teenage pregnancy thesis

106 Topics about Teenage Pregnancy Essay Examples, & Tips

Want to know how to write an essay about teenage pregnancy? This issue is very hot, sensitive, and controversial. Numerous articles and researches focus on its causes and effects.

❗ Teenage Pregnancy Essay: How to Write?

🏆 top 10 topics about teenage pregnancy, 🥇 best teenage pregnancy essay examples & topic ideas, 📌 interesting teenage pregnancy research paper topics, 👍 good research topics about teenage pregnancy, ❓ research questions on teenage pregnancy.

We’ve collected a list of topics about teenage pregnancy, as well as a number of tips on outlining your essay, writing an introduction, and formulating a teenage pregnancy thesis statement. Get inspired with us!

Whether approaching the subject from a demographic or medical point of view, the interest in a teenage pregnancy essay heavily roots itself in the issues of today.

With a multitude of topics dealing with different sides, from mothers and children to the government, creating a unique essay that will get you a good grade is a matter of adequately constructing your argument.

Choose a single theme that you will address. All teenage pregnancy essay topics center on one problem but concern themselves with different facets of it. Thus, you have to decide whether you want to write about government-supported methods of pregnancy prevention or the repercussions of an increase in the number of teenage mothers.
Carry out your research process and compile your findings into a bibliography. You should use book and journal titles to demonstrate your in-depth knowledge of the issue, properly referencing your sources within your paper when you use them. The more you understand your chosen problem from the viewpoint of different researchers and their studies, the more you can hope to write a comprehensive essay.
Write an outline. By doing so, with or without using topic sentences, you can see how many sub-themes you touch upon and how inclusive your work is. This action will help you save time by writing and rewording the better part of your paper, as you will see potential structural issues early on.
Construct a title. As the first thing a potential reader sees, it should be both engaging and thought-provoking. However, teenage pregnancy essay titles should grab their readers’ attention without a shock factor, intriguing them with information but not demeaning their topic. Regardless of your opinion regarding the issue, remember that you are writing about living people who deserve fair treatment.

You should draft your paper traditionally with an introduction, body, and conclusion. You can start your first paragraph with an interesting fact or statistical number to gain your audience’s attention. However, do not forget to write a thesis statement, as well as a hook.

Your introduction and conclusion should reflect each other, and that may become possible only if your first paragraph gives your reader an idea of what your stance is and what you plan to achieve in your paper. Without a thesis, you can neither expect readers to get interested in your work nor write an excellent conclusion yourself.

Understand what your teenage pregnancy essay body needs, and include only information that will help you advance your main argument.

For example, if you are writing a paper from a sociology studies perspective, then you may see that you may gain an advantage by writing from a statistical or socioeconomic perspective.

Remove any sentences that do not link to your thesis statement, directly or indirectly. Your central argument should be pivotal to your paper, as exciting as the various facts that you find may be.

Superb structure comes from reading up on even better examples. You can easily find a teenage pregnancy essay example or two and use them to get inspired. Do not forget to assess these sample papers on technique and information included, gauging which methods you can uplift into your own work.

However, remember that you cannot and should not plagiarize, as copying and pasting information is an academic offense. Safeguard your paper’s grade by remaining academically honest.

Teenage Pregnancy Thesis Statement

Early pregnancies remain one of the most acute social problems in the world. Still, formulating a teenage pregnancy thesis statement might be a challenge. To make it easier for you, we’ve prepared some examples.

The complications associated with early pregnancies are the main cause of death for 15-19-year-old girls in the world; therefore, the problem of teenage pregnancy needs to be addressed on the governmental level worldwide.
Teenage pregnancies have severe health, social, and economic implications both in developed and developing countries.
Sex education in schools is the best way to prevent early pregnancies.
Reducing social pressure on girls to marry and bear children early is the best way to lower the levels of teenage pregnancies in the least developed countries.

Are you still confused by your assignment? Let IvyPanda help you with any topic!

Teenage pregnancies in developed countries
How to prevent teenage pregnancies?
Adolescent pregnancies in various regions of the world
Teenage pregnancy as a cause of death
Early pregnancies and health consequences
Early childbearing and severe neonatal conditions
Social and economic effects of teenage pregnancies
Adolescent pregnancies in developing countries
Causes and effects of teenage pregnancy
Sex education as a way to prevent early pregnancies
Teenage Pregnancy Causes and Effects In addition to this, the modern society allows the teenagers to have a lot of time and space with the opposite sex on their own, which results to instances of pregnancy at teenage hood.
Teenage Pregnancy Concept and Problems This becomes potentially dangerous to the teenage girls due to the lack of prenatal care and the fact that her body is not fully developed to carry a pregnancy.
Teen Pregnancy: Causes, Effects and Prevention Teenage pregnancy is the pregnancy of underage girls during their adolescent period, normally between the ages of 13 to 19 but this range varies depending on the age of the menarche and the legal age […]
Teenage Pregnancy Major Causes and Solutions Thus, one of the manifest functions of the family is to be the meaningful unit which supports the accepted social order and is a support of the state.
Positive Impacts of Sex Education on Teenage Pregnancies Failures of Sex Education in reducing teenage pregnancies According to the article by Stobbe, education has not achieved much in terms of helping students change their attitudes and behavior on sex and use of birth […]
Sex Education Role in Preventing Teenage Pregnancy In a bid to survive, the teens resort to prostitution as a means of earning a livelihood, which in turn leads to teenage pregnancies.
The Ways to Reduce Teenage Pregnancies Although teen pregnancy is an ongoing problem, it can be reduced with good education, parental support, and birth control Over the last couple of years, the United States of America has woken up to the […]
Teenage Pregnancy and Abortion: Articles Evaluation The article highlights the importance of coming up with sexual health services and contraception methods, which are community-based for the benefit of the young people in a bid to counter the seemingly never-ending menace of […]
Teenage Pregnancy and Its Consequences to the Society The opportunities of mother and the child to build a future are further depleted by these risks. Education to the youthful teens would be a valuable tool to curb early pregnancies.
Social Aspects of Teenage Pregnancy In recent years, both in the USA and in European countries, the number of pregnant women among minors has been increasing due to a decrease in the age of sexual debut, an increase in sexual […]
Improving Health Care Delivery: Teenage Pregnancy Due to the absence of proper support, these young individuals lack timely prenatal care and skills to support their developing fetuses.
Teenage Pregnancies in California Socioeconomic position, teens’ surroundings, their family, and the number of resources accessible epitomize some of the teenage pregnancy causation. The Maternal, Child, and Adolescent Health Program is a different initiative from the State of California […]
Teenage Pregnancy and Quality of Care Therefore, the most effective method of ensuring the quality of care, patient safety, and costs is conducting campaigns to prevent teenage pregnancies.
The National Campaign End Teenage Pregnancy in Ohio The dream of most parents is to ensure their children lead to a successful future which may be affected by the occurrence of unplanned teenage birth.
Teenage Pregnancy Problem and Decision-Making Tool The first option is the birth of a new person and the opportunity for the young mother to love and raise him.
Teenage Pregnancy in America The WHO says that many teenage pregnancies that end in birth often lead to poor emotional and physical health for the new mothers. The same research also reveals that increasing access to effective contraception is […]
Teenage Pregnancy in New Jersey This paper aims to address the issue of teenage pregnancy in New Jersey and identify the parties that influence young people’s decisions related to sexual behavior.
Teenage Pregnancy: Statistics, Factors, and Strategies One of the causes of the high levels in teen pregnancies is attributed to poverty and the social inequalities in both Britain and America.
The Problem of Teenage Pregnancy Marx, Fleur Hopper Faith-Based versus Fact-Based Social Policy: The Case of Teenage Pregnancy Prevention published in Social Work, Volume 50, 2005, is dedicated to the idea of teenage pregnancy in the United States.
Psychological Causes of Teenage Pregnancy They are not settled in their lives and are not able to bear the responsibility of a child. Abortion is also justified in the unfortunate event of teenage marriage and pregnancy.
Teenage Pregnancy Rates and Prevention Programs The purpose of this paper is to study the adolescent pregnancy rates in the US, identify the risk factors, list health and mental risks of teenage pregnancy, and find existing and other possible solutions to […]
Teenage Pregnancy, Abortion, and Sex Education According to, some individuals in the society particularly the religious ones see abortion as a vice affecting every corner of the world.
The Major Factors of Teenage Pregnancy Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, states that low self-esteem is often associated with abused children and are one of the factors that shape teenagers’ sexual behavioral patterns and lead to teen pregnancy.
Popular Culture and Teenage Pregnancy Among Americans This has been the case particularly in regards to the Western society of the early to the middle 20th century and the up-and-coming international normalcy of the late 20th and 21st century.
Teenage Pregnancy in the Modern World Teenage pregnancy rate in America is among the highest among the developed nations; although the teen pregnancy rate is said to be dropping in the past years in the developed world, in the US, rate […]
Increasing of Sex Education in Schools to Curb Teenage Pregnancy Increased sex education is important because it emphasizes on the need to abstain and use of contraceptives. It is therefore important to increase sex education in schools to avert cases of teenage pregnancies.
The Rise of Teenage Pregnancy Rates in the United States of America
Teenage Pregnancy: Keeping Healthy Relationships With All Involved
Children and the Issues of Teenage Pregnancy and Gangs
The Importance of Condom Distribution in Schools to Prevent the Rise of Teenage Pregnancy
The Misunderstanding of Contraceptives: The Rising Teenage Pregnancy Rates Around The Globe
Understanding Teenage Pregnancy in Society
Sexual Education: Teenage Pregnancy a Global View by Andrew Cherry
The Issue of Teenage Pregnancy in America and the Alternatives to Legal Abortion
Teenage Pregnancy and The Role of Health Professionals
Physical and Mental Effect of Teenage Pregnancy
The Failures of the Abstinence-Only Education to Curb Teenage Pregnancy in the United States
Teenage Pregnancy and Parenthood as a Social Problem
Why Hollywood’s Perception of Teenage Pregnancy Is Flawed
Teenage Pregnancy and Adolescent Pregnancy
The Effect of Minimum Legal Drinking Age Restrictions on Teenage Pregnancy and Pregnancy Outcomes
The Serious Issue of Teenage Pregnancy in America and the Reasons for the Rise of the Social Problem in the Country
The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy
The Cause and Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy in the United States
The Serious Issue of Teenage Pregnancy in the Philippines and in Developed Countries Around the World
The Central Issues of Teenage Pregnancy and Out-Of-Wedlock Childbearing
The Social Problem of Teenage Pregnancy in the Philippines
The Impact of Teenage Pregnancy on the Health Care System and Population Subgroups
Teenage Pregnancy and Parents Were Not Ready for Kids
Psychosocial Development and the Effects of Teenage Pregnancy
Teenage Pregnancy and the Role of the Fathers
The Issue of Teenage Pregnancy in Dysfunctional American Families
The Determinants of Teenage Pregnancy Using the Seedhouse
Relationship Between Delinquency and Teenage Pregnancy
The Introduction of Teenage Pregnancy in Frank Furstenberg’s Unplanned Parenthood
The Social Issue of Teenage Pregnancy in High Schools in America
Why Comprehensive Sex Education Can Help Prevent Teenage Pregnancy in Philadelphia
Teenage Pregnancy : Protecting Our Youth Through Abstinence
The Health Issues and Risk of Teenage Pregnancy in Philadelphia
The Effects of Teenage Pregnancy on Teenage Mothers
Teenage Pregnancy and Its Effect on Children
The Different Social Factors That Influence Teenage Pregnancy Among American Teenagers
The Significance of the Introduction of Birth Control for Teens to Prevent Teenage Pregnancy
The Socio-Economic Effects of Teenage Pregnancy on Girls in Secondary School
The Teenage Pregnancy Versus Parental Consent in Regards to Unwanted Abortion
The Issue of Sexual Activity Among Teenagers and Teenage Pregnancy in the United States
What Cultural Factors Contribute to the Spread of Teenage Pregnancy?
Why Does Reducing the Risk of Teen Pregnancy Matter?
What Are the Statistics on Teenage Pregnancy in the United States?
What Is the Incidence of Teenage Pregnancy Among Blacks and Hispanic Teens?
How Does Sex Education Affect Teen Pregnancy?
What Is the Role of the Media in Raising Awareness of the Social Issue of Teenage Pregnancy?
How Does Socioeconomic Status Affect Early Adolescent Pregnancy?
What Social and Personal Factors Affect Adolescent Pregnancy?
How Teenage Pregnancy Changes Lives Forever?
What Are the Causes and Effects of Teenage Pregnancy?
How Does Teen Pregnancy Affect Academic Performance?
What Caused the Teenage Pregnancy Epidemic?
How to Prevent Health Problems During Teenage Pregnancy?
What Can You Do to Reduce Teen Pregnancy Rates?
How Does Developing Gender Expression Affect Teen Pregnancy?
What Causes Social Isolation in Teen Pregnancy?
How to Prevent Stress and Depression in Teen Pregnancy?
What Are the Physical and Mental Implications of Teen Pregnancy?
How Teenage Pregnancy Stops Students From Finishing What They Started?
What Facts About Teen Pregnancy Should You Know?
How Can Teenage Pregnancy Be Prevented?
What Are the Implications of Teenage Pregnancy?
How Can Society Prevent and Avoid Unwanted Teenage Pregnancy?
How Teenage Pregnancy Affects the High School Dropout Rate?
What Is the Role of Health Care Professionals in Preventing Teenage Pregnancy?
How Can Comprehensive Sexuality Education Help Prevent Teen Pregnancy in Philadelphia?
Why Has the Teenage Pregnancy Rate Been on the Rise for Many Years?
Do Certain Economic Factors Affect Abortions in Teenage Pregnancy?
What Is the Dilemma of Teenage Pregnancy in Indonesia?
Humanism Research Ideas
Sexual Abuse Essay Titles
Adolescence Questions
Birth control Questions
Family Problems Questions
Postpartum Depression Paper Topics
Motherhood Ideas
Parenting Research Topics
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Research article
Open access
Published: 25 May 2016

Teenage pregnancy: the impact of maternal adolescent childbearing and older sister’s teenage pregnancy on a younger sister

Elizabeth Wall-Wieler 1 ,
Leslie L. Roos 1 &
Nathan C. Nickel 1

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth volume 16 , Article number: 120 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

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Risk factors for teenage pregnancy are linked to many factors, including a family history of teenage pregnancy. This research examines whether a mother’s teenage childbearing or an older sister’s teenage pregnancy more strongly predicts teenage pregnancy.

This study used linkable administrative databases housed at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy (MCHP). The original cohort consisted of 17,115 women born in Manitoba between April 1, 1979 and March 31, 1994, who stayed in the province until at least their 20 th birthday, had at least one older sister, and had no missing values on key variables. Propensity score matching (1:2) was used to create balanced cohorts for two conditional logistic regression models; one examining the impact of an older sister’s teenage pregnancy and the other analyzing the effect of the mother’s teenage childbearing.

The adjusted odds of becoming pregnant between ages 14 and 19 for teens with at least one older sister having a teenage pregnancy were 3.38 (99 % CI 2.77–4.13) times higher than for women whose older sister(s) did not have a teenage pregnancy. Teenage daughters of mothers who had their first child before age 20 had 1.57 (99 % CI 1.30–1.89) times higher odds of pregnancy than those whose mothers had their first child after age 19. Educational achievement was adjusted for in a sub-population examining the odds of pregnancy between ages 16 and 19. After this adjustment, the odds of teenage pregnancy for teens with at least one older sister who had a teenage pregnancy were reduced to 2.48 (99 % CI 2.01–3.06) and the odds of pregnancy for teen daughters of teenage mothers were reduced to 1.39 (99 % CI 1.15–1.68).

Although both were significant, the relationship between an older sister’s teenage pregnancy and a younger sister’s teenage pregnancy is much stronger than that between a mother’s teenage childbearing and a younger daughter’s teenage pregnancy. This study contributes to understanding of the broader topic “who is influential about what” within the family.

Peer Review reports

The risks and realities associated with teenage motherhood are well documented, with consequences starting at childbirth and following both mother and child over the life span.

Teenage births result in health consequences; children are more likely to be born pre-term, have lower birth weight, and higher neonatal mortality, while mothers experience greater rates of post-partum depression and are less likely to initiate breastfeeding [ 1 , 2 ]. Teenage mothers are less likely to complete high school, are more likely to live in poverty, and have children who frequently experience health and developmental problems [ 3 ]. Understanding the risk factors for teenage pregnancy is a prerequisite for reducing rates of teenage motherhood. Various social and biological factors influence the odds of teenage pregnancy; these include exposure to adversity during childhood and adolescence, a family history of teenage pregnancy, conduct and attention problems, family instability, and low educational achievement [ 4 , 5 ].

Mothers and older sisters are the main sources of family influence on teenage pregnancy; this is due to both social risk and social influence. Family members both contribute to an individual’s attitudes and values around teenage pregnancy, and share social risks (such as poverty, ethnicity, and lack of opportunities) that influence the likelihood of teenage pregnancy [ 6 , 7 ]. Having an older sister who was a teen mom significantly increases the risk of teenage childbearing in the younger sister and daughters of teenage mothers were significantly more likely to become teenage mothers themselves [ 8 , 9 ]. Girls having both a mother and older sister who had teenage births experienced the highest odds of teenage pregnancy, with one study reporting an odds ratio of 5.1 (compared with those who had no history of family teenage pregnancy) [ 5 ]. Studies consistently indicate that girls with a familial history of teenage childbearing are at much higher risk of teenage pregnancy and childbearing themselves, but methodological complexities have resulted in inconsistent findings around “parent/child sexual communication and adolescent pregnancy risk” [ 10 ]. A review of family relationships and adolescent pregnancy risk found risk factors to include living in poor neighborhoods and families, having older siblings who were sexually active, and being a victim of sexual abuse [ 10 ]. Research around the impact of sister’s teenage pregnancy has been limited to mostly qualitative studies using small samples of minority adolescents in the United States [ 5 , 11 ].

To our knowledge, no previous studies have examined the impact of an older sister’s teenage pregnancy on the odds of her younger sister having a teenage pregnancy, and compared this effect with the direct effect of having a mother who bore her first child before age 20. By controlling for a variety of social and biological factors (such as neighborhood socioeconomic status, marital status of mother, residential mobility, family structure changes, and mental health), and the use of a strong statistical design—propensity score matching with a large population-based dataset—this study aims to determine whether teenage pregnancy is more strongly predicted by having an older sister who had a teenage pregnancy or by having a mother who bore her first child before age 20.

The setting of this study, Manitoba, is generally representative of Canada as a whole, ranking in the middle for several health and education indicators [ 12 , 13 ]. At the time of the 2011 Census, approximately 1.2 million people resided in Manitoba, with more than half (783,247) living in the two urban areas, Winnipeg and Brandon [ 14 ]. Teenage pregnancy rates in Manitoba exceed the national; in 2010 teenage pregnancy rates in Canada were 28.2 per 1000, in Manitoba the rate was 48.7 per 1000 [ 15 ]. The Manitoba teen pregnancy rates in 2010 were slightly lower than rates in England and Wales (54.6 per 1000), and the United States (57.4 per 1000) [ 16 , 17 ].

The Manitoba Population Health Research Data Repository contains province-wide, routinely collected individual data over time (going back to 1970 in some files), across space (with residential location documented using six digit postal codes), for each family (with changes in family structure recorded every 6 months) and for each resident. Health variables are measured continuously from physician claims and hospital abstracts (as long as an individual remains in Manitoba) [ 18 ].

A research registry identifies every provincial resident, with information on births, arrival and departure dates, and deaths created from the provincial health registry and coordinated with Vital Statistics files. Given approximately 16,000 births annually, follow-up (about 74 % over 20 years) is comparable to that in the largest cohort studies based on primary data [ 19 ]. Previous research using similar data shows the results are not biased by individuals leaving the province or dying. Information on data linkage, confidentiality/privacy, and validity of the datasets used have been described elsewhere [ 20 – 22 ]. Children are linked to mothers using hospital birth record information; the mother was noted in essentially all cases [ 23 ]. Sisters were defined as having the same biological mother.

The cohort consists of women who were born in Manitoba between April 1, 1979 and March 31, 1994, stayed in the province until at least their 20 th birthday, had at least one older sister, and had no missing values on key variables. In this study, teenage pregnancies are defined as those between the ages of 14 and 19; pregnancies prior to age 14 were excluded due to low numbers and for comparability to other studies. For this reason, families in which at least one sister had a pregnancy before age 14 were removed (34 families). To address threats of independence, when a family had more than one younger sister (more than two daughters), one younger sister was randomly selected. Figure 1 diagrams the selection trajectory for the 17,115 individuals selected—boxes in bold indicate the included cohort. At age 14, just over 85 % of girls in this cohort were living in the same postal code as at least one older sister.

Cohort selection

Teenage pregnancy was defined as having at least one pregnancy between the ages of 14 and 19 (inclusive). A pregnancy is defined as having at least one hospitalization of with a live birth, missed abortion, ectopic pregnancy, abortion, or intrauterine death, or at least one hospital procedure of surgical termination of pregnancy, surgical removal of ectopic pregnancy, pharmacological termination or pregnancy or intervention during labour and delivery. Pregnancy status was determined by ICD-9-CM codes (for diagnoses before April 1, 2004), ICD-10-CA codes (for diagnoses on or after April 1, 2004), and Canadian Classification of Health Intervention (CCI) codes in the hospital discharge abstract database [ 24 ]. Appendix 1 presents specific codes used to determine pregnancy status.

Independent variable

The independent variables of interest were whether an individual had an older sister with a teenage pregnancy (defined for all sisters as described above) and whether an individual’s mother bore her first child before age 20.

Based on an extensive literature review and availability of information in the database, several key variables describing neighborhood, maternal, and individual characteristics were included [ 4 , 25 ]. Covariates measure characteristics in the younger sister’s life before age 14. Neighborhood socioeconomic status at age 14 was measured by the Socioeconomic Factor Index (SEFI) (higher SEFI score corresponds with lower socioeconomic status), which is generated using Manitoba (Statistics Canada) dissemination areas [ 26 ]. This index combines neighborhood information on income, education, employment, and family structure. These neighborhoods typically include between 400 and 700 urban individuals and are somewhat larger in rural areas. Neighborhood location at age 14 was divided into urban (Winnipeg and Brandon), rural south (South Eastman, Central, and Assiniboine Regional Health Authorities), and rural mid/north (North Eastman, Interlake, Parkland, Nor-Man, Churchill, and Burntwood Regional Health Authorities). The maternal characteristic included is marital status at birth of child. An individual’s number of older sisters was also accounted for.

Three time-varying covariates between birth and age 13 for the younger sister were included in the study- mental health conditions, residential mobility, and family structure change. These variables can occur at specific points in time and the timing of their occurrence can differ across individuals. Mental health is defined using the Johns Hopkins University Adjusted Clinical Group (ACG) software; this software groups medical and hospital diagnoses over the course of a year into 27 Major Expanded Diagnostic Clusters (MEDCs) [ 27 ]. If for 1 year between birth and age 13, the diagnoses an individual received fell into the ‘Mental Health’ MEDC, that individual was categorized as having mental health conditions before age 13. Residential mobility was measured by at least one residential move (defined by change in six digit postal code) between birth and age 13. At least one change in family structure (parental divorce, death, marriage, remarriage) between birth and age 13 was noted as ‘family structure change’.

Low educational achievement has been linked to an increased risk of teenage pregnancy [ 28 ]. The earliest measure of educational achievement available is the Grade 9 Achievement Index, which was built on a technique developed by Mosteller and Tukey using enrollment files, course grades, and the provincial population registry [ 29 , 30 ]. As some of the individuals in this cohort experience their first pregnancy before completing grade 9, this covariate is only appropriate for girls having their first pregnancy after their 16 th birthday. Sensitivity testing was done with this population to determine how strongly educational achievement affected the odds of the variables of interest.

Analytic approach

The relationship between pregnancy during one’s teenage years and having an older sister who became pregnant during adolescence or having a mother who bore her first child as a teenager is confounded by many measured and unmeasured characteristics. We adjusted for these confounding characteristics using 2:1 propensity score matching [ 31 ]; two controls were matched with every case as this “will result in optimal estimation of treatment effect [ 32 ]”. Propensity score matching both enables adjustment for several confounders simultaneously and facilitates diagnostic tests to identify whether the adjustment strategy created comparable exposure groups (i.e., whether women with and without an older sister who got pregnant during adolescence are similar on observed characteristics) [ 31 ]. Logistic regression models were used to calculate propensity scores for two responses—the predicted probability of having an older sister having a teenage pregnancy and the predicted probability of having a mother bearing her first child before age 20. For each model, we investigated the comparability of our two groups—those with and without an older sister having a teenage pregnancy, and those with and without a mother who bore her first child as a teenager—using two diagnostics. A kernel density plot verified that the distribution of propensity scores in our two groups overlapped [ 33 ]; each case was matched to two controls using greedy matching [ 34 ]. Second, after matching, the balance of the covariates was assessed using standard differences and t-tests. Covariate balance was checked by t-statistics calculated for the standardized differences between cases and controls for each covariate before and after matching. Any point outside of the two vertical dotted lines signified a statistically significant difference between the cases and controls on that covariate (at p = 0.05) (Figs. 2 and 3 ).

Checking covariate balance of older sister’s teenage pregnancy status

Checking covariate balance of mother’ teenage mom status

Conditional logistic regression analysis of the matched cohorts examined the impact of an older sister’s teenage pregnancy and of a mother’s teenage childbearing on teenage pregnancy. Sensitivity analysis helped assess the validity of the assumption of no unobservable confounders, and assessed how strong the influence of unobserved covariates would have to be in order to nullify our findings [ 35 , 36 ]. The lower limit of the 99 % confidence interval (selected to be more conservative) was used to determine the threshold unobserved covariates would have to reach to void the observed relationship.

Impact of older sister having a teenage pregnancy

Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics of the covariates and outcome variables. Of the girls having an older sister with a teenage pregnancy, 40.4 % had a teenage pregnancy. This is significantly higher than the 10.3 % teenage pregnancy rate among those not having an older sister with a teenage pregnancy.

The covariates, in general, accord with social stratification theory [ 37 ]. Teens with an older sister having a teenage pregnancy were also more likely to have been born to an unmarried mother and have a mother who herself was a teenage mother (43 % versus 14 %). At age 14, approximately 42 % of those whose older sister had a teenage pregnancy lived in Rural Mid/Northern Manitoba; only 22 % of those whose older sister did not have a teenage pregnancy lived in this region at age 14. Lower teenage pregnancy was associated with residence in relatively prosperous southern Manitoba. Individuals with older sisters having teenage pregnancies were more likely to live in lower socioeconomic status neighborhood (higher SEFI scores at age 14) with higher rates of residential mobility (68 % vs 59 %), family structure change (28 % vs 16 %), and mental health issues (19 % vs 16 %).

After propensity score matching (on all variables in Fig. 2 ), the final sample consisted of 1873 cases and 3746 controls (1:2); a total of 1618 cases and 9878 controls were excluded from the analysis. T-statistics calculated for each covariate before and after matching to check for covariate balance; all covariates differed significantly in the unmatched sample and balanced in the matched sample (Fig. 2 ).

The final conditional logistic regression model indicates the odds of becoming pregnant before age 20 for those having an older sister with a teenage pregnancy to be 3.38 (99 % CI 2.77–4.13) times greater than for girls whose older sister(s) did not have a teenage pregnancy (Table 3 ).

Impact of mother’s teenage childbearing

Table 2 displays the descriptive statistics of the covariates and outcome variables. Of the girls having a teenage mother, 39.4 % had a teenage pregnancy. This is significantly higher than the 13.1 % teenage pregnancy rates among those whose mother bore her first child after age 19.

After propensity score matching (on all variables in Fig. 3 ), the final sample consisted of 1522 cases and 3044 controls (1:2); a total of 659 cases and 11890 controls were excluded from the analysis. T-statistics calculated for each covariate showed all covariates to differ significantly in the unmatched sample and to balance in the matched sample (Fig. 3 ).

The final conditional logistic regression model indicates that the odds of becoming pregnant before age 20 for those whose mother had her first child before age 20 are 1.57 (99 % CI 1.30–1.89) times greater than for girls whose mother had her first child after age 19 (Table 3 ). Thus, the impact of being born to a mother having her first child before age 20 on teenage pregnancy is much less than that of an older sisters’ teenage pregnancy.

Sensitivity analysis and limitations

With the confidence interval for the first model (examining the association between an older sister’s teenage pregnancy and a younger sister’s teenage pregnancy) ranging between 2.77 and 4.13, to attribute the higher rates of teenage pregnancy to unmeasured confounding rather than to an older sisters’ teen pregnancy status, that covariate would need to generate more than a 2.8-fold increase in the odds of teenage pregnancy and be a near perfect predictor of teenage pregnancy. In the second model (assessing the association between a mother’s teenage childbearing and a younger sister’s teenage pregnancy), the 99 % confidence interval was 1.30 to 1.89; unobserved covariates would need to produce a much smaller increase in odds of teen pregnancy to nullify this finding.

Although linkable administrative data have significant advantages, some important predictors are lacking. Information on involvement with Child and Family Services (CFS) and parental use of income assistance have recently been added to the Manitoba databases, but do not cover the cohort used here. While having a teenage mother and becoming a teenage mother have both been linked to involvement with CFS, in 2001 less than two percent of children under age 18 were in care [ 38 , 39 ]. A variable available (and applicable) for a subpopulation is educational achievement, which is highly correlated with both involvement with CFS and parental welfare use [ 40 ]. These two new measures would likely explain little additional variance in teenage pregnancy. Appendix 2 describes the cohort and propensity score matching for this additional analysis, comparing these findings with the original results in Table 3 . Educational attainment is measured using the Grade 9 Achievement Index, a standardized measure taking into account the number of courses completed in Grade 9 and the average marks of those courses. After adjusting for educational achievement, the odds of teenage pregnancy for teens with at least one older sister who had a teenage pregnancy were reduced to 2.48 (99 % CI 2.01–3.06) and the corresponding odds for teen daughters of teenage mothers were lowered to 1.39 (99 % CI 1.15–1.68).

The rate differences of teenage pregnancy were similar for those whose older sister had a teenage pregnancy (40.4 per 100 - 10.3 per 100 = 30.1 per 100) and for those whose mother bore her first child before age 20 (39.4 per 100 - 13.1 per 100 = 26.3 per 100). After propensity score matching on a series of variables, the odds of becoming pregnant for a teenager were much higher if her older sister had a teenage pregnancy than if her mother had been a teenage mother. For both older sisters’ teenage pregnancy and mother’s teenage childbearing, the odds in this study are lower than those reported elsewhere; this is likely due to the larger sample size, more rigorous methods, and inclusion of important predictors.

Several examinations of family histories in the literature show older sisters to have the greatest influence on a younger sister’s odds of having a teenage pregnancy. Controlling for family socioeconomic status, maternal parenting, and sibling relationships, teens with an older sister who had a teenage birth were 4.8 times more likely to have a teenage birth themselves; these odds increased to 5.1 if both the older sister and mother had a teenage birth [ 11 ]. Four older studies estimated the rate of teen pregnancy to be between 2 and 6 times higher for those with older sisters having a teenage pregnancy [ 41 ]. This work focused primarily on young black women in the United States and controlled for limited confounders (aside from race and age). None of the previous studies examining the impact of an older sister’s teenage pregnancy controlled for mother’s teenage childbearing or time-varying factors before age 14 (mental health, residential mobility, family structure changes); this research probably overestimated the relationship between sisters’ teenage pregnancy status.

The mechanisms driving the relationship between an older sister’s teenage pregnancy and the pregnancy of a younger adolescent sister have been examined through approaches based on social learning theory, shared parenting influences, and shared societal risk [ 41 ]. Bandura’s social learning theory indicates that “most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action” [ 7 ]. When sisters live in the same environment, seeing an older sister go through a teenage pregnancy and childbirth may make this a more acceptable option for the younger sister [ 11 ]. Not only do both sisters have the same maternal influence that may affect their odds of teenage pregnancy, having an older sister who is a teenage mother may change the parenting style of the mother. Mothers involved in parenting of their teenage daughters’ child may have “supervised their children less, communicated with their children less about sex and contraception, and perceived teenage sex as more acceptable when the older daughter’s status changed from pregnant to parenting” [ 42 ]. Finally, both sisters share the same social risks, such as poverty, ethnicity, and lack of opportunities, that increase their chances of having a teenage pregnancy [ 42 ].

Having a mother bearing her first child before age 20 was a significant predictor for teenage pregnancy. We found daughters of teenage mothers to be 51 % more likely to have a teenage pregnancy than those whose mothers were older than 19 when they bore their first child. This is quite close to the 66 % increase found by Meade et al (2008), who controlled for many of the same variables except having an older sister with a teenage pregnancy, and the time-varying covariates of family structure change, mental health conditions, and residential mobility. Meade et al. [ 9 ] did adjust for school performance; in the adjusted sub-sample, the odds ratio reduced to 1.34, indicating a 34 % increase in teenage pregnancy.

Intergenerational teenage pregnancy may be influenced by such mechanisms as “biological heritability, intergenerational transmission of values regarding family, the mother’s level of fertility, the indirect impact of socioeconomic and family environment through educational deficits or low opportunity or aspirations, and directly through the mother’s role modeling” [ 43 ]. Women bearing their first child in their adolescence are more likely to pass on “risky” characteristics, which could produce negative outcomes in their offspring [ 44 ]. Another mechanism identified as contributing to intergenerational teenage pregnancy is that daughters of teenage mothers have an increased internalized preference for early motherhood, have low levels of maternal monitoring, and are thus more likely to become sexually active at a young age and engage in unprotected sex [ 44 ]. The influence of a mother’s teenage pregnancy therefore works through the environment created and parenting style assumed as a result of a mother’s teenage childbearing.

The use of administrative data to conduct health services research has some significant advantages and limitations. Administrative data from a large birth cohort have higher levels of accuracy is not depending on recall (such as in retrospective surveys) and is ideal for examining risk factors over time due to the longitudinal follow-up [ 45 ]. These data—with a large N and a number of covariates—are well-suited for propensity scoring. A significant limitation (shared with almost all observational studies) is that certain covariates and mediating effects are unobservable due to lack of information. The data can only capture recorded variables; for example, only individuals seeking mental health treatment will receive a diagnosis, which may not be include all individuals with mental health conditions [ 46 ]. Sensitivity testing addresses this limitation, but such covariates might well have impacted study results. As mentioned above, not adjusting for involvement with child protective services (such as CFS) is a limitation. Although the number of teenage girls involved with CFS is relatively small, they may not be interacting with their mother or older sister on a regular basis and thus are less likely to model themselves after their family members. The availability of an educational predictor was an identified limitation. To account for the impact of educational achievement in our full cohort, educational outcomes would need to be available for everyone for grade 7 at the latest (as almost all teenage pregnancies occur after grade 7). Since educational achievement generally remains quite similar from year to year—grade 9 achievement is likely to be quite similar to grade 7 achievement [ 30 ]; this reduced odds ratio may better estimate the true odds. In several years, such variables can be incorporated into models of teenage pregnancy. Additionally, we were unable to identify Aboriginal individuals; this is a limitation as teenage pregnancy rates are more than twice as high in the Aboriginal population than in the general population [ 47 ]. Family and peer relationships, social norms, and cultural differences will likely never be measured through administrative data; limiting the degree to which these confounders can be controlled for.

Conclusions

This paper contributes to understanding of the broader topic “who is influential about what” within the family. The teenage pregnancy risk seen in younger sisters when older sisters had a teenage pregnancy appears based on the interaction with that sister and her child; the family environment experienced by the siblings is quite similar. Much of the pregnancy risk among teenage daughters of mothers bearing a child before age 20 seems likely to result from the adverse environment often associated with early childbearing. Given that an older sister’s teenage pregnancy has a greater impact than a mother’s teenage childbearing, social modelling may be a stronger risk factor for teenage pregnancy than living in an adverse environment.

Abbreviations

Adjusted Clinical Group

Canadian Classification of Health Intervention

Child and Family Services

International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification

International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision, with Canadian Enhancements

Major Expanded Diagnostic Clusters

Manitoba Centre for Health Policy

Socioeconomic Factor Index

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Acknowledgements

The results and conclusions are those of the authors and no official endorsement by the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy, Manitoba Health, Active Living and Seniors, or other data providers is intended or should be inferred. Data used in this study are from the Population Health Research Data Repository housed at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy, University of Manitoba and were derived from data provided by Manitoba Health, Active Living and Seniors and Manitoba Education under project #2013/2014-04. All data management, programming and analyses were performed using SAS® version 9.3. Aggregated Diagnosis Groups™(ADGs®) codes were created using The Johns Hopkins Adjusted Clinical Group® (ACG®) Case-Mix System” version 9.

This research has been supported by the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research and the Western Regional Training Centre. The funding sources had no involvement in study design, analysis and interpretation of data, in writing the article, and in the decision to submit for publication. None of the authors received any reimbursement for participating in the writing of this paper.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are available in the research repository at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy. Access to data is given upon approvals from the University of Manitoba Health Research Ethics Board and the Health Information Privacy Committee, and permission from all data providers. More information on access to these databases can be found at http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/health_sciences/medicine/units/community_health_sciences/departmental_units/mchp/resources/access.html .

Authors’ contributions

EW participated in the design of the study, carried out the analysis and drafted the manuscript. LR conceived of the study, and participated in its design and coordination and helped to draft the manuscript. NN participated in its design and interpretation of results. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ information

EW is a PhD candidate in the Department of Community Health Sciences at the University of Manitoba. LLR is a Distinguished Professor in the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Manitoba and a founding director of the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy. NCN is a Research Scientist at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Community Health Sciences at the University of Manitoba.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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Not Applicable.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study involved secondary analysis of de-identified data files only, with linkages to other files where identifiers have been removed or scrambled. Consent was not obtained from study subjects, as permitted under section 24(3)c of the Personal Health Information Act. Ethics approvals for this project were obtained from the University of Manitoba Health Research Ethics Board (reference number 2013-033) and the Health Information Privacy Committee (reference number 2013/2014-04).

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Pregnancy diagnosis codes

Teenage pregnancy is defined as females with a hospitalization with one of the following diagnoses (MCHP, 2013):

○ live birth: ICD-9-CM code V27, ICD-10-CA code Z37

○ missed abortion: ICD-9-CM code 632, ICD-10-CA code O02.1

○ ectopic pregnancy: ICD-9-CM code 633, ICD-10-CA code O00

○ abortion: ICD-9-CM codes 634-637 ICD-10-CA codes O03-O07; or

○ intrauterine death: ICD-9-CM code 656.4, ICD-10-CA code O36.4

Or, a hospitalization with one of the following procedures:

○ surgical termination of pregnancy: ICD-9-CM codes 69.01, 69.51, 74.91; CCI codes 5.CA.89, 5.CA.90

○ surgical removal of extrauterine (ectopic) pregnancy: ICD-9-CM codes 66.62, 74.3; CCI code 5.CA.93

○ pharmacological termination of pregnancy: ICD-9-CM code 75.0; CCI code 5.CA.88; or

○ interventions during labour and delivery, CCI codes 5.MD.5, 5.MD.60

Adjustment for educational achievement

To account for the impact of educational achievement on teenage childbearing, the grade 9 achievement index was adjusted for in a sub-population of individuals who had not had a pregnancy prior to age 16 (Fig. 4 ). As educational achievement was measured using the grade 9 achievement index (which is based on average marks in all classes and the number of credits earned during the school year [ 31 ], individuals had to have at least finished grade 9 before becoming pregnant to use this variable as a predictor.

Cohort adjustment

Older sister’s teenage pregnancy status

After propensity score matching, the final sample consisted of 1721 cases and 3442 controls (1:2). T-statistics were calculated for each covariate before and after matching to check for covariate balance (Fig. 5 ). Any point outside of the two vertical dotted lines signified a statistically significant covariate (at p = 0.05). All covariates differed significantly in the unmatched sample. After matching, the t-statistics of all covariates fell within the non-significant region indicating balance in cases and controls.

Mother's teenage childbearing status

After propensity score matching, the final sample consisted of 1499 cases and 2998 controls (1:2). T-statistics were calculated for each covariate before and after matching to check for covariate balance (Fig. 6 ). Any point outside of the two vertical dotted lines signified a statistically significant covariate (at p = 0.05). All covariates differed significantly in the unmatched sample. After matching, the t-statistics of all covariates fell within the non-significant region indicating balance in cases and controls.

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Wall-Wieler, E., Roos, L.L. & Nickel, N.C. Teenage pregnancy: the impact of maternal adolescent childbearing and older sister’s teenage pregnancy on a younger sister. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 16 , 120 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-016-0911-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-016-0911-2

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Teenage Pregnancy: Teenage Mothers’ Experiences and Perspectives: A Qualitative Study

2016, Journal of Health, Medicine and Nursing

Teenage pregnancy is both a social and a public health problem in The Gambia and as such it continues to be a concern to families, community leaders, educators, social workers, health care professionals, the government and its partners. Though there are some studies on the topic of teen pregnancy and school dropout, there is a limited material on the perceptions held by teens about teenage pregnancy, contributing factors and childbearing, difficulties encountered by teen parents, needed preventive and curative programmes. The purpose of the study was first to explore and describe the major causes of teenage pregnancy and childbearing despite the fact that contraceptive is widely available and family life education being taught in all schools. Secondly, examine the problems the teenagers encounter after becoming mothers. Thirdly, examine the ways the teen mothers cope and adapt to the situation of becoming mothers. An exploratory, descriptive, contextual and qualitative design was ad...

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IRE Journals

The aim of this study was to gain some insights into the lived experiences of Senior High School Dropouts at the Birim Central Municipality. A case study of twenty pregnant teenagers who had dropped out of school due to their pregnancy was used for the study. This research was undertaken to listen to the experiences of young women through individual interviews. The analysis of qualitative material obtained from the field and also informed by a narrative research perspective, found that girls get pregnant due to the lack of sex education, no/less knowledge in the use of contraceptives, poverty, abuse, neglect and substance misuse were major reasons for the prevalence of teen pregnancy in the study area. It is recommended that policy makers, the Ministry of Education, teachers, and parents should give far more comprehensive information about how to avoid unintended pregnancy and STDs. Teachers should motivate and give more attention to girls. Parents should provide the basic needs for school, at home and for their general up keep. Educational funds should be raised in the district to help needy children especially girls.

Joefel Libo-on

Teenage pregnancy is a global problem. It confronted all levels of societal status from low, middle to high-income nations. The current paper provides an exploration of the mothers that come across the stage of teenage pregnancy. This provides narratives of the causes, challenges encountered, and their regrets by mothers that come across teenage pregnancy. A qualitative method of research was used in this study. The narrative - case study design was utilized in this methodology. It includes 10 participants and data were gathered through the use of a semi-structured interview schedule. The following were the study's significant findings: The majority of the participants were at the age of 21 and got pregnant at the age of 16 – 19. Most of them were first-year college students when they got pregnant, unmarried, unemployed, and therefore dependent on their parent's income. Participants’ narratives revealed that they got pregnant at an early age because of the individual willing...

Faustina Akosua Agyeiwaa Kwofie

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The effects of pregnancy: a systematic review of adolescent pregnancy in ghana, liberia, and nigeria.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study design and search strategy, 2.2. selection criteria, 2.3. data extraction and quality assessment, 2.4. data synthesis, 3.1. characteristics of included studies.

Author, Year	Setting and Country	Participants	Sample Size	Age Range of Participants (Year)	Education	Employment Status	Marital Status	Gestational Age (Week)	Residence	Antenatal Care Attendance
Adeniyi et al., 2021 [ ]	Federal teaching hospital, Ido, Ekiti, Nigeria	Pregnant teenagers	116 (58 cases and 58 controls)	14–19	Secondary and tertiary = 48.2% No education = 1.7%	Earn income = 8.6%	Unmarried = 82.8% Married = 8.6%	N/A	N/A	Yes = 32.8% No = 67.2%
Ampiah et al., 2019 [ ]	7 district health centers in the Ashanti region, Ghana	Pregnant teenagers	998 (119 teenagers)	13–19	N/A	N/A	N/A	Up to 36 weeks	N/A	Yes = All
Annan et al., 2021 [ ]	29 communities in Kumasi metropolis, Ghana	Pregnant teenagers	416	13–19	N/A	N/A	N/A	Up to 32 weeks	urban	Yes
Annan et al., 2021 [ ]	Health center based in Ashanti, Ghana	Pregnant adolescents	416	13–19	None = 4.6%	Unemployed = 71.6% Employed = 28.4%	Married = 24% Single = 76%	Up to 32 weeks	N/A	N/A
Appiah et al., 2021 [ ]	Ledzorkuku-Krowor in Greater Accra, Ghana	Pregnant adolescents	423	12–19 (16–19 = 71.4%)	No education = 16.5%	Petty trading = 45.2%	Married = 9%	Up to 32 weeks	N/A	Yes
Ayamolowo et al., 2019 [ ]	Osun State, South-West, Nigeria	Pregnant and child-rearing teenagers	120	13–20	Non = 11.7% Primary and above = 88.3%	N/A	Married = 46.7% Single = 50%	N/A	N/A	N/A
Engelbert et al., 2019 [ ]	Jamestown Accra, Ghana	Adolescents (30)	53	14–19	Students = 3	Unemployed = 17	Single = 27	N/A	N/A	N/A
Bain et al., 2020 [ ]	Jamestown, Accra, Ghana	Adolescents, parents, and teachers	54	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Dare et al., 2016 [ ]	Angwan Rukuba, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria	33 teenagers (pregnant or mothers) and 67 were never pregnant	100	13–18 (13–14 = 38, 15–16 = 42, 17–18 = 20)	Primary education = 60%, No education =2%	Unemployed = 7% Street hawkers = 30%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Envuladu et al., 2017 [ ]	2 local government areas of Plateau State, Nigeria	Adolescents (males and females), teachers, and healthcare providers	24	18–19 (adolescents)	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Gbogbo, 2020 [ ]	Hohoe municipality, Ghana	Adolescents (mothers, pregnant)	92	15–19	Basic school dropout = 77	Employed = 2 Unemployed = 90	Married = 4 Unmarried = 88	N/A	Rural = 9	N/A
Ghana 2017 DHS, 2018 [ ]	National, Ghana	Pregnant adolescents	365	<20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Gyimah et al., 2021 [ ]	Ashanti region, Ghana	Pregnant adolescents	416	13–19	Only basic education 61.3%	Employed = 28.4% Unemployed = 71.6%	Married = 24% Single = 76%	16 weeks average	Urban = 58.4% Rural = 41.6%	N/A
Gyimah et al., 2021 [ ]	29 districts of Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana	Pregnant adolescents	416	13–19	Junior High School = 61.3%	Unemployed = 71.6%	Unmarried = 76.0%	Up to 32 weeks	N/A	Yes
Keogh et al., 2021 [ ]	National, Ghana	Adolescents	4139 (1039 adolescents)	15–24	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Konneh et al., 2020 [ ]	Jackson Doe Referral Hospital, Liberia	Adolescents and adult mothers	1265 (540, 43% adolescents)	11–19	Primary = 65.9%	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Krugu et al., 2017 [ ]	Bolgatanga municipality, Ghana	Young women with pregnancy experience	20	14–19	School dropouts = 11	Socioeconomic status not indicated	Married = 7 Single = 13	N/A	N/A	N/A
Kuyinu et al., 2020 [ ]	Lagos Island, Nigeria	Pregnant adolescents	246	16–19 (adolescent girls)	N/A	N/A	N/A	1st–3rd trimester	N/A	1st–3rd trimester
Liberia 2019–2020 DHS, 2021 [ ]	National, Liberia	Pregnant adolescents	213	<20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Nigeria 2018 DHS, 2019 [ ]	National, Nigeria	Pregnant adolescents	47	<20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Nonterah et al., 2019 [ ]	Navarongo War Memorial Hospital, Ghana	Pregnant women	506 (33 adolescents)	< 20	N/A	N/A	N/A	5–36 weeks	N/A	Yes
Oladeji et al., 2019 [ ]	Ibadan, Southwest, Nigeria	Pregnant adolescents and adults	9352 (772 adolescents)	<19	N/A	N/A	Married or cohabiting = 53.4%	21.3 weeks	N/A	N/A
Olajubu et al., 2021 [ ]	Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria	Pregnant teenagers	241	14–19	Educated = 90%	No source of income = 64.3%	Married = 32.8% Single= 67.2%	N/A	N/A	N/A
Olorunsaiye et al., 2021 [ ]	Jos, Plateau state, Nigeria	Adolescents and young women with experience of adolescent pregnancy	17	16–24	All completed at least Junior High School	Employed = 41.2% Unemployed = 17.6%	Never married = 82.3% Separated or divorced = 17.7%	N/A	N/A	N/A
Oyeyemi et al., 2019 [ ]	Maiduguri, capital of Borno state, Nigeria	Young mothers	220 (110 adolescents)	14–17	No education = 75.8%	Farmers = 54.5% Traders = 50.7%	Married = 51.1% Unmarried = 40%	N/A	N/A	Yes = 47.4% No = 59.2%
Siakwa et al., 2020 [ ]	3 hospitals in Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana	Pregnant teenagers	1006 (503 adolescents)	13–19	No education = 16.0% Basic education = 65.9%	Employed = 33.7% Unemployed = 66.3%	Married = 16.8% Single = 78.2%	18 weeks average	Urban	Yes = 88%
Tetteh et al., 2020 [ ]	Nigeria	Teenagers with pregnancy experience	26,055 (Nigeria = 8423)	15–19	Non = 25.8% Primary and above = 74.2%	N/A	Married = 22.8% Not married = 77.2%	N/A	Urban = 45.1% Rural = 54.9%	N/A
Yussif et al., 2017 [ ]	A community in Northern Ghana	Women	143 (46 adolescents)	<19	No education = 40	Traders = 90%	Married = 93%	N/A	N/A	N/A

3.2. Anaemia

3.3. pregnancy-related complications and obstetric and gynecological effects, 3.4. unsafe abortions, 3.5. psychological effects, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Title	Setting and Country	Type of Study	Impact of Pregnancy on Maternal Adolescent Health
Complications of pregnancy among adolescents and adult mothers treated in a public hospital, the republic of Liberia: a retrospective comparative study	Jackson Doe Referral Hospital, Liberia	Retrospective study	The most prevalent complication of pregnancy among teenagers was anemia.
Factors associated with iron deficiency anemia among pregnant teenagers in Ashanti Region, Ghana: a hospital-based prospective cohort study	29 communities in Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana	Prospective cohort study	Iron deficiency anemia is common among the pregnant teenagers studied.
Obstetric outcomes: a comparison of teenagers and adults in the Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana	3 hospitals in Cape Coast Metropolis, Ghana	Observational study	Immature pelvic structures of pregnant teenagers could cause cephalo-pelvic disproportion, which would lead to injury to the pelvic structures, thereby causing bleeding after delivery
Beyond love: a qualitative analysis of factors associated with teenage pregnancy among young women with pregnancy experience in Bolgatanga, Ghana	Bolgatanga municipality, Northern Ghana	Qualitative study	Saddened or unhappy.
Comparative analysis of trends and determinants of anemia between adult and teenage pregnant women in two rural districts of Ghana	7 district health centers in the Ashanti region, Ghana	Retrospective study	The teenage group was found as more anemic.
The long-term effects of adolescent pregnancies in a community in Northern Ghana on subsequent pregnancies and births of the young mothers	Community-based, Ghana	Cross-sectional study	The findings of this study have shown that women with adolescent pregnancies experience more abortions.
Outcome of teenage pregnancy in a low resource setting: a comparative study	Federal teaching hospital, Ido, Ekiti, Nigeria	Retrospective study	Pregnancy-related complications such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, cephalo-pelvic disproportion/obstructed labor, and anemia were found among teenagers.
Association between adolescent motherhood and maternal and child health indices in Maiduguri, Nigeria: a community-based cross-sectional study	Maiduguri, capital of Borno state, Nigeria/	Cross-sectional study	Adolescent mothers were more likely to experience fistula and to have a postpartum hemorrhage.
Causative factors for sexual and reproductive health status of pregnant adolescent girls in urban communities of Lagos, Nigeria	Lagos Island, Nigeria/	Mixed (qualitative and quantitative)	The presence of morbidity in the form of anemia.
Sexual and reproductive health challenges of adolescent males and females in some communities of Plateau State, Nigeria	2 local government areas of Plateau State, Nigeria	Exploratory qualitative	Unsafe abortion.
Psychosocial effects of pregnancy on teenage mothers in Angwan Rukuba community, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria	Angwan Rukuba, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria	Descriptive study	Depression and substance abuse were the major psychosocial effects of pregnancy among respondents.
Nutritional knowledge and dietary intake habits among pregnant adolescents attending antenatal care clinics in urban community in Ghana	Ledzorkuku-Krowor in Greater Accra, Ghana	Cross-sectional study	The eating habits of adolescent pregnant women were not encouraging.
Decision-making preferences and risk factors regarding early adolescent pregnancy in Ghana: stakeholders’ and adolescents’ perspectives from a vignette-based qualitative study	Jamestown, Accra, Ghana	Qualitative study	Feelings ranged from, fear, anger, disappointment, frustration, misery, regret, and being shy.
Stress and resilience among pregnant teenagers in Ile-Ife, Nigeria	Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria	Cross-sectional study	Most of the respondents were categorized as having a moderate level of perceived pregnancy-related stress.
To keep or not to keep? Decision making in adolescent pregnancies in Jamestown, Ghana	Jamestown Accra, Ghana	Qualitative/semi-structured in-depth interview	Adolescents who had abortion experiences were carried out under unsafe circumstances.
Contraceptive and abortion practices of young Ghanaian women aged 15–24: evidence from a nationally representative survey	Household-based, Ghana	National survey	Over half of young women used abortion methods obtained from non-formal providers.
Teenage pregnancy and experience of physical violence among women aged 15–19 years in five African countries: analysis of complex survey data	Nigeria	Survey	Physical violence among pregnant adolescents was five times higher compared to those who were not pregnant.
Descriptive epidemiology of anemia among pregnant women initiating antenatal care in rural Northern Ghana	Navarongo War Memorial Hospital, Ghana	Cross-sectional study	Expectant mothers less than 20 years old were more likely to be anemic.
Early motherhood: voices from female adolescents in the Hohoe Municipality, Ghana—a qualitative study utilizing Schlossberg’s Transition Theory	Hohoe municipality, Ghana	Qualitative study	Suicidal thoughts after pregnancy confirmation and the feeling of rejection by family and friends.
Exploring differences between adolescents and adults with perinatal depression-data from the expanding care for women with perinatal depression trial in Nigeria	Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria	Cluster randomized controlled trial	Adolescents had major depression compared with adults. Adolescents had significantly poorer adjustment and attitudes to pregnancy.
Perceived social support and depression among pregnant and child-rearing teenagers in Ile-Ife, Southwest Nigeria	Ile Ife, a community in Osun State, Southwest Nigeria	Descriptive study	Adolescents were categorized as having mild mood disturbance, experiencing borderline clinical depression, having moderate depression, and some were categorized as severely depressed.
“It’s like being involved in a car crash”: teen pregnancy narratives of adolescents and young adults in Jos, Nigeria	Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria	Qualitative study	Emotions described included fear, self-condemnation, and guilt about shaming their family.
Ghana Special Maternal Health Survey 2017	National, Ghana	Demographic and Health Survey	Drinking milk/coffee/alcohol/other liquid with sugar, drinking a herbal concoction, drinking another home remedy, using a herbal enema, inserting a substance into the vagina, heavy massage, excessive physical activity, tablets (exact kind unknown), and others.
Demographic and Health Survey 2019–2020	National, Liberia	Demographic and Health Survey	Experienced physical violence during pregnancy.
Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey, 2018	National, Nigeria	Demographic and Health Survey	Mothers’ medical conditions resulting in cesarean sections.

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Share and Cite

Lambonmung, A.; Acheampong, C.A.; Langkulsen, U. The Effects of Pregnancy: A Systematic Review of Adolescent Pregnancy in Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023 , 20 , 605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010605

Lambonmung A, Acheampong CA, Langkulsen U. The Effects of Pregnancy: A Systematic Review of Adolescent Pregnancy in Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2023; 20(1):605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010605

Lambonmung, Augustine, Charity Asantewaa Acheampong, and Uma Langkulsen. 2023. "The Effects of Pregnancy: A Systematic Review of Adolescent Pregnancy in Ghana, Liberia, and Nigeria" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1: 605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010605

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DOI: 10.33545/gynae.2022.v6.i6a.1224
Corpus ID: 254034475

Study of fetomaternal outcome of teenage pregnancy in a tertiary care hospital

Sahithi T , M. A.
Published in International Journal of… 1 November 2022

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15 References

Hospital-based perinatal outcomes and complications in teenage pregnancy in india, outcome of adolescent pregnancy at a university hospital in jordan, risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in young adolescent parturients in an inner-city hospital., study of some epidemiological factors in teenage pregnancy -- hospital based case comparison study., teenage pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: a large population based retrospective cohort study., determinants of poor pregnancy outcomes among teenagers in sweden, factors affecting birth weight in a sub-urban community: a study in a secondary level hospital in delhi., social support and outcome in teenage pregnancy., who guidelines on preventing early pregnancy and poor reproductive outcomes among adolescents in developing countries., related papers.

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Teenage Pregnancy Essay | Essay on Teenage Pregnancy for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Teenage Pregnancy Essay: Teenage is a crucial growth phase in the life of any individual fraught with physiological changes and often, psychological conflicts. In this condition, finding oneself to be a pregnant teenager can come down as shocking and even traumatizing for the individual, as-well-as, for her family and friends.

Scientifically speaking, teenage pregnancy is the occurrence of pregnancy in females under the age of twenty. Sometimes, even pre-teen females can become pregnant, as reported in various instances. Teenage pregnancy is a matter of social stigma in most countries, and adolescent mothers are often met with socio-economic disadvantages and ostracization.

You can also find more Essay Writing articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Teenage Pregnancy for Students and Kids in English

We are providing students with essay samples on an extended essay of 500 words and a short piece of 150 words on the topic of Teenage Pregnancy for reference.

Long Essay on Teenage Pregnancy 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Teenage Pregnancy is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Teenage pregnancy is the occurrence of pregnancy in females under the age of twenty. Teenagers belong to the age group of thirteen to twenty, and while teenagers are not practically children, they aren’t adults either, and this phase of confusion puts them at a greater risk. As sexual development sets in, teenagers are hounded by curiosity to explore their bodies. Due to a lack of awareness regarding sex, they often engage in unsafe sex, eventually becoming teenage parents.

Mostly such pregnancies are unplanned, and minors are not ready to bear the responsibilities of being a parent. Globally, the rate of teenage pregnancy is relatively high. Most cases are reported from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Africa, whereas rates are comparatively lower in Asia. As per studies, it is seen that the quality of teenage pregnancy is higher in developing countries as compared to developed countries, and mostly rural areas report higher cases than urban areas. This shows that the socio-economic background of teenagers majorly contributes to teenage pregnancies. Mostly teenagers from lower backgrounds with little or no sex education end up with teenage pregnancies.

Another reason is a discussion regarding sex being a taboo. Often conservative parents and even teachers in schools don’t engage in sexual conversations. As a result, teenagers lack basic knowledge about sex or safe sexual practices. The lack of resources on sexual awareness leads teenagers to seek help from their peers that eventually leads them to have wrong notions about sex. Teenagers barely understand the issues regarding sexual intercourse and the use of contraceptives. A study in the United States reveals that about 53% of teenagers lack information regarding sexual intercourse and contraceptives. The glorification of sex in mainstream media is another reason why most teenagers lack the moral outlook that prevents them from engaging in irresponsible sexual activities—engaging in underage alcohol consumption and drug abuse is another contributing factor in teenage pregnancies. Often teenagers seeking social validation from their peers engage in drinking resulting in them losing their senses and eventually engaging in unsafe sex.

In developing countries, sexual abuse of underage girls from lower backgrounds majorly contributes to rising rates of teenage pregnancies. Hailing from low-income backgrounds, these girls are pushed into sex trafficking to support their families and are exploited by older men. In most developing countries, girls are married off eighteen, and such teenage pregnancies are not met with social and moral stigmatization.

Whereas in developed countries, most teenage pregnancies occur out of wedlock while the teenagers are still in school, leading to social ostracization and alienation of such adolescent mothers. They often have to drop out of school, and without a formal degree, they have to do low-income jobs to support their child. Such children hailing from underprivileged homes, often without a father, engage in criminal activities and drug abuse, thus add to social evils and poverty. In a nutshell, teenage pregnancies create a domino effect in society at large.

You can now access more Essay Writing on this topic and many more.

Short Essay on Teenage Pregnancy 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Teenage Pregnancy is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Teenage pregnancy occurs in females aged between thirteen to twenty years when they engage in unsafe sex with their partners leading to unwanted and unplanned pregnancies. Studies show that both teenage boys, as-well-as adult men, engage in unprotected sex with minor girls making them pregnant in the process. Most such men don’t end up marrying the girls. Teenage pregnancy is a widely prevalent social evil that arises due to a lack of communication between conservative parents and teenagers, leading to a lack of sex education.

The glorification of sex in media gives teenagers a distorted moral and ethical view, and they fail to understand the consequences of engaging in underage sex. Teenage mothers and children often end up in social alienation, and such mothers have to leave formal education midway to earn a living. A lack of education, low background, overall lack of awareness of sex education, and birth control methods leads to increased teenage pregnancies.

10 Lines on Teenage Pregnancy Essay in English

1. Teenage pregnancy is the occurrence of pregnancy in females below the age of 20. 2. On a global scale, each year, 16 million girls of age between 15-19 years give birth. 3. In the USA, around 77% of teenage pregnancies are unintended. 4. Uganda’s rate of teenage pregnancy is one of the highest in the world. 5. Roughly 25% of teenagers in Kenya become mothers before the age of 18. 6. Rates of adolescent pregnancy are higher in the USA and Africa and lower in Asia 7. Teenage pregnancy is more rampant in rural areas than in urban areas 8. The USA has twice the teenage pregnancy rate as Canada 9. Globally 1700 teenage girls get pregnant every day, which amounts to 70 pregnancies per hour. 10. 8 out of 10 teenage fathers don’t marry the mother of their child.

FAQ’s on Teenage Pregnancy Essay

Question 1. What causes teenage pregnancy?

Answer: Unprotected and unsafe sex by teenagers due to lack of awareness regarding sex primarily causes teenage pregnancy

Question 2. Is teenage pregnancy safe?

Answer: Ideally, teenage pregnancy is not safe as teenage mothers are underage, and their bodies are not physically and psychologically ready to bear a healthy child.

Question 3. Do teenage mothers face hardships?

Answer: Teenage pregnancy is a matter of social stigma, and teenage mothers often face societal ostracization and alienation apart from economic hardships.

Question 4. How to be safe from teenage pregnancy?

Answer: Spreading awareness in teenagers regarding sex education and safe sex, using birth control methods for protection, and making sexual counselling mainstream are some methods that can help battle teenage pregnancy.

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v.13(6); 2023
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Original research

Prevalence of teenage pregnancy and associated factors among preparatory and high school students in wolaita sodo town, southern ethiopia: an institution-based cross-sectional study, wondimagegn paulos kumma.

1 Center for International Health, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

2 School of Public Health, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

Feben Girma Chaka

Wakgari binu daga, mihiretu arba alemayehu, mengistu meskele, eskinder wolka, associated data.

bmjopen-2022-070505supp001.pdf

Data are available upon reasonable request. The data are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author WPK ([email protected]; ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6319-6715 ).

To assess the prevalence of teenage pregnancy and associated factors among teenage schoolgirls aged 15–19 years in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia.

Cross-sectional survey.

This study was conducted among teenage girls from preparatory and high schools in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, between 1 April and 30 May 2019.

Participants

588 (97.8%) of 601 randomly selected teenage schoolgirls aged 15–19 years (selected via a multistage random sampling technique) participated in the study.

Outcome measures

Teenage pregnancy and associated factors.

The prevalence of teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town was 14.6% (95% CI 11.9% to 17.7%). The current pregnancy rate was 33.7% (95% CI 23.9% to 44.7%). Having a family history of teenage pregnancy (AOR 3.3; 95% CI 1.3 to 8.4) and access to mass media (AOR 2.5; 95% CI 1.1 to 6.2) were positively associated with teenage pregnancy, while condom use (AOR 0.1; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.5) and knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives (AOR 0.4; 95% CI 0.2 to 0.9) were negatively associated.

Conclusions

The prevalence of teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo was high. Having a family history of teenage pregnancy and access to mass media were positively associated with teenage pregnancy, whereas reported condom use and knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives were negatively associated with teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls.

Strengths and limitations of this study

This study had a large sample size and a low non-response rate.
Since the study is cross-sectional, it cannot investigate temporal relationships.
Because behavioural variables are evaluated based on self-reports, social desirability bias may be an issue.
Even though it is currently believed that all teenage girls in the study area attend school, there can be girls missing from school for socioeconomic reasons, so our study may lack representativeness at the community level.

Introduction

The WHO defines the age groups 10–19 years and 13–19 years as adolescents and teenagers, respectively. 1 Adolescence is the transitional period from childhood to adulthood, characterised by significant physiological, psychological and social changes. 2 3 Adolescent pregnancy is defined as pregnancy in girls aged 10–19 years. 4 Teenage pregnancy and childbirth among women under 20 years of age continue to be a major global public health challenge, affecting more than 16 million girls and young women worldwide. In many nations, unmarried adolescent mothers are likely to encounter social exclusion, which may result in rejection by their family and peers. 5–7

In low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs), teenagers aged 15–19 years had an estimated 21 million pregnancies annually, of which about 50% were unintended and gave rise to approximately 12 million births. According to these data, 55% of unintended pregnancies among teenage girls result in abortions, which are usually unsafe in LMICs. 8 The proportions of adolescent fertility rates ranged from 2% in China to more than 50% in sub-Saharan Africa. 9 Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest rate of adolescent fertility in the world, with 101 births per 1000 in 2013. 8 10 11 One of every three among the 14.3 million adolescent girls who gave birth in 2008 around the world was from sub-Saharan Africa. 12 In this region, births to adolescent girls between 15 years and 19 years account for 16% of all births each year. 11–13 Ethiopia ranks among the highest teenage fertility rates in sub-Saharan Africa, with 72.4 births per 1000 young women aged 15–19 years. 14 15

Teenage pregnancy is prevalent and an essential demographic factor in Ethiopia. 16 According to the 2016 Ethiopian Health and Demographic Survey findings, the prevalence of teenage pregnancy was 13%. It varies depending on the residence, with 5% in urban areas and 15% in rural areas. Moreover, disparities are seen across regions, with the highest at 23% in Afar and the lowest at 3% in Addis Ababa. Additionally, the proportion varies with age; it rose rapidly from 2% among women aged 15 years to 28% among those aged 19 years. 17 Teenage pregnancy remains a significant public health and demographic challenge in the country. 16 18

Various reports and publications have identified determinants of teenage pregnancy, such as not living with parents, low socioeconomic status, early sexual intercourse and a low level of contraception knowledge. 18–21 In Ethiopia, there are limited data on the prevalence and factors associated with teenage pregnancy. Particularly in the study area, evidence of the prevalence and factors associated with teenage pregnancy is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the prevalence of teenage pregnancy and associated factors among teenage schoolgirls aged 15–19 years in Wolaita, southern Ethiopia.

These results are reported following the STROBE cross-sectional study and CROSS Survey reporting guidelines. 22 23

Study design and setting

An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted among teenage schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, from 1 April to 30 May 2019. The population of Wolaita Sodo town projected for the year 2021 was 194 977. In Wolaita, teenage girls aged 10– 19 years and 15–19 years account for 12.6% and 5.8% of the total population, respectively. 15 24 25 The town consists of one public university, two public and six private colleges, four public and two private preparatory schools, and seven public and three private high schools.

Sample size determination

The sample size was calculated using OpenEpi V.3.03 software. The sample size determined for this study was 601 and computed using the following assumptions: 95% confidence level, 80% power, one for a ratio of unexposed to exposed groups, 4.6% teenage pregnancy among teenagers who lived with their parents, and 11.5% teenage pregnancy among teenagers who lived with one of their parents, a design effect of two, and a 10% non-response rate. 18

Sampling techniques and data collection procedures

The study participants for this study were selected using a multistage random sampling technique. There were 16 schools (6 preparatory and 10 high schools) in the town. After stratifying the schools into preparatory and high schools, three preparatory schools and five high schools were selected using the lottery method. We prepared a separate sampling frame consisting of lists of 15–19 years old female students in alphabetical order in each school and grade level (9–12) with the support of the schools' administrations. The samples were distributed among the schools and grade levels based on samples proportional to their size. Finally, we selected the study participants from the prepared list using a computer-based random number generator ( https://www.random.org/integers/ ).

We recruited six data collectors and two supervisors for data collection and supervision. We also provided training on the methods, objectives and other technical aspects of the study to the data collectors and supervisors for 3 days. The questionnaire prepared in English was translated into the local language ( Amharic ) and then re-translated into English for consistency ( online supplemental file 1 ). Two different individuals who speak both English and Amharic fluently were used for the translation and re-translation. To ensure the quality of the data, pretesting of the questionnaire was conducted on 5% of the sample size among teenage girls selected from schools that were not included in our study. Inputs obtained from the pretest were used to improve the questionnaire and acquaint the data collectors with the data collection process. Finally, a pretested and self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the actual data from the study participants. During the data collection, every female student included in the study took a single seat with a sparse arrangement of chairs and desks. Then the questionnaires were distributed among the students after a short orientation. The principal investigator and the supervisors closely supervised the data collection process.

Supplementary data

Measurement definitions.

Ever pregnant was measured by asking the respondents whether they had ever been pregnant or not and including pregnancies that ended in a live birth, a stillbirth or an abortion. Emergency contraceptives are emergency measures in that women take special pills to prevent pregnancy within 3 days after having unprotected sexual intercourse. We have asked a question with four choices of responses to assess the knowledge of the study participants regarding the exact timing of taking emergency contraceptives. Therefore, those who responded within 72 hours after having unprotected sexual intercourse were considered knowledgeable regarding the exact timing of taking emergency contraceptives. The response regarding the participant’s knowledge of the fertile period in the menstrual cycle was considered appropriate if the participant selected 14 days before the next menstrual cycle. Parent-daughter interaction was measured by asking the following four questions: do your parents communicate with you on issues related to sexuality, love and friendship openly; do your parents know about your love or sexual partner; do your parents follow you when you are out of the house and with whom you stay; do your parents like your love and sexual relationship with a boyfriend? The summation of the responses given to the above four questions was used to assess parent-daughter interaction, and those with a score <1 were categorised as having poor interaction and good if they scored ≥1. 18 Family history was defined as having a family member, such as a sister or mother, with a history of teenage pregnancy.

Alcohol drinking was defined based on the self-reported consumption of a standard alcoholic drink such as 285 mL of beer, 120 mL of wine and 30 mL of spirits of five or more for men or four or more for women on a single occasion within the past 30 days. 26 Current smoking was also defined based on the self-reported current (daily) use of smoked tobacco or smokeless tobacco products. 26 Khat ( Catha edulis forsk ) chewing was defined based on the self-reported current chewing of khat . It is a stimulant native to East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. 27 28

Data entry and analysis

The quantitative data collected from a pretested, structured and self-administered questionnaire were entered into EpiData V.3.1 and exported to SPSS V.20 for analysis. All the independent variables satisfied the assumption for the multicollinearity test with a variance inflation factor less than 10 or a tolerance (1 R) greater than 0.1.

The profile of the study participants, prevalence, knowledge, awareness, and behaviour of teenage pregnancy were computed and described using tables. Variables in the bivariate analysis with a value of p<0.25 were considered candidates for multivariate analysis. Further, adjusted ORs with a 95% CI and a value of p<0.05 were used to ascertain the statistical significance of associations. The model’s fitness was acceptable, with a value of p=0.595 using the Hosmer and Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test.

Patient and public involvement

Sociodemographics, knowledge, awareness and behaviour of teenage girls.

A total of 588 female students participated in the study, with a response rate of 97.8%. Three hundred seventy-nine of the 588 (64.5%) study participants were between 15 years and 17 years of age. The median age of the teenage schoolgirls was 17 (IQR 16–18) years. Of the total number of teenage schoolgirls in the study, 403 (68.5%) were educated at the level of grades 9–10. Most of the participants (401 or 68.2%) were living with their two biological parents ( table 1 ).

Knowledge, awareness and behaviour of the teenage schoolgirls on factors influencing teenage pregnancy in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, 2019 (n=588)

Variables	Categories	Frequency (n)	Per cent (%)
Age in years	15–17	379	64.5
Age in years	18–19	209	35.5
Grade	9– 10	403	68.5
Grade	11–12	185	31.5
Relationship with the heads of the household	Two biological parents	401	68.2
	One of the biological parents	71	12.1
	Neither of the biological parents	83	14.1
	Husband	33	5.6
Receive pocket money	No	258	43.9
Receive pocket money	Yes	330	56.1
Access to mass media	No	38	6.5
Access to mass media	Yes	550	93.5
Frequency of access to mass media (n=550)	Daily	388	66.0
Frequency of access to mass media (n=550)	Weekly or more	162	27.6
Alcohol drinking	No	509	86.6
Alcohol drinking	Yes	79	13.4
Khat chewing	No	563	95.7
Khat chewing	Yes	25	4.3
Cigarette smoking	No	571	97.1
Cigarette smoking	Yes	17	2.9
Sex education at school	No	336	57.1
Sex education at school	Yes	252	42.9
Parent-daughter interaction about sex	No	313	53.2
Parent-daughter interaction about sex	Yes	275	46.8
Having information about menstruation	No	10	1.7
Having information about menstruation	Yes	578	98.3
Place of receiving information about menstruation (n=578)	Peers	151	25.7
	Family	245	41.7
	School	111	18.9
	Health personnel	32	5.4
	Media	29	4.9
	Others	10	1.7
Time received information about menstruation	Before menarche	425	72.3
Time received information about menstruation	After menarche	153	26.0
Fertile period of the menstrual cycle	I don’t know	365	62.1
	4 days before and after the 14th day	141	24.0
	5 days before and after the 10th day	33	5.6
	6 days before and after the 12th day	20	3.4
	8 days before and after the 16th day	29	4.9

Three hundred eighty-eight (66.0%) teenage students had daily access to mass media. Of the total teenage schoolgirls, 79 (13.4%) had experienced alcohol drinking and 25 (4.3%) had practised khat chewing. Two hundred seventy-five (46.8%) teenage girls had interactions with their parents concerning sex. Regarding the teenage girls’ knowledge of the fertile period of the menstrual cycle, 141 (24.0%) responded 4 days before and after the 14th day of the first menstrual cycle ( table 1 ).

Sexual practices and contraceptive utilisation of teenage girls

A quarter (148 (25.2%)) of the teenage schoolgirls had sexual intercourse experience, of which 123 (83.1%) occurred between the age of 10 years and 17 years. Regarding the sexual initiation of the first sex, 61 (41.2%) were peer-influenced. Of the total number of teenage students who had sex, 60 (40.5%) used modern contraceptives, of which 26 (43.3%) used emergency contraceptives. Regarding the exact timing of taking an emergency contraceptive, 17 (65.4%) started within 24 hours after having unprotected sex. Of the total teenage schoolgirls who participated in this study, only 174 (29.6%) knew where to get modern contraceptives ( table 2 ).

Sexual practices and contraceptive utilisation of the teenage schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, 2019

Variables	Categories	Frequency (n)	Per cent (%)
Ever had sex (n=588)	No	440	74.8
Ever had sex (n=588)	Yes	148	25.2
Age at first sex (n=148)	15–17 years	123	83.1
Age at first sex (n=148)	18–19 years	25	16.9
With whom had first sex (n=148)	Fellow student	65	43.9
	Employee	48	32.4
	A teacher from the school	19	12.8
	Businessman	16	10.8
Sexual initiation during first sex (n=148)	Peer influenced	61	41.2
	Willingly or love	59	10.0
	Forced or raped	28	4.8
Number of lifetime sexual partners (n=148)	One	106	71.6
	Two	18	12.2
	Three or more	24	16.2
Ever used modern contraceptives (n=148)	No	88	59.5
Ever used modern contraceptives (n=148)	Yes	60	40.5
Knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives (n=588)	No	414	70.4
Knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives (n=588)	Yes	174	29.6
Place where to get modern contraceptives (n=174)	Public health facilities	134	22.8
	Marie Stopes	11	1.9
	Private health facility	29	4.9
Reason for contraceptive non-use (n=88)	No knowledge	45	51.1
	Family/community influence	31	35.2
	Pregnancy	12	13.6
Ever used an emergency contraceptive (n=60)	No	34	56.7
Ever used an emergency contraceptive (n=60)	Yes	26	43.3
The exact time of taking emergency contraceptives (n=26)	Within 24 hours of unprotected sex	17	65.4
	Within 48 hours of unprotected sex	3	11.5
	Within 72 hours of unprotected sex	6	23.1

Prevalence of teenage pregnancy

Out of the total number of teenage schoolgirls who participated in this study, 86 (14.6%) reported teenage pregnancies and 29 (33.7%) were currently pregnant. When asked about the pregnancy’s status, 66 (76.7%) of the adolescent schoolgirls said it was unintended. Regarding the outcome of the pregnancy, 27 (31.4%) teenage schoolgirls carried out abortions ( table 3 ).

Prevalence of teenage pregnancy among teenage schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, 2019

Variables	Categories	Frequency (n)	Per cent (%)
Ever been pregnant (n=588)	No	502	85.4
Ever been pregnant (n=588)	Yes	86	14.6
Currently pregnant (n=86)	No	57	66.3
Currently pregnant (n=86)	Yes	29	33.7
Feelings about pregnancy (n=86)	Nothing	26	30.2
	Unhappy	32	37.2
	Happy	28	32.6
Condition of pregnancy (n=86)	Unintended	66	76.7
Condition of pregnancy (n=86)	Intended	20	23.3
The outcome of pregnancy (n=86)	Aborted	27	31.4
	Still pregnant	29	33.7
	Stillbirth	9	10.5
	Delivered/live birth	21	24.4
Family history (n=588)	No	505	85.9
Family history (n=588)	Yes	83	14.1

Factors associated with the teenage pregnancy

Participants who had a family history of teenage pregnancy were positively associated with teenage pregnancy (AOR 3.3; 95% CI 1.3 to 8.4). Teenage pregnancy was 2.5 times higher among teenage schoolgirls who had frequent access to mass media (AOR 2.5; 95% CI 1.1 to 6.2). On the other hand, teenage schoolgirls who used condoms during sexual intercourse were negatively associated with teenage pregnancy (AOR 0.1; 95% CI 0.03 to 0.5) as compared to their counterparts. Similarly, teenage schoolgirls who knew where to get modern contraceptives were negatively related to teenage pregnancy (AOR 0.4; 95% CI 0.2 to 0.9) ( table 4 ).

Multivariate association of variables with teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town, southern Ethiopia, 2019

Variables (n=588)	Categories	Teenage pregnancy		COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)
Variables (n=588)	Categories	No n (%)	Yes n (%)	COR (95% CI)	AOR (95% CI)
Age	15–17 years	335 (88.4)	44 (11.6)	1.0	1.0
Age	18–19 years	167 (79.9)	42 (20.1)	1.9 (1.2 to 3.0)	1.3 (0.6 to 2.9)
Relationship with the heads of the household	Two of biological parents	364 (90.8)	37 (9.2)	1.0	1.0
	One of biological parents	62 (87.3)	9 (12.7)	1.4 (0.7 to 3.1)	1.37 (0.4 to 4.9)
	Neither of biological parents	61 (73.5)	22 (26.5)	3.6 (2.0 to 6.4)	2.0 (0.7 to 5.5)
	Husband	15 (45.5)	18 (54.5)	11.8 (5.5 to 25.4)	2.0 (0.6 to 7.2)
Access to mass media	Daily	345 (88.9)	43 (11.1)	1.0
Access to mass media	Weekly or more	128 (79.0)	34 (21.0)	2.1 (1.3 to 3.5)	2.5 (1.1 to 6.2)*
Alcohol drinking	No	447 (87.8)	62 (12.2)	1.0	1.0
Alcohol drinking	Yes	55 (69.6)	24 (30.4)	3.2 (1.8 to 5.4)	0.4 (0.1 to 1.1)
Khat chewing	No	490 (87.0)	73 (13.0)	1.0	1.0
Khat chewing	Yes	12 (48.0)	13 (52.0)	7.3 (3.2 to 16.6)	1.8 (0.5 to 6.6)
Cigarette smoking	No	496 (86.9)	75 (13.1)	1.0	1.0
Cigarette smoking	Yes	6 (35.3)	11 (64.7)	12.1 (4.4 to 33.8)	4.3 (0.9 to 20.5)
Condom use	No	23 (32.9)	47 (67.1)	1.0	1.0
	Sometimes	22 (41.5)	31 (58.5)	0.7 (0.3 to 1.5)	0.6 (0.2 to 1.4)
	Every time during sex	17 (68.0)	8 (32.0)	0.2 (0.1 to 0.6)	0.1 (0.03 to 0.5)**
Know where to get modern contraceptive	No	125 (71.8)	49 (28.2)	1.0	1.0
Know where to get modern contraceptive	Yes	377 (91.1)	37 (8.9)	0.3 (0.2 to 0.4)	0.4 (0.2 to 0.9)*
Family history	No	452 (89.5)	53 10.5)	1.0	1.0
Family history	Yes	50 (60.2)	33 (39.8)	5.6 (3.3 to 9.5)	3.3 (1.3 to 8.4)*

*Significant at p value: * <0.05, ** <0.01; COR: Crude Odds Ratio; AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio

Teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town was high with a prevalence of 14.6% (95% CI 11.9 to 17.7), of which current pregnancy was 33.7% (95% CI 23.9 to 44.7). Family history of teenage pregnancy and access to mass media were positively associated with teenage pregnancy, while condom use and knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives were negatively associated.

The current study reported a similar finding with the pooled prevalence of adolescent pregnancy in East Africa. 29 The prevalence in the present study was higher compared with a similar study conducted in southern Ethiopia, 20 while it was lower than the findings reported from north-east Ethiopia 19 and western Kenya. 29 It might be difficult to provide a sound reason for the difference; however, it could be related to the social and cultural conditions of the study areas. Out of the total number of teenage pregnancies among the schoolgirls reported in this study, 33.7% were currently pregnant. This is consistent with the finding reported from north-east Ethiopia. 19 Regarding the condition of the pregnancy, 76.7% reported that the pregnancy was unintended. This is in line with the findings from the previous studies in Ethiopia. 19 20 This might be partially explained by the sociodemographic condition of the population.

Of the total number of teenage schoolgirls involved in this study, 46.8% had interactions with their parents concerning sex. This is higher than the finding reported from another study in Ethiopia. 20 This might be due to sociocultural variation between the populations. Regarding the sexual experience of teenage schoolgirls, a quarter (25.2%) of the participants had sexual experience, which is lower than the finding from the previous study in Ethiopia. 19 The probable explanation for the difference might be the socioeconomic and cultural context of the study areas. In the present study, out of the total number of study participants who had sexual experience, 41.2% of the first sexual intercourse was initiated by peer influence. This is higher than the finding reported in western Kenya. 29 The variation might be due to the difference in the composition of the study population. This might indicate the importance of targeting peer groups for future intervention programmes in controlling teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls.

Out of the total number of teenage students who had sexual experience, 40.5% used modern contraceptives. This is in agreement with the findings of previous studies in Ethiopia. 19 20 This may indicate gender power disparities, which may impact the ability of teenage schoolgirls to refuse sex without contraceptive methods such as condoms or the knowledge gap about the importance of modern contraceptives. Similarly, among the teenage schoolgirls who used modern contraceptives, 43.3% used emergency contraceptives, which is also consistent with the finding from another study in Ethiopia. 20 Regarding knowledge of the exact timing of taking an emergency contraceptive, 65.4% responded within 24 hours of having unprotected sex. This is in line with the result reported in another study from southern Ethiopia. 20 The majority knew the exact time to take it; however, there was a significant proportion of the participants who didn't know when to take the emergency contraceptive. Knowing the exact time to take emergency contraceptives prevents unintended pregnancy. Therefore, it is essential to create awareness of the exact timing of taking emergency contraceptives and develop primary intervention strategies that target high-risk groups.

In the current study, a family history of teenage pregnancy, access to mass media, condom use, and knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives have shown a statistically significant association with teenage pregnancy. Having a family history of teenage pregnancy was positively associated with teenage pregnancy. The lifestyle and living environments within the families are probably the most likely to be contributing factors. Similarly, access to mass media was positively associated with teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls. This might be due to their listening to the radio or watching television with content that is not appropriate for their age. On the other hand, using a condom during sexual intercourse had a protective association with teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls. Other studies from Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa reported similar findings. 18 30 Likewise, knowledge of where to get modern contraceptives had a protective association with teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls. A similar finding was also reported in another study in Ethiopia. 18 This might reinforce teenage schoolgirls' attitudes and behaviour positively towards the utilisation of modern contraceptives and then protect them from having an unintended pregnancy.

Our study had some inevitable limitations. The study, being a cross-sectional survey, lacks temporal relationships. Even though currently all teenage girls in the study area are believed to attend school, there can be girls missing from school for socioeconomic reasons. For this reason, our study may lack representativeness at the community level. On the other hand, our study had strengths, such as a large sample size and high response rate.

The prevalence of teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in Wolaita Sodo town was high. A family history of teenage pregnancy and access to mass media were found to increase the odds of teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls in the study area, whereas condom use, and knowing where to get modern contraceptives were found to reduce the odds of teenage pregnancy among schoolgirls. We suggest that local and national governments, community-based organisations, non-governmental organisations and the public promote the use of contraceptives during sex, such as condoms, to prevent unintended teen pregnancies among teenage schoolgirls. We also recommend enhancing the provision of information on where to get contraceptives, as observed in the current study. We also suggest educating the public and teenage schoolgirls to avoid risk factors such as consuming media that promotes unsafe sex.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

The authors thank Wolaita Sodo University for support in both technical and ethical matters. The authors also thank the administration of the Wolaita Sodo Town Schools for their cooperation. The authors also thank the study participants' collaboration and the data collectors' participation in this effort.

Twitter: @nubonsa

Contributors: WPK, FGC, WBD, MAA, MM and EWW conceptualised and planned the study. WPK and FGC carried out protocol development, data collection and supervision activities. Formal analysis of the data was performed by WPK and FGC. The original manuscript was prepared by WPK, and the review and editorial activities were done by WPK and FGC. WPK, FGC, WBD, MM and EWW approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was partially supported by Wolaita Sodo University (award/grant number N/A). The funders had no role in the study’s design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: None declared.

Patient and public involvement: Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.

Provenance and peer review: Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material: This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

Data availability statement

Ethics statements, patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

This study involves human participants and was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of College of Health Sciences and Medicine, Wolaita Sodo University (CHSM/ERC/03/15). Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

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Feben Girma Chaka

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