses except one, i.e., the existence of a relationship between professional profiles, training, and planet-oriented activities. Model 2 supports the hypothesis that links barriers and incentives to engage in CE with the observed results and benefits of achieving SDGs. García-Saravia Ortiz-de-Montellano et al., 2023 suggested that the CE has evolved into a framework that links the achievement of SDGs with the practical objectives of business strategies. This approach was broadened by the present research’s model, which comprises a combined theoretical framework.

Model 1 does in particular define six hypotheses, five of which are supported. It is therefore confirmed that involvement in CE has a direct and positive influence on professional profile training and information on sustainability and CE. Furthermore, it is confirmed that professional profiles and training have a direct and positive influence on people-oriented activities, but not on planet-oriented activities. Finally, it is concluded that information on sustainability and CE have a direct and positive influence on people- and planet-oriented activities. Along with the previous model, Model 2 defines a hypothesis confirming that the greater the influence of barriers and incentives on CE, the greater the observed results and benefits.

The results confirm the existence of a precedent in the CE and its consequences in the achievement of the SDGs, adequately applying resources and capacities, as stated in the theoretical framework. This finding is an important and interesting advancement in the literature. Thus, SE is relevant to the value chain in the region and expands the potential for collective social innovation based on the complementarity of different types of actors. Given the above, an initial framework is contributed, uniting two lines of research and analyzing their connection with SE companies. This framework can be enriched with future research and empirical validations in order to contribute in a deep and significant way to the body of knowledge.

Using SE companies as the focus of the study can offer a series of significant benefits, all of them aimed at generating knowledge, among which we should note: i) Understanding of alternative business practices : SE companies operate with a different approach to those used by traditional companies, combining economic and social objectives. The ES is a space where a balance is sought between the generation of economic value and the creation of social impact. Studying these organizations provides an opportunity to understand alternative business models that prioritize social impact over financial benefits. This can lead to the identification of innovative and sustainable business practices that allow us to examine how these organizations integrate and manage these two types of objectives effectively, and which could be applicable in a variety of contexts; ii) Promoting innovation and social impact : SE companies are often at the forefront of social innovation, developing creative solutions to address social and environmental challenges. These companies can offer insights into how they incorporate social and environmental considerations into their business activities, thereby contributing to a more holistic and sustainable approach to business management. Studying these organizations can in addition help to identify new ways to address complex problems and promote collaboration between the business sector, government and civil society in order to drive positive social change; iii) Identification of effective corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices : SE companies often actively engage with the community and adopt CSR practices in their daily operations. Studying these organizations can provide examples of how companies can make a positive impact on society beyond their core business operations. This may inspire other companies to adopt similar practices and foster a more socially responsible company culture; and iv) Promotion of favorable public policies : By highlighting the role and impact of SE companies, studies can influence the development of public policies that support and encourage these types of organizations. This may include tax incentives, specific financing programs or regulatory frameworks that recognize and promote the unique contribution of SE companies to social and economic well-being.

Ultimately, studying SE companies not only provides a deeper understanding of this unique business sector, but can also inspire more ethical, sustainable and socially responsible business practices overall. Expected benefits include identifying innovative business models, fostering collaboration between different stakeholders, and promoting favorable public policies that support SE. Listed below are some real cases of social economy entities with a clear orientation to CE and the SDGs mentioned and, therefore, instigators of social change. With a more social orientation, the BBVA Foundation Footnote 1 stands out. It is a leading organization in social responsibility that carries out educational and cultural programs that promote the full sustainable development of society. It carries out extensive promotion of knowledge, innovation and social impact through its numerous programs and awards calls aimed at the great challenges of the 21st century. The Maimona Foundation Footnote 2 also develops projects aimed at promoting innovation and the capabilities of knowledge companies. The ONCE Foundation Footnote 3 is broadly committed to sustainability, working with a responsible, sustainable and shared value approach. Wazo Coop Footnote 4 develops projects for the social transformation of rural areas, with a clear orientation to all the SDGs. Oriented toward technology, the ONCE Foundation also carries out accessible technology projects and their adaptation to people with visual disabilities, avoiding the possible risk of exclusion and avoiding losing the connection with the information and knowledge society. The Hormiga Verde Footnote 5 carries out correct management of electronic waste, taking care of everything from its collection to its recovery, and with a clear CE strategy. Movilex Footnote 6 is a Spanish recycling company, committed to the environment and currently present in four different countries. This company acts as an urban mining operator within the CE, today converted into the main recycling company nationwide. EnVerde Cooperativa Extremeña de Energía Footnote 7 is a renewable energy consumption entity, being convinced that a distributed, horizontal energy model in the hands of people is possible. All of these entities clearly contribute with their CE strategy to the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs.

This study does at the same time present theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical perspective, a CE-SDGs framework has been achieved first, beyond the implications of each line of research and through application of the aforementioned theories. This framework allows SE enterprises (and, by extension, companies in general) to understand the first path to achieving SDGs. Secondly, both the CE and the SDGs seek a fundamental change in the way the economy is conceived and implemented, which can lead to a reorientation of the economic paradigm, generating a change from the linear model of production and consumption toward a more circular and sustainable one where resources are used more efficiently, and minimizing waste. Thirdly, a focus on collaboration and inclusion will also be achieved. The SE is based on principles of solidarity, participation and cooperation. The implementation of the CE and the SDGs requires a similar approach, fostering collaboration between different actors, including governments, businesses, non-governmental organizations and civil society in order to address social and environmental challenges comprehensively. Fourthly, the promotion of equity and social justice is also achieved. Both the CE and the SDGs aim to promote equity and social justice, by ensuring that the benefits of economic and social development are distributed fairly among all members of society. This involves a focus on the inclusion of marginalized and vulnerable groups and the reduction of social and economic inequalities.

From a practical perspective, SE managers must be committed to introducing CE practices to achieve people- and planet-oriented objectives. Moreover, enterprises and managers must be aware that even if there are barriers and incentives for CE, they do not negatively influence the results and benefits obtained. Thus, managers must be proactive in including CE actions, promoting sustainable business practices through SE (adoption of business models based on reuse, recycling and sustainable production, as well as the implementation of environmentally and socially responsible management practices). Furthermore, SE can be an engine of support for social and environmental innovation in the search for creative and sustainable solutions to challenges (development of innovative products and services that promote circularity, as well as the creation of new forms of collaboration and financing for sustainable development projects). Finally, SE can contribute to sustainable job creation and community development by boosting economic activity in sectors such as the green economy, waste management and renewable energy. This will provide significant employment opportunities, especially for marginalized and disadvantaged groups, and strengthen the resilience of local communities.

Although this study has several advantages, it has some limitations. First of all we should mention the possible subjectivity that involves the responses to all questionnaires. This subjectivity is caused by many aspects, such as variability in individual interpretations, cognitive bias, level of understanding, context and emotional state, as well as response style. Given such a variety of situations, it is understood that each person has their own perspective, their previous experiences and a frame of reference that influences how they interpret the questions. In this way, the perception changes completely, and what is clear and direct for one person can be confusing or ambiguous for another, in such a way that variability in interpretation can lead to different answers for the same question and generates the aforementioned subjectivity. Second, only SE enterprises in Spain are analyzed. It is known that SE companies may have specific characteristics and objectives that significantly differentiate them from traditional for-profit companies. Therefore, the findings of the study may not be generalizable to other organizations outside the field of social economy, limiting the applicability of the results to a broader context and potentially reducing their relevance for conventional companies. On the other hand, there is a risk of introducing sample bias, meaning that the study’s conclusions may be biased toward the specific characteristics and behaviors of these types of organizations, without capturing the diversity and complexity of the business landscape in its entirety. This limitation will also mean the lack of comparison with traditional companies, since by not including for-profit companies in the study, the opportunity to make significant comparisons between different types of organizations is lost. These possible comparisons with traditional companies could provide valuable information on differences in performance, management strategies, social impact and other relevant aspects.

Possible future research directions are therefore considered. In this regard, it would be interesting to approach the study based on other theories to determine if these ones provide better results or more information than the present one. The conclusion that the CE-SDGs framework depends on the theory used can therefore be deduced. Other constructs can at the same time be incorporated, both related to the CE and SDGs, in order to broaden the field of study of these two complementary models. Finally, it would be interesting to expand the sample to include more national and international social enterprises, as well as other types of traditional for-profit companies, which would allow for a comparative vision. The study could also be conducted by using the type of company (social economy sector/traditional company) as a moderating variable.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidentiality agreement with participants but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Available in: https://www.fbbva.es/

Available in: https://maimona.org/

Available in: https://www.fundaciononce.es/es/que-hacemos/inserta-e-inserta-innovacion ; https://www.once.es/

Available in: https://wazo.coop/

Available in: https://lahormigaverde.org/

Available in: https://movilex.es/

Available in: https://www.energiaenverde.com/

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the support of the General Directorate of Cooperatives and Social Economy of the Junta de Extremadura (Spain) within the agreement between the Council for Agriculture, Rural Development, Population and Territory and the University of Extremadura in the framework of the activities related to the social economy and cooperatives during 2022. Moreover, this study was partially co-financed by the Regional Government of Aragon within the framework of the Research Group Ref. S33_23R, and the LMP159_21 project and by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, “CIRCULARTAX project” – Ref. PID2019-107822RB-I00.

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Gallardo-Vázquez, D., Scarpellini, S., Aranda-Usón, A. et al. How does the circular economy achieve social change? Assessment in terms of sustainable development goals. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 692 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03217-9

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What is depression?

Everyone feels sad or low sometimes, but these feelings usually pass. Depression (also called major depression, major depressive disorder, or clinical depression) is different. It can cause severe symptoms that affect how a person feels, thinks, and handles daily activities, such as sleeping, eating, or working.

Depression can affect anyone regardless of age, gender, race or ethnicity, income, culture, or education. Research suggests that genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors play a role in the disorder.

Women are diagnosed with depression more often than men, but men can also be depressed. Because men may be less likely to recognize, talk about, and seek help for their negative feelings, they are at greater risk of their depression symptoms being undiagnosed and undertreated. Studies also show higher rates of depression and an increased risk for the disorder among members of the LGBTQI+ community.

In addition, depression can co-occur with other mental disorders or chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and chronic pain. Depression can make these conditions worse and vice versa. Sometimes, medications taken for an illness cause side effects that contribute to depression symptoms as well.

What are the different types of depression?

There are two common types of depression.

• Major depression includes symptoms of depressed mood or loss of interest, most of the time for at least 2 weeks, that interfere with daily activities.
• Persistent depressive disorder (also called dysthymia or dysthymic disorder) consists of less severe depression symptoms that last much longer, usually for at least 2 years.

Other types of depression include the following.

• Seasonal affective disorder comes and goes with the seasons, with symptoms typically starting in the late fall and early winter and going away during the spring and summer.
• Depression with symptoms of psychosis is a severe form of depression in which a person experiences psychosis symptoms, such as delusions or hallucinations.
• Bipolar disorder involves depressive episodes, as well as manic episodes (or less severe hypomanic episodes) with unusually elevated mood, greater irritability, or increased activity level.

Additional types of depression can occur at specific points in a woman’s life. Pregnancy, the postpartum period, the menstrual cycle, and menopause are associated with physical and hormonal changes that can bring on a depressive episode in some people.

• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a more severe form of premenstrual syndrome, or PMS, that occurs in the weeks before menstruation.
• Perinatal depression occurs during pregnancy or after childbirth. It is more than the “baby blues” many new moms experience after giving birth.
• Perimenopausal depression affects some women during the transition to menopause. Women may experience feelings of intense irritability, anxiety, sadness, or loss of enjoyment.

What are the signs and symptoms of depression?

Common signs and symptoms of depression include:

• Persistent sad, anxious, or “empty” mood
• Feelings of hopelessness or pessimism
• Feelings of irritability, frustration‚ or restlessness
• Feelings of guilt, worthlessness, or helplessness
• Loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities
• Fatigue, lack of energy, or feeling slowed down
• Difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions
• Difficulty sleeping, waking too early in the morning, or oversleeping
• Changes in appetite or unplanned weight changes
• Physical aches or pains, headaches, cramps, or digestive problems without a clear physical cause that do not go away with treatment
• Thoughts of death or suicide or suicide attempts

Depression can also involve other changes in mood or behavior that include:

• Increased anger or irritability
• Feeling restless or on edge
• Becoming withdrawn, negative, or detached
• Increased engagement in high-risk activities
• Greater impulsivity
• Increased use of alcohol or drugs
• Isolating from family and friends
• Inability to meet responsibilities or ignoring other important roles
• Problems with sexual desire and performance

Not everyone who is depressed shows all these symptoms. Some people experience only a few symptoms, while others experience many. Depression symptoms interfere with day-to-day functioning and cause significant distress for the person experiencing them.

If you show signs or symptoms of depression and they persist or do not go away, talk to a health care provider. If you see signs of depression in someone you know, encourage them to seek help from a mental health professional.

If you or someone you know is struggling or having thoughts of suicide, call or text the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline   at 988 or chat at 988lifeline.org   . In life-threatening situations, call 911 .

How is depression diagnosed?

To be diagnosed with depression, a person must have symptoms most of the day, nearly every day, for at least 2 weeks. One of the symptoms must be a depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in most activities. Children and adolescents may be irritable rather than sad.

Although several persistent symptoms, in addition to low mood, are required for a depression diagnosis, people with only a few symptoms may benefit from treatment. The severity and frequency of symptoms and how long they last vary depending on the person.

If you think you may have depression, talk to a health care provider, such as a primary care doctor, psychologist, or psychiatrist. During the visit, the provider may ask when your symptoms began, how long they have lasted, how often they occur, and if they keep you from going out or doing your usual activities. It may help to take some notes about your symptoms before the visit.

Certain medications and medical conditions, such as viruses or thyroid disorders, can cause the same symptoms as depression. A provider can rule out these possibilities by doing a physical exam, interview, and lab tests.

Does depression look the same in everyone?

Depression can affect people differently depending on their age.

• Children may be anxious or cranky, pretend to be sick, refuse to go to school, cling to a parent, or worry that a parent may die.
• Older children and teens may get into trouble at school, sulk, be easily frustrated‚ feel restless, or have low self-esteem. They may have other disorders, such as anxiety, an eating disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or substance use disorder. Older children and teens are also more likely to experience excessive sleepiness (called hypersomnia) and increased appetite (called hyperphagia).
• Young adults are more likely to be irritable, complain of weight gain and hypersomnia, and have a negative view of life and the future. They often have other disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorder, or substance use disorder.
• Middle-aged adults may have more depressive episodes, decreased libido, middle-of-the-night insomnia, or early morning waking. They often report stomach problems, such as diarrhea or constipation.
• Older adults often feel sadness, grief, or other less obvious symptoms. They may report a lack of emotions rather than a depressed mood. Older adults are also more likely to have other medical conditions or pain that can cause or contribute to depression. Memory and thinking problems (called pseudodementia) may be prominent in severe cases.

Depression can also look different in men versus women, such as the symptoms they show and the behaviors they use to cope with them. For instance, men (as well as women) may show symptoms other than sadness, instead seeming angry or irritable.

For some people, symptoms manifest as physical problems (for example, a racing heart, tightened chest, chronic headaches, or digestive issues). Many men are more likely to see a health care provider about these physical symptoms than their emotional ones. While increased use of alcohol or drugs can be a sign of depression in any person, men are also more likely to use these substances as a coping strategy.

How is depression treated?

Depression treatment typically involves psychotherapy (in person or virtual), medication, or both. If these treatments do not reduce symptoms sufficiently, brain stimulation therapy may be another option.

Choosing the right treatment plan is based on a person’s needs, preferences, and medical situation and in consultation with a mental health professional or a health care provider. Finding the best treatment may take trial and error.

For milder forms of depression, psychotherapy is often tried first, with medication added later if the therapy alone does not produce a good response. People with moderate or severe depression usually are prescribed medication as part of the initial treatment plan.

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy (also called talk therapy or counseling) can help people with depression by teaching them new ways of thinking and behaving and helping them change habits that contribute to depression. Psychotherapy occurs under the care of a licensed, trained mental health professional in one-on-one sessions or with others in a group setting.

Psychotherapy can be effective when delivered in person or virtually via telehealth. A provider may support or supplement therapy using digital or mobile technology, like apps or other tools.

Evidence-based therapies to treat depression include cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy. Using other forms of psychotherapy, such as psychodynamic therapy, for a limited time also may help some people with depression.

• Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) : With CBT, people learn to challenge and change unhelpful thoughts and behaviors to improve their depressive and anxious feelings. Recent advances in CBT include adding mindfulness principles and specializing the therapy to target specific symptoms like insomnia.
• Interpersonal therapy (IPT) : IPT focuses on interpersonal and life events that impact mood and vice versa. IPT aims to help people improve their communication skills within relationships, form social support networks, and develop realistic expectations to better deal with crises or other issues that may be contributing to or worsening their depression.

Learn more about psychotherapy .

Antidepressants are medications commonly used to treat depression. They work by changing how the brain produces or uses certain chemicals involved in mood or stress.

Antidepressants take time—usually 4−8 weeks—to work, and problems with sleep, appetite, and concentration often improve before mood lifts. Giving a medication a chance to work is important before deciding whether it is right for you.

Treatment-resistant depression occurs when a person doesn’t get better after trying at least two antidepressants. Esketamine is a medication approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment-resistant depression. Delivered as a nasal spray in a doctor’s office, clinic, or hospital, the medication acts rapidly, typically within a couple of hours, to relieve depression symptoms. People will usually continue to take an antidepressant pill to maintain the improvement in their symptoms.

Another option for treatment-resistant depression is to combine an antidepressant with a different type of medication that may make it more effective, such as an antipsychotic or anticonvulsant medication.

All medications can have side effects. Talk to a health care provider before starting or stopping any medication. Learn more about antidepressants .

Note : In some cases, children, teenagers, and young adults under 25 years may experience an increase in suicidal thoughts or behavior when taking antidepressants, especially in the first few weeks after starting or when the dose is changed. The FDA advises that patients of all ages taking antidepressants be watched closely, especially during the first few weeks of treatment.

Information about medication changes frequently. Learn more about specific medications like esketamine, including the latest approvals, side effects, warnings, and patient information, on the FDA website  .

Brain stimulation therapy

Brain stimulation therapy is an option when other depression treatments have not worked. The therapy involves activating or inhibiting the brain with electricity or magnetic waves.

Although brain stimulation therapy is less frequently used than psychotherapy and medication, it can play an important role in treating depression in people who have not responded to other treatments. The therapy generally is used only after a person has tried psychotherapy and medication, and those treatments usually continue. Brain stimulation therapy is sometimes used as an earlier treatment option when severe depression has become life-threatening, such as when a person has stopped eating or drinking or is at a high risk of suicide.

The FDA has approved several types of brain stimulation therapy. The most used are electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Other brain stimulation therapies are newer and, in some cases, still considered experimental. Learn more about brain stimulation therapies .

Natural products

The FDA has not approved any natural products for treating depression. Although research is ongoing and findings are inconsistent, some people report that natural products, including vitamin D and the herbal dietary supplement St. John’s wort, helped their depression symptoms. However, these products can come with risks, including, in some cases, interactions with prescription medications.

Do not use vitamin D, St. John’s wort, or other dietary supplements or natural products without first talking to a health care provider. Rigorous studies must test whether these and other natural products are safe and effective.

How can I take care of myself?

Most people with depression benefit from mental health treatment. Once you begin treatment, you should gradually start to feel better. Go easy on yourself during this time. Try to do things you used to enjoy. Even if you don’t feel like doing them, they can improve your mood.

Other things that may help:

• Try to get physical activity. Just 30 minutes a day of walking can boost your mood.
• Try to maintain a regular bedtime and wake-up time.
• Eat regular, healthy meals.
• Do what you can as you can. Decide what must get done and what can wait.
• Connect with people. Talk to people you trust about how you are feeling.
• Delay making important life decisions until you feel better. Discuss decisions with people who know you well.
• Avoid using alcohol, nicotine, or drugs, including medications not prescribed for you.

How can I find help for depression?

You can learn about ways to get help and find tips for talking with a health care provider on the NIMH website.

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) also has an online tool to help you find mental health services  in your area.

How can I help a loved one who is depressed?

If someone you know is depressed, help them see a health care provider or mental health professional. You also can:

• Offer support, understanding, patience, and encouragement.
• Invite them out for walks, outings, and other activities.
• Help them stick to their treatment plan, such as setting reminders to take prescribed medications.
• Make sure they have transportation or access to therapy appointments.
• Remind them that, with time and treatment, their depression can lift.

What are clinical trials and why are they important?

Clinical trials are research studies that look at ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions. These studies help show whether a treatment is safe and effective in people. Some people join clinical trials to help doctors and researchers learn more about a disease and improve health care. Other people, such as those with health conditions, join to try treatments that aren’t widely available.

NIMH supports clinical trials across the United States. Talk to a health care provider about clinical trials and whether one is right for you. Learn more about  participating in clinical trials .

For more information

Learn more about mental health disorders and topics . For information about various health topics, visit the National Library of Medicine’s MedlinePlus   .

The information in this publication is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES National Institutes of Health NIH Publication No. 24-MH-8079 Revised 2024