education system in india and other countries

Indian education vs foreign education: The ultimate comparison for future students

Education is one of the most crucial investments for a student's future. Choosing the right education system that meets a student's needs and goals is essential.

Indian education and foreign education systems differ significantly in several aspects, such as the education system, tuition fees, curriculum and specialisation, faculty and research opportunities, and job opportunities.

Therefore, it is essential to understand the differences between these two systems to make an informed decision about pursuing higher education. This article will compare Indian education vs. foreign education, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.

Table of Contents

Indian education vs foreign education

Indian education system

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India and foreign countries have different education systems, and students must weigh both pros and cons to make an informed decision. Here are the factors that show how the Indian education system differs from other countries.

• Education system
• Tuition fees
• Curriculum and specialisation
• Faculty and research opportunities
• Admission requirements
• Admission process
• Performance and assessment
• Grades and scoring
• Cost of living
• Career opportunities

Also read: The UK higher education system explained

1. Education system

Education in India compared to foreign nations is predominantly based on the traditional model of teaching, which focuses on rote learning and theoretical knowledge. In this system, students are evaluated primarily based on their ability to memorise and reproduce information in exams.

While the Indian education approach has advantages in certain subject areas, it can limit students' critical thinking, analytical skills, and creativity. The system provides few opportunities for students to engage in hands-on or experiential learning.

In addition, students are expected to choose a particular stream early on in their education, and they are expected to stick to it throughout their degree. This approach limits their exposure to other fields and may prevent them from exploring different subjects or developing interdisciplinary skills.

In contrast, foreign education systems like the Canadian education system prioritise practical and experiential learning. They emphasise critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills, essential for students to succeed in their careers.

These systems provide opportunities for students to engage in hands-on learning, internships, and co-op programs, allowing them to apply their knowledge to real-world situations.

Foreign education systems offer more diverse learning opportunities like interdisciplinary courses, online learning, and exchange programs. This diversity of options helps students broaden their skill set and gain a global perspective on their subject area.

The system also allows students to customise their degrees according to their interests and career goals, allowing them to explore different fields and develop a unique skill set.

The Indian education system has its strengths, such as producing highly qualified engineering, medicine, and management professionals. However, it also has limitations, such as limited practical learning opportunities, a rigid curriculum, and limited exposure to interdisciplinary fields.

On the other hand, foreign education systems emphasise practical learning, critical thinking, and creativity, providing students with a broader and more diverse education.

Also read: Best Countries to Study Abroad for Indian Students 2024

2. Tuition fees

One of the most significant differences between Indian and foreign education is the tuition fees. In India, education costs are relatively low compared to many foreign countries.

The tuition fees in India can vary depending on the level of education and the institution. Government-funded institutions typically charge lower tuition fees compared to private institutions.

For example , the annual tuition fees for a bachelor's degree in engineering in a government-funded institution can be around ₹50,000 to ₹2,00,000 (USD $700-$2,800) per year. In contrast, private institutions can charge anywhere between ₹2,00,000 to ₹20,00,000 (USD $2,800-$28,000) per year for the same degree.

Also read: Cost Of Studying In The USA For Indian Students

In contrast, the cost of education in foreign countries, especially in developed countries like the USA, Canada, and Australia, is much higher. The tuition fees for a bachelor's degree in these countries can range from $20,000 to $50,000 per year.

Additionally, students also have to pay for living expenses, accommodation, and other related costs, which can add up to a significant amount.

While the cost of education in India is relatively low compared to many countries, the cost has steadily increased in recent years. Foreign education systems are more expensive, but they also provide more opportunities for financial aid and scholarships , which can reduce the burden on students.

Also read: How much does it cost to study in Canada?

3. Curriculum and specialisation

The curriculum and specialisation options offered in Indian and foreign education systems differ significantly. In India, the education system is often rigid and does not provide students with many opportunities to explore different fields.

Students are expected to choose a specific stream or specialisation early on in their education and stick to it throughout their degree. The Indian education system is based on a centralised curriculum prescribed by the respective boards of education.

This system leaves little room for customisation or personalisation of courses, and students have limited choices in the courses they can take. As a result, students often need more exposure to different fields and may not have the opportunity to develop interdisciplinary skills.

Foreign education systems emphasise flexibility and provide students with various course options and specialisation areas. Students can often choose their courses based on their interests and career goals, and they have the freedom to explore different fields.

Foreign education systems encourage interdisciplinary learning, enabling students to gain a more holistic understanding of their field. These systems also offer more specialised courses and degrees, allowing students to develop niche skills in demand in the job market.

For example , students can specialise in digital marketing, entrepreneurship, sustainable development, or data science. This specialisation helps students gain a competitive edge in the job market and contributes to their career growth.

Also read: What are the 4 best countries to study MBA for Indian students?

4. Faculty and research opportunities

The quality of faculty and research opportunities is another area where Indian and foreign education systems differ significantly.

In India, while there are several institutions of national importance, the quality of faculty and research opportunities varies widely across institutions.

While institutions strive to offer the finest education and experience and are of national importance in India, the quality of faculty and research opportunities could be more consistent across institutions.

Many universities find it difficult to attract and retain top-quality faculty members, and there is also minimal investment in research infrastructure and resources.

The use of technology in Indian education is often limited, and many institutions do not have the necessary infrastructure and resources to support advanced teaching and learning methods.

On the other hand, foreign education systems, particularly in developed countries like the US, Canada, and the UK, strongly emphasise research and innovation.

These institutions have world-class facilities and resources, which attract top-quality faculty members from around the world. Students can access many research opportunities and work with leading researchers in their field.

In many cases, foreign education institutions collaborate with industry, which allows students to work on cutting-edge projects and gain practical experience. This exposure to industry and research often gives students an advantage in the job market.

Another area where foreign education systems excel is using technology and digital tools to enhance teaching and learning. Many institutions use advanced technologies such as virtual and augmented reality to provide students with immersive and interactive learning experiences. 

While several institutions are of national importance in India, the quality of faculty and research opportunities could be more consistent across institutions.

In contrast, foreign education systems, particularly in developed countries, strongly emphasise research and innovation, and students have access to world-class facilities and resources.

The use of technology in foreign education systems is also more advanced, providing students with immersive and interactive learning experiences.

Also read: The benefits of studying abroad

5. Admission requirements

Before applying for a study program at a university, students are required to satisfy the eligibility requirements before sending the application. While the criteria vary with every university, here are the admission requirements of an Indian education system.

Admission requirements for the Indian education system

Data updated as of January 2024

Note: The eligibility requirement varies with every program and university. Ensure you check the course page for the requirements before submitting the application.

Similar to the Indian system, foreign education systems require international students to satisfy their admission requirements to process their applications further. Here are the common eligibility requirements for higher education abroad.

Admission requirements for the foreign education system

Note: The eligibility requirement differs with every program and university. Ensure you verify the requirements with the course page before submitting the application.

Also read: What are the requirements to study abroad from India?

6. Admission process

The admission process in an Indian education system involves various steps for students to apply for the program they wish to pursue. Here’s the admission process for better understanding.

• Research and shortlist your desired courses
• Check eligibility and ensure your profile satisfies them
• Attend the entrance exams if required
• Attend the interview by the university
• Wait for the admission results
• Pay the fees and confirm your admission

In addition to the usual admission process, foreign education systems require you to apply for a visa so that you are allowed to pursue higher education in the respective country. Here’s the step-by-step process for international students.

• Determine which study destination you wish to pursue higher education
• Research and shortlist courses that suit your interests
• Prepare for and clear the English proficiency exams ( IELTS , TOEFL , PTE , or Duolingo )
• Attend entrance exams ( SAT , ACT , MCAT , GRE or GMAT ) if required
• Apply for a visa and complete the process to obtain it

The Indian and foreign education systems follow almost the same admission process. In addition to the regular process, international students are required to take English proficiency tests and apply for visas to pursue higher education in their preferred study destination.

Also read: The ultimate list of entrance exams to study abroad

7. Performance and assessment

The Indian education system determines a student’s performance and grades majorly through assessments. Universities conduct monthly assessments and semester exams that makeup at least 70% of their final scorecards.

Assignments and projects like seminars, essays, research projects, reports, thesis, case studies, and group activities that contribute to the remaining performance metrics in the scorecard.

Foreign education systems function in a way that is opposite of the Indian education system. Non-classroom activities and assignments, like projects, research opportunities, seminars, essays, and others, contribute to most of the performance metrics in the student scorecards.

While the Indian education system focuses more on assessments and exams, foreign education systems evaluate students' knowledge through assignments and projects. This gives them more exposure to the subject than just textbook knowledge.

8. Grades and scoring

Indian universities typically use a 10-point grading system, which students later convert to percentages for job interviews and to pursue higher education.

Students usually take the semester exams for 100 marks, which are then converted and calculated along with the assessments and assignments to obtain a final score. The letter grades are from A to F in Indian education systems.

The percentage ranks in the Indian education system are as follows.

• Distinction: Above 75%
• 1st class: 60-75%
• 2nd class: 50-60%
• 3rd class: 40-50%

Foreign education systems commonly follow the 4-point Grade Point Average (GPA) system. The grade points are a culmination of assessments, assignments, research, and project work.

Common GPA to percentage table

Related: International grade equivalency

9. Cost of living

Many students travel across India to pursue their desired courses in their desired university. They are required to check their cost of living, such as accommodation, food, and other essential expenses.

The average cost of living for students pursuing higher education across India is between ₹8,000 to ₹20,000 per month.

The cost of living is relatively higher for international students pursuing higher education in different parts of the world. Prices vary with every study destination as the expenses differ regarding currency exchange rates, lifestyle, availability of resources, inflation, and others.

The average cost of living for students pursuing higher education abroad is between USD $500 to $3,500 per month. It is important to remember that the expenses vary with every country and region you choose to study.

Students travel to different parts of India to pursue higher education at relatively affordable costs. While studying abroad can be expensive, the experience can be rewarding for international students in terms of post-study work visas and the vast number of available career options.

10. Career opportunities

India has a competitive job market with several high-paying job opportunities for graduates. The pay scale differs with every job sector, degree and skill set the student possesses. Here are the top job options for Indian students after graduation.

• Healthcare professional
• Data Engineer
• Machine Learning Engineer
• Cybersecurity Analyst
• Blockchain Analyst
• Cloud Architect
• UX/UI Designer
• Full Stack Developer
• Digital Marketer

After graduating abroad, international students have to find job opportunities in a comparatively competitive job market. But they would have greater exposure and better pay for a rewarding career. Here are the top career options for international students abroad after higher education.

• Software Engineer
• Mechanical Engineer
• Marketing Analyst
• Financial Analyst
• Management Consultant
• Product Evangelist
• Registered Nurse

While the global job market is considered competitive for fresh graduates, international students find it more challenging to land a job abroad than in India. But the pay scale and scope of working abroad are quite rewarding and boost your profile.

Your dream of studying abroad is here! Talk to an Edvoy counsellor and kick-start your journey today.

Frequently asked questions

Studying abroad comes with great perks for international students.

• Wide range of course programs
• Engage in diverse cultures
• Excellent academic and research opportunities
• Fantastic part-time gigs
• Affordable cost of living
• Remarkable job opportunities

The US, UK, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and others have the best education system in the world.

The Indian government approves all degrees obtained by students from Foreign Higher Educational Institutions (FHEIs). So, a BSc, BA, MSc, MA, BTech, MTech, or MBA from any university abroad is valid in India.

Edvoy strives to offer an exceptional academic experience for international students to study abroad. From discovering the perfect course to applying to your preferred university, we provide you with the finest guidance throughout your study abroad journey. Connect with an Edvoy Counsellor , and begin your journey today!

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State of the Education Report for India 2023

The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) New Delhi Regional Office launched the fifth edition of its annual flagship report,  Seeds of Change - UNESCO 2023 State of the Education Report for India on Education to address Climate Change .

This year’s report delves into the role of education in tackling the increasingly complex and intensifying challenges posed by climate change. India, like many parts of the world, continues to bear witness to the dire consequences of climate change through climate disasters and biodiversity losses. Education’s full potential to shape a generation that understands the gravity of this urgent issue and equip them with the tools to combat it must be realized now.  

The National Education Policy 2020 underscores the importance of making environmental education an integral part of school curricula at all stages. In order to address climate change in India, the Ministry of Education strongly believes in the role that education can play in resolving impacts of climate change. This report by UNESCO is very timely as it comes at a time when India is making significant strides in working on the issue of climate change.

Education is a transformational tool in our fight against climate change – when we know better, we can do better. Educational systems must adapt to equip younger generations with the knowledge, skills and competencies to prepare them for the impacts of climate change. This year’s UNESCO State of the Education Report for India is dedicated to the pivotal role of education in addressing climate change. We can see from the research that India has already taken some significant steps in this direction, and in doing so, is helping to  promote  sustainable and long-term solutions to this global challenge.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training’s (NCERT) commitment to addressing climate change through school education aligns seamlessly with the vision of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. The NCERT is delighted to know that the UNESCO New Delhi Regional Office has developed this report on the pivotal theme of education to address climate change and I trust this report will be an informative guide for programmes directed towards climate change education.

In 2023, India ranked eighth out of 59 countries and the European Union (collectively accounting for 92% of global greenhouse gas emissions) on climate performance according to the Climate Change Performance Index, rising two spots from the previous year. The country’s new National Curriculum Framework revised in 2023 mentions climate change 52 times. Today, India is a country well-suited for an exploration of climate education innovations, and UNESCO’s report highlights its best practices and future opportunities to do just that. 

UNESCO - has long promoted the mobilization of intersectoral partnerships, political commitments, and youth empowerment as key drivers for fully leveraging education in building a greener and more sustainable future. Its global programme, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), contributes to this end by laying the foundation for global collaboration and policy innovation. Additionally, the Greening Education Partnership (GEP), launched by the United Nations Secretary-General in 2022, provides a practical framework for education stakeholders to take further action and UNESCO serves as the secretariat to the Greening Education Partnership (GEP). 

To date, 80 Member States have joined the Partnership, for which UNESCO serves as the secretariat with strong commitment to green education systems, structured around four pillars of transformative education: 

Greening schools

Greening curriculum

Greening teacher training and education systems’ capacities

Greening communities

The four pillars of the GEP are used as a guide with which the report analyzes India’s state of education to address climate change. The report is a synergy between UNESCO’s globally informed framework and the local expertise cultivated by the research team from the Centre for Environmental Education, India who authored this report. 

The report concludes with ten concrete recommendations for education sector stakeholders, which we hope will facilitate immediate actions to enhance education’s role in addressing climate change. We also hope that the recommendations will inspire stakeholders in the environmental sector to further engage with education in their policy initiatives. 

The ten recommendations are: 

Emphasize the urgent need for collective action to address climate change through education 

Include a climate change education component in all development policies 

Integrate climate change education at all stages of education 

Support educational institutions to be green and climate-ready

Embed climate change perspectives into green skills and vocational education programmes 

Empower teachers with comprehensive climate change education training and resources 

Engage with the youth to build a green future

Incorporate local and traditional knowledge that supports low-carbon lifestyles in climate change education

Promote partnerships to foster innovations in climate change education 

Strengthen and create education-centred portals to provide reliable information on climate change 

The launch event also showcased an engaging exhibition highlighting various initiatives taken to develop education to address climate change in India. 

UNESCO New Delhi Regional Office extends its gratitude to UNICEF India, British Council India, and the Mobius Foundation for their support and cooperation. 

To illustrate the report in an accessible manner, the following audio-visual package is also available free of copyright on  UNESCO New Delhi’s YouTube channel : 

Summary video underlining the recommendations of the report

Short capsules highlighting the key recommendations of the report 

Seeds of Change - 2023 State of the Education report for India on Education to Address Climate Change

Related items.

• Natural sciences
• Future of education
• Policy Advice
• Programme implementation
• Sharing knowledge
• Country page: India
• Region: Asia and the Pacific
• UNESCO Office in New Delhi
• SDG: SDG 4 - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
• SDG: SDG 13 - Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
• See more add

This article is related to the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals .

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Other recent news

Global Education

By Hannah Ritchie, Veronika Samborska, Natasha Ahuja, Esteban Ortiz-Ospina and Max Roser

A good education offers individuals the opportunity to lead richer, more interesting lives. At a societal level, it creates opportunities for humanity to solve its pressing problems.

The world has gone through a dramatic transition over the last few centuries, from one where very few had any basic education to one where most people do. This is not only reflected in the inputs to education – enrollment and attendance – but also in outcomes, where literacy rates have greatly improved.

Getting children into school is also not enough. What they learn matters. There are large differences in educational outcomes : in low-income countries, most children cannot read by the end of primary school. These inequalities in education exacerbate poverty and existing inequalities in global incomes .

On this page, you can find all of our writing and data on global education.

Key insights on Global Education

The world has made substantial progress in increasing basic levels of education.

Access to education is now seen as a fundamental right – in many cases, it’s the government’s duty to provide it.

But formal education is a very recent phenomenon. In the chart, we see the share of the adult population – those older than 15 – that has received some basic education and those who haven’t.

In the early 1800s, fewer than 1 in 5 adults had some basic education. Education was a luxury; in all places, it was only available to a small elite.

But you can see that this share has grown dramatically, such that this ratio is now reversed. Less than 1 in 5 adults has not received any formal education.

This is reflected in literacy data , too: 200 years ago, very few could read and write. Now most adults have basic literacy skills.

What you should know about this data

• Basic education is defined as receiving some kind of formal primary, secondary, or tertiary (post-secondary) education.
• This indicator does not tell us how long a person received formal education. They could have received a full program of schooling, or may only have been in attendance for a short period. To account for such differences, researchers measure the mean years of schooling or the expected years of schooling .

Despite being in school, many children learn very little

International statistics often focus on attendance as the marker of educational progress.

However, being in school does not guarantee that a child receives high-quality education. In fact, in many countries, the data shows that children learn very little.

Just half – 48% – of the world’s children can read with comprehension by the end of primary school. It’s based on data collected over a 9-year period, with 2016 as the average year of collection.

This is shown in the chart, where we plot averages across countries with different income levels. 1

The situation in low-income countries is incredibly worrying, with 90% of children unable to read by that age.

This can be improved – even among high-income countries. The best-performing countries have rates as low as 2%. That’s more than four times lower than the average across high-income countries.

Making sure that every child gets to go to school is essential. But the world also needs to focus on what children learn once they’re in the classroom.

Millions of children learn only very little. How can the world provide a better education to the next generation?

Research suggests that many children – especially in the world’s poorest countries – learn only very little in school. What can we do to improve this?

• This data does not capture total literacy over someone’s lifetime. Many children will learn to read eventually, even if they cannot read by the end of primary school. However, this means they are in a constant state of “catching up” and will leave formal education far behind where they could be.

Children across the world receive very different amounts of quality learning

There are still significant inequalities in the amount of education children get across the world.

This can be measured as the total number of years that children spend in school. However, researchers can also adjust for the quality of education to estimate how many years of quality learning they receive. This is done using an indicator called “learning-adjusted years of schooling”.

On the map, you see vast differences across the world.

In many of the world’s poorest countries, children receive less than three years of learning-adjusted schooling. In most rich countries, this is more than 10 years.

Across most countries in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa – where the largest share of children live – the average years of quality schooling are less than 7.

• Learning-adjusted years of schooling merge the quantity and quality of education into one metric, accounting for the fact that similar durations of schooling can yield different learning outcomes.
• Learning-adjusted years is computed by adjusting the expected years of school based on the quality of learning, as measured by the harmonized test scores from various international student achievement testing programs. The adjustment involves multiplying the expected years of school by the ratio of the most recent harmonized test score to 625. Here, 625 signifies advanced attainment on the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) test, with 300 representing minimal attainment. These scores are measured in TIMSS-equivalent units.

Hundreds of millions of children worldwide do not go to school

While most children worldwide get the opportunity to go to school, hundreds of millions still don’t.

In the chart, we see the number of children who aren’t in school across primary and secondary education.

This number was around 260 million in 2019.

Many children who attend primary school drop out and do not attend secondary school. That means many more children or adolescents are missing from secondary school than primary education.

Access to basic education: almost 60 million children of primary school age are not in school

The world has made a lot of progress in recent generations, but millions of children are still not in school.

The gender gap in school attendance has closed across most of the world

Globally, until recently, boys were more likely to attend school than girls. The world has focused on closing this gap to ensure every child gets the opportunity to go to school.

Today, these gender gaps have largely disappeared. In the chart, we see the difference in the global enrollment rates for primary, secondary, and tertiary (post-secondary) education. The share of children who complete primary school is also shown.

We see these lines converging over time, and recently they met: rates between boys and girls are the same.

For tertiary education, young women are now more likely than young men to be enrolled.

While the differences are small globally, there are some countries where the differences are still large: girls in Afghanistan, for example, are much less likely to go to school than boys.

Research & Writing

Talent is everywhere, opportunity is not. We are all losing out because of this.

Access to basic education: almost 60 million children of primary school age are not in school, interactive charts on global education.

This data comes from a paper by João Pedro Azevedo et al.

João Pedro Azevedo, Diana Goldemberg, Silvia Montoya, Reema Nayar, Halsey Rogers, Jaime Saavedra, Brian William Stacy (2021) – “ Will Every Child Be Able to Read by 2030? Why Eliminating Learning Poverty Will Be Harder Than You Think, and What to Do About It .” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 9588, March 2021.

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Education Rankings by Country 2024

There is a correlation between a country's educational system quality and its economic status, with developed nations offering higher quality education.

The U.S., despite ranking high in educational system surveys, falls behind in math and science scores compared to many other countries.

Educational system adequacy varies globally, with some countries struggling due to internal conflicts, economic challenges, or underfunded programs.

While education levels vary from country to country, there is a clear correlation between the quality of a country's educational system and its general economic status and overall well-being. In general, developing nations tend to offer their citizens a higher quality of education than the least developed nations do, and fully developed nations offer the best quality of education of all. Education is clearly a vital contributor to any country's overall health.

According to the Global Partnership for Education , education is considered to be a human right and plays a crucial role in human, social, and economic development . Education promotes gender equality, fosters peace, and increases a person's chances of having more and better life and career opportunities.

"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world." — Nelson Mandela

The annual Best Countries Report , conducted by US News and World Report, BAV Group, and the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania , reserves an entire section for education. The report surveys thousands of people across 78 countries, then ranks those countries based upon the survey's responses. The education portion of the survey compiles scores from three equally-weighted attributes: a well-developed public education system, would consider attending university there, and provides top-quality education. As of 2023, the top ten countries based on education rankings are:

Countries with the Best Educational Systems - 2021 Best Countries Report*

Ironically, despite the United States having the best-surveyed education system on the globe, U.S students consistently score lower in math and science than students from many other countries. According to a Business Insider report in 2018, the U.S. ranked 38th in math scores and 24th in science. Discussions about why the United States' education rankings have fallen by international standards over the past three decades frequently point out that government spending on education has failed to keep up with inflation.

It's also worthwhile to note that while the Best Countries study is certainly respectable, other studies use different methodologies or emphasize different criteria, which often leads to different results. For example, the Global Citizens for Human Rights' annual study measures ten levels of education from early childhood enrollment rates to adult literacy. Its final 2020 rankings look a bit different:

Education Rates of Children Around the World

Most findings and ranking regarding education worldwide involve adult literacy rates and levels of education completed. However, some studies look at current students and their abilities in different subjects.

One of the most-reviewed studies regarding education around the world involved 470,000 fifteen-year-old students. Each student was administered tests in math, science, and reading similar to the SAT or ACT exams (standardized tests used for college admissions in the U.S.) These exam scores were later compiled to determine each country's average score for each of the three subjects. Based on this study, China received the highest scores , followed by Korea, Finland , Hong Kong , Singapore , Canada , New Zealand , Japan , Australia and the Netherlands .

On the down side, there are many nations whose educational systems are considered inadequate. This could be due to internal conflict, economic problems, or underfunded programs. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's Education for All Global Monitoring Report ranks the following countries as having the world's worst educational systems:

Countries with the Lowest Adult Literacy Rates

• Education rankings are sourced from both the annual UN News Best Countries report and the nonprofit organization World Top 20

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Which country ranks first in education?

Which country ranks last in education, frequently asked questions.

• Best Countries for Education - 2023 - US News
• Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - World Bank
• World Best Education Systems - Global Citizens for Human Rights
• UNESCO - Global Education Monitoring Reports
• World’s 10 Worst Countries for Education - Global Citizen
• International Education Database - World Top 20

• India Today
• Business Today
• Reader’s Digest
• Harper's Bazaar
• Brides Today
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• India Today Hindi

10 different education systems around the world

Here's an overview of 10 different education systems around the world..

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Each education system has its own strengths and challenges, reflecting the cultural, social, and economic contexts of the respective countries or communities. Education holds immense significance for both individuals and society at large. Regardless of our geographical location or cultural background, it is crucial to safeguard and nurture our education systems to ensure the preservation and enhancement of knowledge.

Here's an overview of different education systems around the world:

1. Finnish Education System

The Finnish education system is renowned for its success. It focuses on student well-being, equal opportunities, and individualised learning. There is less emphasis on standardised testing, and teachers have significant autonomy in the classroom.

2. Japanese Education System

In Japan, education is highly valued and emphasises discipline and hard work. The curriculum is rigorous, and students often attend additional tutoring or cram schools. Respect for teachers and authority is deeply ingrained in the culture.

3. German Education System

Germany offers a dual education system that combines classroom learning with practical vocational training. Students can choose academic or vocational tracks, leading to a wide range of career opportunities.

4. Montessori Education

The Montessori method emphasises self-directed learning, hands-on activities, and mixed-age classrooms. It focuses on nurturing a child's natural curiosity, independence, and love for learning.

5. International Baccalaureate (IB)

The IB programme is a globally recognised curriculum that encourages critical thinking, cultural understanding, and community engagement. It offers different programs, including the Primary Years Programme (PYP), Middle Years Programme (MYP), and Diploma Programme (DP).

6. American Education System

The US education system varies across states, but it generally includes primary, middle, and high school education. It emphasises a broad curriculum, extracurricular activities, and standardized testing. Higher education options include community colleges, universities, and vocational schools.

7. Nordic Education Systems

Nordic countries like Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland prioritise equal access to education, student well-being, and practical learning. They emphasise creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration.

8. Indian Education System

The Indian education system is diverse and includes both traditional methods and modern approaches. It places significant importance on rote learning, competitive exams, and STEM subjects. It has a large network of schools, including government schools and private institutions.

9. British Education System

The British education system follows a structured approach to primary, secondary, and tertiary education. It emphasises academic subjects and often includes standardised exams like GCSEs and A-levels. It is known for prestigious institutions like Oxford and Cambridge.

10. Indigenous Education Systems

6 charts on education around the world

The OECD report card is in. How does your country compare? Image:  REUTERS/Eric Gaillard

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The world is more educated than ever before , with the average number of years spent in school increasing constantly. So how do levels of education in your country compare?

A new report from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance 2017 , looks at the state of education in all 35 member countries and a number of partner countries.

It found that 85% of young adults (aged 25 to 34) have attained upper secondary education, which typically starts at around 15 or 16 years old.

Almost half (43%) have gone further and have a tertiary degree. In some countries the proportion of young adults with a university degree is even higher, at 50% or more including Canada (61%), Ireland (52%), Japan (60%), Korea (70%), Lithuania (55%) and the Russian Federation (60%).

Primary and secondary education

On average across OECD countries, only 6% of adults have not gone further than primary school.

In some countries, however, this percentage is much higher. A quarter of young adults in China (25%) and Saudi Arabia (24%) never made it past primary school. This figure rises to around one-third or more in Costa Rica (29%), Indonesia (43%), Portugal (30%), and Turkey (43%).

The share of young adults who have not reached upper secondary education is 16% on average across OECD countries.

But it’s much higher than that in some countries: more than half of young adults lack an upper secondary or higher education in China (64%), Costa Rica (51%), India (64%), Indonesia (53%), Mexico (53%) and South Africa (51%).

Parental education really matters

The most important factor when it comes to predicting a child’s future education level is parental education.

A young person is much more likely to study for a degree if one or both of their parents have.

The only exception is Japan, where gender and parents’ educational attainment seem to have an equal influence.

What do they study?

Business, administration and law are by far the most popular areas of study in the countries surveyed, chosen by around one in four students (23%).

This varies across countries, of course. In Korea it’s only 14%, while in Luxembourg it’s 37%.

Yet in terms of employability, young people would be better off studying science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects, according to the report.

Only 16% study engineering, construction and manufacturing, and less than 5% of students opt for information and communication technologies (ICT), despite graduates in these subjects having the highest employment rate on average across OECD countries.

The gender imbalance

Women’s participation in higher education has been increasing across the countries surveyed in recent years. Women are also more likely to complete their degrees than men .

Yet they will earn less.

Average earnings are higher for degree-educated men than for their female peers. Also, rates of employment for men with tertiary degrees tend to be higher than for women with the same level of education.

There is an obvious gender gap in the subjects that young adults choose at university. Far more women than men choose to study education and health and welfare.

And many more men than women study STEM subjects and ICT. Close to three out of four engineering students and four out of five ICT students are men.

That’s despite the fact that on average, girls outperform boys in the PISA science test .

Results from the PISA 2015 assessment indicate that boys’ and girls’ career paths start to diverge well before they actually select a career.

Boys are more likely than girls to envisage themselves in a science-related career when they are 30. Meanwhile, more than seven out of 10 teachers on average across OECD countries are women. Given the number of women choosing to study education versus men, this is unlikely to change soon. Teachers earn up to 60% less on average than similarly educated workers.

Graduate premium

There is also a gender imbalance for the graduate premium – the extra money a graduate can expect to earn as a result of the extra study.

There are only two countries where women see a higher net return from university study than men: Spain and Estonia. For the average woman elsewhere, net financial returns for tertiary education are $167,400, representing only two-thirds of those for a man.

In seven countries, men saw a higher return of up to 50%. The difference was particularly pronounced in Japan, where male graduates can expect a net financial return of almost $240,000, compared with just $28,200 for women.

Spending on education

As a percentage of GDP, the UK spends more on education than any other OECD country, followed closely by Denmark and New Zealand.

France and Sweden spend the least as a percentage of their GDP.

Benefits of higher education

The benefits of a university education remain high. University graduates are more likely to be employed, they earn 56% more than those without a degree, and they are less likely to suffer from depression.

“Tertiary education promises huge rewards for individuals, but education systems need to do a better job of explaining to young people what studies offer the greatest opportunities for life,” said OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurría .

“Equitable and high-quality education fuels personal fulfilment as well as economic growth. Countries must step up their efforts to ensure that education meets the needs of today’s children and informs their aspirations for the future.”

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Indian Education System vs Foreign Education System

Manali Ganguly ,

Mar 4, 2024

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The biggest difference between Indian education system vs foreign education system is a difference in the curriculum and teaching methodology. The Indian curriculum is traditional and based on theories whereas the curriculum in the foreign countries is advanced and allows critical thinking.

The difference between the Indian education system vs foreign education system lies in the system of education, tuition fees, faculty, and curriculum followed. The curriculum differs significantly between countries.

There are many Indians who wish to study abroad. It is important for them to know the difference between the education system of India and that of the country they wish to further their education in. Irrespective of the differences, it is best to go with an option - India or abroad - that is most suitable for the career of an individual.

Table of Contents

Differences Between Indian Education System vs Foreign Education System

• System of Education
• Research Methodology
• Tuition Fees

What are the Advantages of Studying in India?

What are the advantages of studying abroad.

There are up-sides and down-sides with both the Indian system of education and the foreign system of education. Before planning to enrol in a course, it is crucial to measure the differences between the systems.

Listed below are the differences between the Indian education system vs foreign education system:

1. System of Education

This is a major area of difference between the Indian education system vs foreign education system. The Indian education system primarily follows the traditional system which focuses mostly on theories. With the new age, new and advanced ways of learning have emerged, but the basic form of education remains the same.

Most of the education is based on theoretical learning. Students are evaluated on the basis of their year-end exams. This system has both pros and cons. While it improves the retention skill of the students, it hinders creative thinking in the students.

Experiential learning is not much a part of the Indian system of education. In foreign countries, like Canada, critical thinking, analytical skills and creativity are prioritised over rote learning.

The internship programs in Indian education can be found only in the professional courses, whereas in other countries, the internship programs are prioritised in all courses.

There is an advantage of the Indian system of education in that, the professionals such as doctors, engineers, teachers, and other professionals are equipped with very good knowledge of the theories of the subjects concerned and therefore can do complete justice to their professions.

Also Check:  Types of Education: Formal, Informal & Non-Formal

2. Curriculum

There is a vast difference in the curricula of the Indian education system vs foreign education system. The Indian curriculum is rather rigid compared to other countries. The scope of exploring new fields is now emerging in the education system of India.

There is a bifurcation of streams based on arts, commerce and science in the secondary school, following which the student chooses a career path based on the stream. There are central boards as well as state boards of education in India. Hence, the curriculum throughout the country is not uniform.

While the differences between the curricula of different boards might not be vast, slight differences do exist. Since the choice is limited in terms of scope of education, the interdisciplinary skills are not possible beyond a certain point.

In India, the theories taught in the schools, colleges, and other higher educational institutions have already been researched. In contrast, the foreign curriculum includes diverse choices with respect to the subjects. This allows the students to take up any course that they are interested in.

Even at the school levels, the students in the foreign curriculum are allowed to conduct research and thereby gain a practical knowledge of the subject rather than going by the theories only. This makes the curriculum not just rich but interesting as well to the students.

Also Check : Difference Between Curriculum and Syllabus

3. Research Methodology

Owing to the difference in curriculum, there is a difference in the research methodologies as well. India has several higher educational institutions where the research methods are advanced. These national or state level institutions offer great faculty as well as developed methods of research.

The research methods in the foreign countries are also well developed. They offer exploration of new fields and studies. The methods of research are world class allowing the analytical skills to grow in the students.

The education systems of the foreign countries, especially the education system of United Kingdom ,  United States education system , or the Canadian education system follow the methods of research and innovation. The faculty from the Indian universities and colleges mostly go abroad to teach.

This also ascertains that the Indian curriculum and methods of teaching creates a very strong base that helps them get selected for faculty in the foreign countries.

Also Check : Types of Research Methodology for Students

4. Tuition Fees

The tuition fees are much higher in the foreign countries as compared to India. This is mostly because of the currency strength. The top-class government universities and institutions have nominal fees as compared to the private institutions. The private institutions that are renowned have very high tuition fees.

However, the foreign universities have very high tuition fees that makes them not quite affordable to the Indians without a scholarship or a study loan. However, for the natives of the developed foreign countries, the fees are either or the education is free altogether.

For Indian nationals studying abroad, there are other costs involved apart from the course fee, such as room rent, food, and travel. The cost of studying abroad is much higher as compared to studying in the country itself.

Also Check: Top 10 Affordable Universities in India

The Indian education system has evolved a lot in recent years. While sticking to the traditional theoretical lessons, it has also improvised the ways of teaching. There are several institutions at the national level that impart high-end and world class learning facilities. There are several advantages to studying in India.

The advantages of studying in India are:

• Career Opportunities: The top ranking Indian institutes offer very good career opportunities. The courses that are professional in nature, have internship and placement opportunities as part of their curriculum. The students are placed in some of the top ranking institutions or companies, not just inIndia but globally as well.
• Cost Efficient: The courses abroad are more expensive than similar courses of the same standard offered in the Indian colleges, universities or other institutions. Compared to the most famous education hubs like the United Kingdom and United States.
• Top Ranking Institutions: India has few of the globally top ranking universities. These universities and colleges offer few of the most advanced and futuristic courses. The students can enrol here only if they have scored very good marks in the previous qualifying exam.

Also Check:  List of Tier 1 Colleges in India 2023: Engineering, Medical, Management

Owing to the well researched curriculum and flexibility in the education system, most students nowadays choose to study abroad. There are a number of advantages of studying abroad, as listed under:

• Opportunities: Studying in a foreign institute opens a number of opportunities for the students in their professional life ahead, both abroad as well as in India.
• Language: The students get an opportunity to be well acquainted with a foreign language living in the foreign country.
• Valuation: Even in India itself, a foreign degree is given more importance than the native degree. As a result of this there is an increased tendency among the higher institutions as well as recruiters to give preference to individuals who have completed their higher studies from a foreign institution.
• Confidence: Being outside the country and staying with different nationals stems confidence in the students. They become better equipped to face the interviews both at the higher institutions as well as in the workplaces.

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Comparision of Education System in India and Other Countries

2017, International Journal of Knowledge Based Computer Systems

A real education structure helps a country to construct its good nation and that results a sustainable development in the long run. Because, education is well known to all as a back bone of a nation and to make it effective a good education system is very much essential. The objective of the study is to learn about the education systems of India and other Countries, and compare those in terms of their characteristics. This proposed survey based research work is a report of the points and facts due to which the Indian peoples are very much interested to complete their higher education from the abroad. It is very important to understand all these points by our educational policy maker to improve the Indian education system according to the standard of the abroad education so that our people do there higher education from India instead of abroad. These research work analysis and report the comparative analysis of the quality, cost, knowledge and job offers in India and abroad for both Indian studies and abroad studies.

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Why Other Countries Keep Outperforming Us in Education (and How to Catch Up)

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The Biden administration has put an enormous amount of money on the table for our schools and, apparently, as much as 10 years to spend it. The potential for the improvement of the performance of our schools is unprecedented, provided that policymakers use it well.

The economic stakes are hard to overstate. Thirty countries now outperform the United States in mathematics at the high school level. Many are ahead in science, too. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the millennials in our workforce tied for last on tests of mathematics and problem solving among the millennials in the workforces of all the industrial countries tested. We now have the worst-educated workforce in the industrialized world. Because our workers are among the most highly paid in the world, that makes a lot of Americans uncompetitive in the global economy. And uncompetitive against increasingly smart machines. It is a formula for a grim future.

The idea of significantly boosting the achievement of the average American high school graduate and making American workers once again the best educated in the world, coming from the bottom of the pack, seems like a pipe dream. After all, there has been no improvement in high school math and reading scores on the N ational Assessment of Educational Progress after more than 40 years of trying every “proven practice” we can think of.

Yet the evidence that it is not a pipe dream is staring us in the face. It’s all those countries that have education systems that are outperforming ours. If they can do it, then we can do it. But we have to figure out how they did it and use that information to develop strategies that will work for us.

The National Center on Education and the Economy, the organization I headed for 30 years, has been doing just that for decades.

We now have the worst-educated workforce in the industrialized world.

We’ve learned two very important things. First, though the countries that are outperforming us have value systems and cultures very different from each other, most of the strategies they have used to get to top performance (while increasing equity) are very similar. If that is true, then those differences in culture and values are irrelevant. There is nothing standing in the way of using their strategies. Second, the most important thing that distinguishes education in our states from education in these other countries is that all of them have systems of education that hang together, systems that are coherent, in which each policy supports the other policies at every level of the system, from the classroom to the top of the ministry of education. With rare exceptions, we have no such system.

Raising academic standards, for example, works only when instituted as part of a whole system of innovations designed to mesh. The Common Core State Standards failed because teachers were being judged against student performance on tests that did not measure what the teachers were supposed to teach, there were no curriculum materials available to support what the students were supposed to learn, the teachers had never been taught to teach what their students were supposed to learn, the way students progressed through the grades had not been redesigned against the targets specified by the standards, and no effort was made to reorganize the work of teachers so that they would have more time for students who would need additional help to reach the standards. This is but a small sample of the factors that are routinely taken into account in the design of education systems that deliver much better results at the scale of a state or large city system.

The National Center on Education and the Economy has traced the trajectories of dozens of countries as they have gone from widespread illiteracy to highly educated and skilled , some of them in just a few decades. But none of them has done it overnight. Again and again, we see that the reforms that work and endure through many changes in political leadership are those that begin with a process of goal setting and system design that takes years. The process involves many stakeholders in many discussions that leads in turn to a shared understanding of the challenges facing the nation or state and the ways others who have had success have addressed those challenges. That builds a broadly shared consensus on the path forward. As those plans coalesce into a design, those who will have to implement the design are asked to plan it, and at least as much effort is put into planning for implementation as was put into the design itself. More often than not, the implementation period lasts 10 to 20 years.

That’s not how we usually do things here. New political leaders, once in power, decide on a few narrowly defined initiatives that they think they can get passed and implemented within the current election cycle. A bill is drafted, a few hearings are held, the usual suspects testify, and the bill is passed. Few educators pay much attention because they know that the next administration will have no investment in their predecessors’ agenda, but will have its own, which will also be largely ignored, for the same reason.

The Biden administration has given our states an incredible gift: enough time and money to involve a great many stakeholders in thinking hard about what the future will bring and how their entire system will have to change. That should lead to carefully researching the strategies used by much higher-performing systems to get much better performance and more equity at lower cost; coming up with a sound plan; and then taking a decade or more to implement it, rather than railroading it through, dooming it to failure.

Educators need to seize this opportunity. First, because they care about this country and its youth. Second, because if the Biden administration succeeds in opening the faucets of federal spending on the scale it has in mind, and five or 10 years from now, there is still no significant improvement in results, the whole country will turn on the educators and the No Child Left Behind era will look like a picnic.

Maryland recently spent three years planning the kind of sweeping and sensible redesign I’m suggesting, got overwhelming support in the legislature, and is now embarked on its 10-year plan. Yes, your state can do it, too.

A version of this article appeared in the June 02, 2021 edition of Education Week as Why Other Countries Keep Outperforming Us in Education (and How to Catch Up)

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Education System in India vs Education System Abroad

Education System in India and Education System Abroad

Table of Contents

An Overview

Comparing education systems in India and abroad, the admission process differs significantly. Foreign universities prioritize holistic profiles, standardized tests, and non-academic aspects, fostering creativity and practical learning, contrasting India’s traditional exam-centric approach. Choose wisely for a personalized learning journey.

Teaching Methods

Student learning, academic autonomy, subject or elective choice, flexibility to change, research and learning, cost of education, scholarships, performances and assessment, selection basis, job opportunities.

Once you identify which education meets your unique personality and choice, you need to know about their different admission processes.

Admission Process in India and Abroad / Foreign

In India, admissions rely on competitive exams and merit lists, varying by university. Abroad, the process is holistic, evaluating academics, extracurriculars, personal statements, and recommendations. Standardized tests like SAT or GRE are common. India prioritizes cutoffs and rankings, while overseas, diversity is key. Navigating these differences is vital for students transitioning from the Indian to international education system.

You need to prepare differently for an Indian and a foreign university admission.

Process for Abroad / Foreign Universities

1. Check your eligibility for the chosen programme. non-academic programme

2. Fill out and send the course application form.

3. You also need to send your profile

This is an all-round picture of the student with a description of their academic and non-academic programme extracurricular work. This is really important and is crucial for gaining admission.

4. Keep a good recommendation letter handy

5. You need to take the test recommended by the university (TOEFL/ IELTS/ ACT/ SAT/ MCAT/ LSAT/ GMAT/ GRE). * Institute-specific tests are conducted for some courses only (like medicine).

6. Keep all prescribed documents verified and ready.

7. Get ready with sources for fee payment and to also meet living costs.

8. Check the requirements and your child’s eligibility for the relevant student visa.

Process for Indian Universities

1. Check your eligibility for the chosen programme.

(Few contemporary Indian universities require you to send the student’s non-academic profile as well.)

3. Take the required institute-specific or common entrance test.

4. Get the counselling for stream and campus choice done (done for many common entrance tests). 

5. Keep all prescribed documents verified and ready.

6. Prepare for fee payment within the cut-off date.

What You Can Expect from Foreign Education

1. Courses are offered in diverse formats to cater to all types of students.

2. A high standard of writing skills and articulate presentation will be a big takeaway for your child.

3. Universities abroad emphasise a well-rounded personality.

4. Critical thinking is highly encouraged in foreign education.

5. Your child will get exposure to a diverse and multicultural mix of students – and hence become a truly global citizen.

The Changing Indian Education System

The Indian education system uses standard styles of teaching. The scope of a personal learning experience is low. But many contemporary Indian universities are now trying to implement many best practices of foreign education systems – like non-traditional pedagogy, campus & study resources, grading performance, and new-age subjects.

Your College Profile

Now that you have known all about the education systems, it’s time for the most important step – preparing a college-ready profile for you. Foreign education systems necessarily require the student’s profile while applying for any programm.

A good profile should talk about your practical experience and non-academic skills, along with your academic background. It should bring out the all-round personality.

Know how to make an outstanding college profile.

So, are you now ready to choose the study destination? 

Education is one of the many basic needs of survival in today’s world. The value, interpretation and mode of education varies from place to place. One can say that education is an ever evolving concept which is in turn for the betterment of the human kind.

Although the way in which it is delivered is certainly different but the aim of instilling values along with creativity remains common worldwide. More so, education is an all-round process that escalates skills, inculcates good values and beliefs and knowledge in a person so that personality of the person is developed.

While we all are aware that every education system has its own pro and con; there are some of the major factors that make Study in Abroad system more approachable as compared to that of the Indian education system.

Theoretical approach or Practical approach

Both of these approaches are important. Although having a practical oriented study approach makes us more market ready as compared to that of theoretical approach. Indian education system is purely theory centric while foreign system is entirely practical centric. Not only that, practical oriented study approach makes the process easy, interactive and interesting while theoretical approach makes the learning process less interactive and at times monotonous.

Creativity or Marks

Each of us is very well aware of the fact that scoring good marks is extremely vital to get into a good school/college. This not only restricts a student from exploring his/her horizons but also blocks their creative side. In contrast, foreign education system allows and encourages a student to think out of the box and manifests their creative side.

Degree or Knowledge

To become eligible for most of the job openings in India, one has to have a degree regardless of the level of knowledge you have. Unlike India, foreign country’s education is taken as learning process and students learn the concepts while they study and apply those in their work culture.

A Tested route or a field of your liking

It is as though is the set rule that if a student has a good score he/she has to opt for science related subjects whereas if a student fails scoring well he/she must ether opt for commerce or arts related subjects. However, foreign education system encourages a student to go for a subject based on his/her liking.

These were some of the over-rated differences between studying in India vs studying in a foreign country . While India is moving towards digitization, it is also coming up with various latest courses. Also, there are many other factors that proves the superiority of foreign education system.

FAQs Education System in India vs Education System Abroad

• What is the main difference between the education system in India and the education system abroad?

The main difference between the education system in India and the education system abroad is the theoretical approach vs. practical approach. Indian education is primarily theory-based, whereas foreign education systems are predominantly practical-based.

• Why is practical-oriented study approach important?

Practical-oriented study approach makes the learning process easy, interactive, and interesting. It helps to make students market-ready, and they learn to apply the concepts they have learned in real-life situations.

• How does the foreign education system encourage creativity?

The foreign education system encourages students to think outside the box and manifest their creative side. Unlike India, foreign countries put less emphasis on marks and more on the learning process, which allows students to explore their horizons and choose a subject based on their liking.

• Why is having a degree important in India?

To become eligible for most job openings in India, one has to have a degree, regardless of the level of knowledge they have. The Indian job market places more importance on degrees rather than practical knowledge.

• What is the tested route in the Indian education system?

In the Indian education system, it is a set rule that if a student has a good score, they have to opt for science-related subjects. Conversely, if a student fails to score well, they must choose either commerce or arts-related subjects.

• What other factors prove the superiority of foreign education systems?

Apart from the theoretical vs. practical approach, the foreign education system encourages self-learning, creativity, critical thinking, and adaptability. It also exposes students to multicultural environments, which helps broaden their perspective and enhances their problem-solving abilities.

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These countries have the best education systems in the world

“The passport to your future,” “the most powerful weapon,” “the key to unlocking the world” — these are just three ways education has been described.

Everyone wants the best education and they’re willing to pay loads, spend a lot of time and even move countries to find the best education system in the world for themselves or for their children.

The search for the perfect, flawless, best education system in the world, however, is more complex than it seems.

You’re not just looking at schools and students and how well they did in exams. There are many more hidden factors that determine how well you or your child will learn.

For one, the quality of a country’s schools is closely linked to its economic status and overall well-being.

But does this mean the richest countries in the world have the best education system in the world?

That’s not quite right, either, for reasons we will outline below.

Factors such as quality of living, teacher-student ratio and availability of public resources for schools matter too. They influence some rankings of the best education system in the world.

It’s a lot and gets confusing quickly — which is why many rely on one ranking to see how smart a child in the US is doing compared to one in India: PISA scores.

Is the best education system in the world determined by PISA scores?

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests 15-year-old students in dozens of countries to apply reading, science, maths and other skills to real-life problems.

Taking place every three years, the PISA results include data on how students perform at different levels, their attitudes towards learning, their family backgrounds and other learning experiences.

Done every three years, it unearths the strengths and weaknesses of a country’s education system, which usually spurs them to take measures to improve.

While PISA scores are widely used and carry weight, there have been several criticisms and debates surrounding them. This includes:

• The narrow focus: PISA only assess students based on reading, mathematics and science, which does not capture the full range of knowledge and skills that students need
• Puts pressure on students: PISA scores are often used to compare and rank countries, which can put pressure on students, teachers and education systems
• Not all students take part in the tests, which then skews the results

The US is renowned as a country with the best education system in the world. Source: Logan Riely/AFP

10 countries with the best education system in the world

The following countries are models of the best education system in the world for the following reasons:

• It has top-ranking universities, on respected global rankings such as Times Higher Education or QS. This is a reflection of older students doing well academically.
• Its younger students are reading and counting well too, as seen from their performance on international education tests, such as but not limited to PISA
• It has graduates who have produced innovative products or services
• There is a national belief in the importance of education, which can be seen through big investments in its schools and teachers, among others.

Many believe the US, a global superpower, has the best educational system in the world. And they’re not wrong.

US universities are home to many Nobel Laureates, more than universities in any other nation. And its universities are often in the top 10 of global rankings.

Within the higher education realm, its civil rights leader Martin Luther King’s famous quote rings true: “The function of education is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. Intelligence plus character–that is the goal of true education.”

However, in the most recent PISA assessment conducted in 2018, the US’s performance in numeracy was slightly below the OECD average. OECD is a group of mostly wealthy countries.

The US currently facing low literacy rates, with almost two-thirds of its children struggling to read.

Almost 60% of students in high-poverty schools in the Boston area are at high risk for reading difficulties. This is twice the pre-pandemic rate.

These figures don’t apply across the country. Numeracy scores in the US can vary across different states and student groups due to the diversity of the education system and socioeconomic factors.

The aphorism “Education isn’t the filling of a pail but the lighting of a fire” holds true in the UK, one of the best education systems in the world. Source: Oli Scarff/AFP

2. UK 

There’s a well-known quote about education among Brits: “Education isn’t the filling of a pail but the lighting of a fire.”

The sparks are evident in the 2023 QS World University Rankings , where some of UK’s top universities placed in the world’s top 10:

• University of Oxford (#2)
• University of Cambridge (#4)
• Imperial College London (#6)

For all the flaws in rankings, they still represent something. And in the case of the UK, that it has world-class research — the kind that’s finding treatment for ovarian cancer , discovering the causes behind obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCDs), shedding light on the origins of animals , and more.

Similar to the US, the quality of its schools isn’t as stellar as its unis. In the most recent PISA assessment conducted in 2018, the UK’s performance in numeracy was around the OECD average.

3. Canada 

In the latest PISA results in 2000, Canadian students placed sixth in reading, eighth in science and 12th in math among 78 participating countries.

Four of its universities are in the world’s top 100 (Times Higher Education):

• University of Toronto (#18)
• University of British Columbia (#40)
• McGill University (#46)
• McMaster University (#85)

Together, it’s an ecosystem that’s led to many amazing discoveries over the years. This includes:

• garbage bags
• peanut butter

According to Andreas Schleicher, the OECD’s education director, Canada’s schools and universities trump others as its “big uniting theme is equity.” No one’s left behind.

Speaking to the BBC, Schleicher says there is a strong sense of fairness and equal access – and this is seen in the high academic performance of migrant children.

4. Germany 

If the German proverb goes “What little Hans didn’t learn, big Hans doesn’t know” then there are many little Hans who have learned a lot — so much so that they beat the OECD average in reading (498 score points), mathematics (500) and science (503).

When they progress to universities, they can choose from eight that are in the world’s top 100:

• Technical University of Munich (#30)
• LMU Munich (#33)
• Universität Heidelberg(#43)
• Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (#73)
• Humboldt University of Berlin (#86)
• University of Tübingen (#86)
• University of Bonn (#89)
• Free University of Berlin (#91)
• RWTH Aachen University (#99)

Some of the greatest German inventions that changed the world include:

• diesel engine
• printing press
• helicopters
• coffee filter

Australia is at the top of the list for the best educational system in the world. Source: Marco Longari/AFP

5. Australia  

Although students in Australia scored higher than the OECD average in reading (503 points) and science (503), they didn’t do that much better than the OECD average in mathematics (491).

The reason? Most students didn’t try very hard as the exams didn’t count towards their school marks.

“These results are comparable with the OECD average of 68% of students claiming they tried less on the PISA tests than they would if it counted towards their school grades,” wrote Stewart Riddle, Associate Professor at the School of Education, University of Southern Queensland, in The Conversation .

“In contrast, students in the highest-performing education systems of Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China) reported very high levels of effort.”

Although often overshadowed by Oxbridge and the Ivy League, Australian universities are still among the world’s best.

Seven Australian universities were featured in the top 100 list of the 2022 QS rankings . Some notable institutions in the country include:

• UNSW Sydney
• University of Melbourne
• University of Sydney

Here, scientist James Harrison invented the refrigeration system, which was used to invent refrigerators.

Finland’s performance in the PISA has been widely recognised and admired. This success can be attributed to various factors, including a highly qualified teaching workforce, equitable access to education, a student-centred approach, and a strong emphasis on early childhood education.

Compared to many other countries, Finnish schools generally assign less homework to students. The aim is to provide students with sufficient time for other activities, such as play, hobbies, and spending time with family, which are considered important for their overall well-being.

According to the QS World University Rankings 2022, the top universities in Finland are:

• University of Helsinki
• Aalto University
• University of Turku

Here’s a list of things you probably didn’t know were invented in Finland:

• Nokia mobile phones

Luo Yifei, PhD student at Nanyang Technological University’s (NTU) School of Materials Science and Engineering, attaching an electrode on the surface of a Venus flytrap plant at a laboratory in Singapore, as scientists develop a high-tech system for communicating with vegetation. Source: Roslan Rahman/AFP

7. Singapore 

Singapore has earned a reputation for offering the best education system in the world — and you won’t need to dive deep before encountering how its founding prime minister’s views on education played a role in this.

Lee Kuan Yew, the country’s first prime minister, famously said:

• “If you want to reach your goals and dreams, you cannot do it without discipline.”
• “If there was one formula for our success, it was that we were constantly studying how to make things work, or how to make them work better.”
• “What I fear is complacency. When things always become better, people tend to want more for less work.”

Discipline, perseverance and resiliency — these values have shaped Lee’s goals “to develop Singapore’s only available natural resource, its people”.

Singapore topped the rankings in numeracy in the most recent PISA assessment conducted in 2018. Students demonstrated exceptional mathematical skills, problem-solving abilities, and a strong foundation in numeracy.

Much of this is due to public policy done right:

• Generous scholarship to enable its best and brightest to enter some of the world’s premier universities
• Teacher starting salaries are more than the national median, attracting the country’s top graduates to the profession. Teachers also get 100 hours of training a year to keep up to date with the latest techniques
• A focus on identifying and developing talented students and directing them towards public service
• Focus on bilingualism and science, technology, engineering and mathematics.
• Big investments in education research. They test all reforms and monitor all outcomes before rolling them out./ among the best in the world.

Singaporean innovators have played a crucial role in developing electronic devices and household items that have become essential parts of our everyday routines.

These inventions include sustainable manufactured fish, an infrared fever screening framework, the mini-DNA sequencing machine and many more.

8. Netherlands 

The education system in the Netherlands is known worldwide for being one of the best in the world. This is due to its excellent quality and many top-ranked world-class universities. 

In the most recent PISA assessment conducted in 2018, the Netherlands performed above the OECD average in numeracy.

Though the Netherlands is a non-English speaking country, many universities in the country offer English-taught courses for the ease of international students who are not familiar with the country’s official language.

This, combined with the well-designed, cutting-edge facilities and curriculum these institutions offer, makes the Dutch curriculum one of the best education systems in the world.

The cost of education in the Netherlands is comparatively lower too, making it one of the cheapest European countries . 

Here are inventions you probably didn’t know were invented in the Netherlands:

• cassette, CD and DVD

France is known as the city of love and one of the countries offering the best educational system in the world. Source: Jeff Pachoud/AFP

9. France 

France is known for much more than the Eifel Tower, croissants and fashion. The country is known globally for having the best education system in the world.  

In France, education is one of the most basic rights of its citizens. The country made it compulsory for those between the age of six to 16 to receive education . 

In the most recent PISA assessment conducted in 2018, students in France scored 493 points in reading, slightly above the OECD average (487). However, their performance in numeracy was slightly below the OECD average.

Nonetheless, some of its universities are known to rival MIT (University of Paris-Saclay) and to have one of the world’s finest engineering schools (Ecole Polytechnique) in the world.

And apart from the US, France has more Fields medal-winners for maths than any other country. It’s an award given to two to four mathematicians under 40 years of age at the International Congress of the International Mathematical Union (IMU) every four years. Think of it as the Nobel Prize of Mathematics.

Aside from its excellent education system, did you know that France is also known for the invention of hair dryers and pencil sharpeners?

Students and visitors walk around the campus of Ewha Womans University in Seoul on March 2, 2023, which was founded in 1886. Source: Anthony Wallace/AFP

10. South Korea 

In South Korea, education comes first. Nine out of 10 elementary school students receive private tutoring after school, and eight out of 10 high school graduates go to college.

This is thanks to a Confucian legacy revering education — one that’s enabled it to perform very well in the PISA. Its students have achieved high rankings in PISA since their participation in the assessments began in 2000.

South Korea is also home to several prestigious universities known for their academic excellence, research output, and global reputation. Here are some of the top universities in South Korea:

• Seoul National University (SNU)
• Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
• Korea University

And there’s no need to highlight that some of the smartest TVs and smartphones were invented in South Korea.

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Walking Towards Food Justice: A Call to Action for Indigenous Communities

Guest Opinion.  Amid staggering food-price inflation and the rollback of pandemic benefits, access to nutritious and affordable food continues to be one of the most significant challenges facing Native American communities across the United States. 

I grew up in the Fort Belknap Indian Community in Montana. At that time, it was a food desert located 76 miles from the nearest affordable grocery store. We lived in poverty, like many families in the community, and my parents worked hard to put food on the table. We didn’t have access to fresh fruits and vegetables. 

Unfortunately, the absence of fresh produce and other nutritious food options has had lasting, generational consequences on my community and on me. Like many Native people — nearly 15% according to the Centers for Disease Control — I was diagnosed with diabetes 

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• Native News Health Desk

This lived experience fuels my passion for food-justice advocacy that I bring to my new role at Newman’s Own Foundation as the organization’s first Indigenous Communities Officer. Despite our rich cultural heritage and deep connection to the land and food for healing, too many of our families face barriers to access, and too many of our reservations are food deserts.

Addressing the Roots of Food Insecurity

According to the nonprofit Feeding America, approximately 1 in 5 Native Americans are food insecure. Geographic isolation, strained economic opportunities, and inadequate infrastructure are driving factors. Food insecurity is the issue, and it’s rooted in historical injustices and systemic barriers due to intentional policies severing Indigenous peoples from their ancestral ways of eating and reliance on the land. This contributes to cycles of poverty and perpetuates health disparities. People fail to recognize the urgency of this problem. 

No child should have to worry about where their next meal will come from, or if their food will provide the nutrients needed to thrive. 

Food is so much more than nutrition; it is spiritually connected with our bodies and even our memories. The lack of access to healthy, culturally relevant foods has had a profound impact on the physical and mental well-being of our communities. 

I carry with me the cherished memories of my grandmother's cooking. Her mac and cheese blended large chunks of government cheese, noodles, and milk into a creamy baked perfection. Little did I know that this meal would be a formative lesson in how commodity food programs issued cheap, highly processed foods on our reservations, ultimately contributing to our communities facing physical health problems like diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension.

Newman's Own Foundation is prioritizing Indigenous Food Justice in its philanthropic efforts. I am part of that commitment to bring more grant dollars and funding than ever to tribes and Native-led organizations to address food access and agricultural solutions. The Foundation draws inspiration from its founder, the legendary film star and race car driver Paul Newman. Since the 1990s,  Newman’s Own Foundation has invested resources in Native communities, and we want to deepen that commitment. 

In many ways, the path forward involves a return to our Indigenous roots. This year, Newman's Own Foundation launched a $1 million Food Justice For Kids Prize to bring awareness and funding to tribes, nonprofits, and schools, creating impact across Indigenous Food Justice and Nutrition Education and School Food. In 2023, the Foundation provided over $1.5 million in grants to more than 30 organizations supporting Native people and advancing nutrition efforts. 

Return to Indigenous Cuisine and Food Practices 

Newman’s Own Foundation grantee partners are making cultural shifts happen as they reimagine and revitalize Indigenous cuisine and return to Native food practices. 

James Beard-award-winning chef and restaurateur Sean Sherman continues to make headlines with delicious meals that cut out colonized ingredients like beef, pork, chicken, dairy, wheat flour, and sugar. His nonprofit North American Traditional Food Systems (NATIFS) brings meals to Indigenous schools and families and has been a Newman’s Own Foundation grantee partner since 2021. The organization does so much to support Indigenous food pathways, access, and infrastructure, especially with the Center for Indigenous Education. 

Regenerative Agriculture and Farming 

Food sourcing is a core focus area for many of our grantee partners. I’m most optimistic about the transformative power of regenerative farming and agriculture in addressing the root causes of food insecurity, while also promoting holistic well-being among Indigenous peoples. For more than 40 years, First Nations Development Institute has been uplifting, funding, and supporting Native communities. The Institute is committed to helping Native people reclaim control over their food systems through advocacy, regenerative farming practices, and cultural preservation. 

In Arizona, Nalwoodi Denzhone Community works with Native youth on education programs, food production, and summer camps, all centered around food security and nurturing tribal and non-tribal partnerships. In South Dakota, Makoce Agriculture System is developing the needed infrastructure and resources to create local agriculture and a local food hub for the betterment of the environment and community. These are just a few examples in action across the country, and where there’s alignment, there’s the potential for collaboration and knowledge sharing. 

Our communities often don’t have access to nourishing food, and that has devastating health consequences every day. Addressing food justice in Native communities is an urgent priority, and we need to support innovative solutions like regenerative agriculture and Indigenous food systems to improve access now. 

As a member of the Aaniiih tribe, my name is Itha-Gibi-That , or Walking Woman. I’m committed to walking in my purpose and hope to help build a more connected network for our grantees to learn, develop, and grow. I already see so many synergies and throughlines with their work. I see their progress. To make change happen, we need to tap into the strength and wisdom of each other and unite Indigenous communities to forge food systems that honor our well-being and preserve our cultural legacy. 

Jackie Blackbird is first-ever Indigenous Communities Officer of the Newman’s Own Foundation, where she is committed to broadening and deepening the Foundation’s commitment to Indigenous Food Justice. Blackbird is a member of the Aaniiih tribe of the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation in Montana.

These stories must be heard.

This May, we are highlighting our coverage of Indian boarding schools and their generational impact on Native families and Native communities. Giving survivors of boarding schools and their descendants the opportunity to share their stories is an important step toward healing — not just because they are speaking, but because they are being heard. Their stories must be heard. Help our efforts to make sure Native stories and Native voices are heard in 2024. Please consider a recurring donation to help fund our ongoing coverage of Indian boarding schools. Donate to Native News Online today and support independent Indigenous-centered journalism. Thank you.

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole . Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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