how does sociology encourage critical thinking

Understanding the Sociological Perspective

How Sociologists See the World

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• Ph.D., Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara
• M.A., Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara
• B.A., Sociology, Pomona College

Sociology can be defined as the study of society, but in practice, it is much more. It is a way of seeing the world through the evaluation of social structures and forces. This field of study uses historical context to examine the present day and a society that is constantly in flux. At its core, sociology fosters critical thinking, poses analytical questions, and pursues solutions. To truly grasp sociology and the research sociologists conduct, an understanding of social theory is necessary.

Examining Social Relationships

When sociologists examine the world in a bid to better understand it, they look for relationships between individuals and the social groups they belong to based on race , class, and gender , among others. They also consider people's ties to communities and institutions, be they religious, educational, or municipal, such as a church, school, or police department. In sociology, the individual aspects of social life are known as the "micro," and the large-scale groups, relationships, and trends that make up society are known as the "macro" .

Social Structures and Forces

Sociologists look for relationships between the micro and marco to recommend ways to address the trends and problems that arise in society. The recognition that social structures and forces shape a person’s beliefs, values, norms , and expectations lie at the heart of sociology. These forces influence our experiences, interactions with others , and ultimately, the outcomes of our lives .

While most people remain unaware of how social structures affect them, they are likely to recognize these forces while taking a critical look at society. Introducing students to the field, Peter Berger wrote, “It can be said that the first wisdom of sociology is this—things are not what they seem.” Hence, the sociological perspective urges students to ask the unasked questions about "normal" things to illuminate the underlying social structures and forces at work.

Asking Sociological Questions

Sociologists seek complex answers to what many would consider simple questions. Berger asserted that four key questions allow sociologists to see the connections between everyday life and the overarching social structure and forces that shape it. They are:

• What are people doing with each other here?
• What are their relationships to each other?
• How are these relationships organized in institutions?
• What are the collective ideas that move men and institutions?

Berger suggested that asking these questions transforms the familiar into something otherwise unseen, leading to “a transformation of consciousness.” C. Wright Mills called this transformation “ the sociological imagination .” When individuals examine the world this way, they see how their present-day experiences and personal biographies sit within the trajectory of history. Using the sociological imagination to examine our own lives, we might question how social structures, forces, and relationships have given us certain privileges , like access to wealth and prestigious schools. We might also consider how social forces like racism might disadvantage us in comparison to others.

The Importance of Historical Context

The sociological perspective always includes historical context, because if we want to understand why things are the way they are, we have to understand how they got there. So, sociologists often take the long view, looking at the shifting nature of the class structure over time, the evolution of the relationship between the economy and culture , and the limited access to rights and resources that continue to impact historically marginalized people today.

The Sociological Perspective

Mills believed that the sociological imagination could empower people to change their lives and society because it allows us to see perceived “personal troubles," like not making enough money to support ourselves , in context. Rather than personal problems, these troubles are “public issues,” as they stem from social structure flaws such as inadequate wages.

The sociological imagination points to the crux of the sociological perspective—that society is a social product, and, as such, its structures and institutions are changeable. Just as social structures and forces shape our lives, our choices and actions influence the nature of society. Throughout our daily lives, our behavior either validates society or challenges it to improve. The sociological perspective allows us to see how both outcomes are possible.

• Definition of the Sociological Imagination and Overview of the Book
• Introduction to Sociology
• Units of Analysis as Related to Sociology
• The Major Theoretical Perspectives of Sociology
• How Sociologists Define Human Agency
• The Concept of Social Structure in Sociology
• The Sociology of Education
• The Sociology of Consumption
• Biography of Journalist C Wright Mills
• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• Why We Selfie
• The Sociology of the Internet and Digital Sociology
• The Sociology of the Family Unit
• Macro- and Microsociology
• How Do Sociologists Define Consumption?
• Introduction to Discourse in Sociology

Critical Theory in Social Research: A Theoretical and Methodological Outlook

• First Online: 27 October 2022

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• Ashek Mahmud 4 &
• Farhana Zaman 4  

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Critical theory, a multidisciplinary and multifaceted approach, was put forward to reconstruct dominant ideology by the critical task of explaining and criticizing. Contextualizing this new approach, the chapter is designed to focus on the development of social thought and its application in social research grounding on the critical theory. The discussion, drawing from many kinds of literature, depicts that critical theory as a perspective of social praxis unveils the critical reality through a detailed analysis of leading texts, pervasive conversations, social interactions, and persistent social practices. Thereby, critical theory provides insight to form ‘Critical paradigm’ and ‘Critical Realist Paradigm’ that generates ‘Ideology critique’, ‘Critical action research’, and ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’ (CDA) as the dynamic research methods. With those, researchers can explain the relationship between theory and practice linking language, ideas and social actions. By highlighting the basic characteristics of critical theory, this chapter analyses its application in the field of social research focusing on when and in which context critical theory is applied. Finally, the chapter attempts to ascertain the emancipatory function of this new approach by providing some examples of research output in connection to perpetual social problems in modern social settings.

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“Don’t Mention the Idea of a Social Science”: The Legacy of an Idea

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Mahmud, A., Zaman, F. (2022). Critical Theory in Social Research: A Theoretical and Methodological Outlook. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_7

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My teaching philosophy focuses on fostering ownership, shared experiences, and a “life-long learner” mentality to deeply engage students with the material. The FASE (which stands for “Formulate questions,” “Active reading,” “Summarize,” and ‘Examples”) note-taking method, smoothly integrated into Sage Vantage, plays a crucial role in this approach. It aligns with critical thinking processes, guiding students to shift from simply answering questions to actively questioning.

The FASE system actively encourages students to shift from an answer-based approach to a question-based one, highlighting the profound importance of students asking meaningful inquiries. Creating an environment that stimulates the formulation of insightful questions propels students on a journey that not only sharpens their critical thinking skills but also encourages a continuous quest for knowledge. This alignment between FASE and critical thinking not only facilitates a dynamic and interactive learning experience but also empowers students to become active participants in their academic journey, fostering a genuine and lasting love for learning. As educators, we must continually reflect on whether the classroom experience we create nourishes savvy test-takers or cultivates life-long learners. Asking ourselves, “What do we need to know for this test?” should prompt a broader consideration of our educational objectives and their lasting impact on students.

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Critical Thinking and Social Studies

Critical Thinking and the Social Studies Teacher

by Mike Yell

                        The advance of knowledge has been achieved not because the mind is capable of memorizing what teachers say but because it can be disciplined to ask probing questions and pursue them in a reasoned, self-critical way. Scholars pursuing knowledge submit their thinking to rigorous discipline. 

~Richard Paul

One of the most used and highlighted books in my professional library is Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Changing World by Richard Paul, an international leader in critical thinking movement. We often hear about the need for critical thinking, but we seldom hear sound definitions, or, in my opinion, see comprehensive models that we can apply to what we do in our classrooms. To my mind the works of Richard Paul, and his colleagues Linda Elder Gerald Nosich, and others at the Foundation for Critical Thinking put flesh on the bones of the concept of critical thinking; a concept all too rarely made substantive.

While there are many different approaches to, and definitions of, critical thinking, the Paul/Elder view is that critical thinking is the development of discipline organized thinking that monitors itself and is guided by intellectual standards . Further, they hold that reasoning must be at the heart of good teaching, sound learning, and preparation for college, career, and civic life. Rather than lectures, worksheets, and didactic instruction, it is through reasoning and thinking their way through the curriculum, that students really learn. This approach to critical thinking, I believe, puts this model of critical thinking head and shoulders above others.

To read the full article, join the   Center for Critical Thinking Community Online   – the world’s leading online community dedicated to teaching and advancing critical thinking. Featuring the world's largest library of critical thinking articles, videos, and books, as well as learning activities, study groups, and a social media component, this interactive learning platform is essential to anyone dedicated to developing as an effective reasoner in the classroom, in the professions, in business and government, and throughout personal life.  

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Sociological Imagination and Critical Thinking

• Post published: June 18, 2021
• Post author: Applied Worldwide
• Reading time: 8 mins read
• Post category: Essays

Editorial Note:

This article touching on the sociological imagination and critical thinking is being published on behalf of Applied Worldwide’s 2021 student essay competition. Students were prompted to respond to the question, “Why is sociology important?” We have awarded 17 finalists from all over the world, and will publish these essays over the next several weeks.

This essay was written by Namrata Sinha, a student at the University of Delhi in India. This essay received a third place award. We had a really great turnout and would like to thank everyone who submitted an essay. We received a wide variety of creative interpretations and responses, so browse our essay directory !

Namrata Sinha on the Sociological Imagination and Critical Thinking

The basic insight of sociology is that it investigates social changes, the social causes, and the consequences of human behaviour. Sociology, with its multi-spectral approach to a myriad of social phenomena, derives an intertwined link with various disciplines.

The idea of delving into environmental studies, analyzing psychological postulations, studying economic theories to understand financial implications, and drawing help of the tools of social sciences, to complete a literature review project on – “Deforestation Versus Infrastructural Development: Sociological Impacts,” succinctly demonstrates the multidisciplinary nature of Sociology.

French Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu says, “the function of sociology as every science is to reveal that which is hidden.” Sociology equips us with the conscience to interpret and question the existing realities, that at times are deemed ‘societal prerogatives.’

The Systematic Study of Society

Society is the largest institution formed by individuals. Most societies in 21st century have a significantly recognized historical, cultural and political framework. They construct patterns of behaviour by calling certain actions or speeches acceptable or unacceptable. Struggles vis-à-vis dominance, variation in roles, and allocation of resources, are inherently attributed to such social systems.

A belief, that is accepted by a group, cannot be generalized for every individual, as every person endures a unique life experience, and accordingly interprets a situation. Eminent social scientist Charles Wright Mills says, “neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both.” The conflict of ‘perspectives and ideologies’ tethers individuals and groups together. Therefore, it becomes important to study the relationship between them to analyze any social problem.

Sociological imagination incites individuals to develop a deeper understanding of how their biography has evolved as a result of historical processes within a larger social context. This leads them to critique and appraise different cultural and social paradigms.

Mills says, the more we understand what is happening in the world, the more frustrated we often become, for our knowledge leads to powerlessness. When individuals begin rationalizing and critically analyzing cultural and social orders existing in the society, their awareness about contemporary issues affecting their lives at large, becomes more nuanced. Dissent in a society highlights its ‘liveliness’ and implies that, by all means, the society is toiling forward to bring a change.

Sociological imagination, as Mills defines it, is the realization and cognizance of the correlation between personal experience and the popularly established ideology. It encourages people to replace the lenses they’re currently using to view their own lives. The more an individual engages with the generalized opinions, the better he(she) becomes in identifying his(her) personal problems.

Roles in Society

Role is a coherent pattern of behaviour that is socially acknowledged to place a person in a society. As an individual, I perform numerous roles, that define and ascertain my position in various institutions that I associate myself with. I’m expected to dwell in the cubicle of alliances, that determine to transform my conduct as per my location. For instance- at home, I’m a daughter, and in college, I’m a student. Additionally, there are certain permanent roles that I’m expected to never dispossess under normal conditions like my gender identity, nationality, ascribed familial status, and many more.

Sociology, as a discipline, embarks upon creating a comprehensive understanding of roles, privileges, and power positions. It directs people to own the collective responsibility of working towards resolving a social problem , and in the same consciousness, augments in the cultivation of a thorough understanding of “collective identity.”

Sociology, as Max Weber elucidates, is a science that attempts to encompass the interpretative understanding of social action to thereby arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects. As a multi-faceted discipline, sociology also offers a policy-oriented, and action-directed branch of learning, called ‘Applied Sociology.’ It enhances our capacities to practise sociological theories and methods outside of academic settings, with the aim to produce ‘positive social change through active intervention.’

Sociological Imagination and Critical Thinking in India

As India marches towards economic prosperity, we mustn’t overlook the socio-economic crises suffered by millions of Indians. Burgeoning gender inequality, along with the increasing income-devised and caste-based disparity, bestows a serious challenge for the exceptional futuristic prospects of India.

As sociology anchors a process of critical analysis and interpretation of common social elements, it bolsters ‘rationalism,’ and opens broad avenues of exegesis concerning kinship roles, gender-based inequalities, and various socio-cultural conflicts.

It doesn’t require any preconcerted specialization to foster the understanding of fundamentals of sociology.

Households in India

Household, which we consider as our safe personal space, can in fact become the arena of oppression and discrimination. Therefore, it becomes essential to juxtapose and scrutinize the discourse of domesticity in an explicit way. People from all ages and disciplines can hone their interaction with social systems by engaging with this quintessential subject. We can begin the dissemination of ‘rational and critical interpretation,’ by promulgating education in sociology at schools. For a child, the classroom becomes the archetypal environment for social interaction.

Children can become proficient in questioning and discerning motifs of different social prerogatives. It will benefit in unearthing solutions for larger socio economic problems. Also, this will help in plugging the gaping gender inequality in fields of scientific research, diplomacy, and manufacturing, and will also aid in the abolition of discrimination based on culture, caste or creed. Finally, it will also necessitate overarching implications in the way people construe different social changes.

Concluding Thoughts

Social structure is embedded in all societies, and to refurbish analogical inferences vis-à-vis varying forms of cultural and socioeconomic practices, it becomes substantial to incorporate ‘sociological understanding.’

Other Articles from Applied Worldwide on the Sociological Imagination

The Sociological Imagination of Unemployment

Applying the Sociological Imagination to COVID-19

The Sociological Imagination and Thanksgiving

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1.2 Sociological Perspectives on Social Problems

Learning objectives.

• Define the sociological imagination.
• Explain what is meant by the blaming-the-victim belief.
• Summarize the most important beliefs and assumptions of functionalism and conflict theory.
• Summarize the most important beliefs and assumptions of symbolic interactionism and exchange theory.

The sociological understanding of social problems rests heavily on the concept of the sociological imagination . We discuss this concept in some detail before turning to various theoretical perspectives that provide a further context for understanding social problems.

The Sociological Imagination

Many individuals experience one or more social problems personally. For example, many people are poor and unemployed, many are in poor health, and many have family problems, drink too much alcohol, or commit crime. When we hear about these individuals, it is easy to think that their problems are theirs alone, and that they and other individuals with the same problems are entirely to blame for their difficulties.

Sociology takes a different approach, as it stresses that individual problems are often rooted in problems stemming from aspects of society itself. This key insight informed C. Wright Mills’s (1959) (Mills, 1959) classic distinction between personal troubles and public issues . Personal troubles refer to a problem affecting individuals that the affected individual, as well as other members of society, typically blame on the individual’s own personal and moral failings. Examples include such different problems as eating disorders, divorce, and unemployment. Public issues , whose source lies in the social structure and culture of a society, refer to social problems affecting many individuals. Problems in society thus help account for problems that individuals experience. Mills felt that many problems ordinarily considered private troubles are best understood as public issues, and he coined the term sociological imagination to refer to the ability to appreciate the structural basis for individual problems.

To illustrate Mills’s viewpoint, let’s use our sociological imaginations to understand some contemporary social problems. We will start with unemployment, which Mills himself discussed. If only a few people were unemployed, Mills wrote, we could reasonably explain their unemployment by saying they were lazy, lacked good work habits, and so forth. If so, their unemployment would be their own personal trouble. But when millions of people are out of work, unemployment is best understood as a public issue because, as Mills (Mills, 1959) put it, “the very structure of opportunities has collapsed. Both the correct statement of the problem and the range of possible solutions require us to consider the economic and political institutions of the society, and not merely the personal situation and character of a scatter of individuals.”

When only a few people are out of work, it is fair to say that their unemployment is their personal trouble. However, when millions of people are out of work, as has been true since the economic downturn began in 2008, this massive unemployment is more accurately viewed as a public issue. As such, its causes lie not in the unemployed individuals but rather in our society’s economic and social systems.

Rawle C. Jackman – The line of hope… – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The high US unemployment rate stemming from the severe economic downturn that began in 2008 provides a telling example of the point Mills was making. Millions of people lost their jobs through no fault of their own. While some individuals are undoubtedly unemployed because they are lazy or lack good work habits, a more structural explanation focusing on lack of opportunity is needed to explain why so many people were out of work. If so, unemployment is best understood as a public issue rather than a personal trouble.

Another social problem is eating disorders. We usually consider a person’s eating disorder to be a personal trouble that stems from a lack of control, low self-esteem, or another personal problem. This explanation may be OK as far as it goes, but it does not help us understand why so many people have the personal problems that lead to eating disorders. Perhaps more important, this belief also neglects the larger social and cultural forces that help explain such disorders. For example, most Americans with eating disorders are women, not men. This gender difference forces us to ask what it is about being a woman in American society that makes eating disorders so much more common. To begin to answer this question, we need to look to the standard of beauty for women that emphasizes a slender body (Boyd, et. al., 2011). If this cultural standard did not exist, far fewer American women would suffer from eating disorders than do now. Because it does exist, even if every girl and woman with an eating disorder were cured, others would take their places unless we could somehow change this standard. Viewed in this way, eating disorders are best understood as a public issue, not just as a personal trouble.

Picking up on Mills’s insights, William Ryan (1976) (Ryan, 1976) pointed out that Americans typically think that social problems such as poverty and unemployment stem from personal failings of the people experiencing these problems, not from structural problems in the larger society. Using Mills’s terms, Americans tend to think of social problems as personal troubles rather than public issues. As Ryan put it, they tend to believe in blaming the victim rather than blaming the system .

To help us understand a blaming-the-victim ideology, let’s consider why poor children in urban areas often learn very little in their schools. According to Ryan, a blaming-the-victim approach would say the children’s parents do not care about their learning, fail to teach them good study habits, and do not encourage them to take school seriously. This type of explanation, he wrote, may apply to some parents, but it ignores a much more important reason: the sad shape of America’s urban schools, which, he said, are overcrowded, decrepit structures housing old textbooks and out-of-date equipment. To improve the schooling of children in urban areas, he wrote, we must improve the schools themselves and not just try to “improve” the parents.

As this example suggests, a blaming-the-victim approach points to solutions to social problems such as poverty and illiteracy that are very different from those suggested by a more structural approach that blames the system. If we blame the victim, we would spend our limited dollars to address the personal failings of individuals who suffer from poverty, illiteracy, poor health, eating disorders, and other difficulties. If instead we blame the system, we would focus our attention on the various social conditions (decrepit schools, cultural standards of female beauty, and the like) that account for these difficulties. A sociological understanding suggests that the latter approach is ultimately needed to help us deal successfully with the social problems facing us today.

Theoretical Perspectives

Three theoretical perspectives guide sociological thinking on social problems: functionalist theory, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist theory. These perspectives look at the same social problems, but they do so in different ways. Their views taken together offer a fuller understanding of social problems than any of the views can offer alone. Table 1.1 “Theory Snapshot” summarizes the three perspectives.

Table 1.1 Theory Snapshot

Functionalism

Functionalism , also known as the functionalist theory or perspective, arose out of two great revolutions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The first was the French Revolution of 1789, whose intense violence and bloody terror shook Europe to its core. The aristocracy throughout Europe feared that revolution would spread to their own lands, and intellectuals feared that social order was crumbling.

The Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century reinforced these concerns. Starting first in Europe and then in the United States, the Industrial Revolution led to many changes, including the rise and growth of cities as people left their farms to live near factories. As the cities grew, people lived in increasingly poor, crowded, and decrepit conditions, and crime was rampant. Here was additional evidence, if European intellectuals needed it, of the breakdown of social order.

In response, the intellectuals began to write that a strong society, as exemplified by strong social bonds and rules and effective socialization, was needed to prevent social order from disintegrating. Without a strong society and effective socialization, they warned, social order breaks down, and violence and other signs of social disorder result.

This general framework reached fruition in the writings of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a French scholar largely responsible for the sociological perspective, as we now know it. Adopting the conservative intellectuals’ view of the need for a strong society, Durkheim felt that human beings have desires that result in chaos unless society limits them (Durkheim, 1952). It does so, he wrote, through two related social mechanisms: socialization and social integration. Socialization helps us learn society’s rules and the need to cooperate, as people end up generally agreeing on important norms and values, while social integration, or our ties to other people and to social institutions such as religion and the family, helps socialize us and integrate us into society and reinforce our respect for its rules.

Today’s functionalist perspective arises out of Durkheim’s work and that of other conservative intellectuals of the nineteenth century. It uses the human body as a model for understanding society. In the human body, our various organs and other body parts serve important functions for the ongoing health and stability of our body. Our eyes help us see, our ears help us hear, our heart circulates our blood, and so forth. Just as we can understand the body by describing and understanding the functions that its parts serve for its health and stability, so can we understand society by describing and understanding the functions that its parts—or, more accurately, its social institutions—serve for the ongoing health and stability of society. Thus functionalism emphasizes the importance of social institutions such as the family, religion, and education for producing a stable society.

Émile Durkheim was a founder of sociology and is largely credited with developing the functionalist perspective.

Marxists.org – public domain.

Similar to the view of the conservative intellectuals from which it grew, functionalism is skeptical of rapid social change and other major social upheaval. The analogy to the human body helps us understand this skepticism. In our bodies, any sudden, rapid change is a sign of danger to our health. If we break a bone in one of our legs, we have trouble walking; if we lose sight in both our eyes, we can no longer see. Slow changes, such as the growth of our hair and our nails, are fine and even normal, but sudden changes like those just described are obviously troublesome. By analogy, sudden and rapid changes in society and its social institutions are troublesome according to the functionalist perspective. If the human body evolved to its present form and functions because these made sense from an evolutionary perspective, so did society evolve to its present form and functions because these made sense. Any sudden change in society thus threatens its stability and future.

As these comments might suggest, functionalism views social problems as arising from society’s natural evolution. When a social problem does occur, it might threaten a society’s stability, but it does not mean that fundamental flaws in the society exist. Accordingly, gradual social reform should be all that is needed to address the social problem.

Functionalism even suggests that social problems must be functional in some ways for society, because otherwise these problems would not continue. This is certainly a controversial suggestion, but it is true that many social problems do serve important functions for our society. For example, crime is a major social problem, but it is also good for the economy because it creates hundreds of thousands of jobs in law enforcement, courts and corrections, home security, and other sectors of the economy whose major role is to deal with crime. If crime disappeared, many people would be out of work! Similarly, poverty is also a major social problem, but one function that poverty serves is that poor people do jobs that otherwise might not get done because other people would not want to do them (Gans, 1972). Like crime, poverty also provides employment for people across the nation, such as those who work in social service agencies that help poor people.

Conflict Theory

In many ways, conflict theory is the opposite of functionalism but ironically also grew out of the Industrial Revolution, thanks largely to Karl Marx (1818–1883) and his collaborator, Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). Whereas conservative intellectuals feared the mass violence resulting from industrialization, Marx and Engels deplored the conditions they felt were responsible for the mass violence and the capitalist society they felt was responsible for these conditions. Instead of fearing the breakdown of social order that mass violence represented, they felt that revolutionary violence was needed to eliminate capitalism and the poverty and misery they saw as its inevitable results (Marx, 1906; Marx & Engels, 1962).

According to Marx and Engels, every society is divided into two classes based on the ownership of the means of production (tools, factories, and the like). In a capitalist society, the bourgeoisie , or ruling class, owns the means of production, while the proletariat , or working class, does not own the means of production and instead is oppressed and exploited by the bourgeoisie. This difference creates an automatic conflict of interests between the two groups. Simply put, the bourgeoisie is interested in maintaining its position at the top of society, while the proletariat’s interest lies in rising up from the bottom and overthrowing the bourgeoisie to create an egalitarian society.

In a capitalist society, Marx and Engels wrote, revolution is inevitable because of structural contradictions arising from the very nature of capitalism. Because profit is the main goal of capitalism, the bourgeoisie’s interest lies in maximizing profit. To do so, capitalists try to keep wages as low as possible and to spend as little money as possible on working conditions. This central fact of capitalism, said Marx and Engels, eventually prompts the rise of class consciousness , or an awareness of the reasons for their oppression, among workers. Their class consciousness in turn leads them to revolt against the bourgeoisie to eliminate the oppression and exploitation they suffer.

Marx and Engels’ view of conflict arising from unequal positions held by members of society lies at the heart of today’s conflict theory. This theory emphasizes that different groups in society have different interests stemming from their different social positions. These different interests in turn lead to different views on important social issues. Some versions of the theory root conflict in divisions based on race and ethnicity, gender, and other such differences, while other versions follow Marx and Engels in seeing conflict arising out of different positions in the economic structure. In general, however, conflict theory emphasizes that the various parts of society contribute to ongoing inequality, whereas functionalist theory, as we have seen, stresses that they contribute to the ongoing stability of society. Thus while functionalist theory emphasizes the benefits of the various parts of society for ongoing social stability, conflict theory favors social change to reduce inequality.

Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels were intense critics of capitalism. Their work inspired the later development of conflict theory in sociology.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Feminist theory has developed in sociology and other disciplines since the 1970s and for our purposes will be considered a specific application of conflict theory. In this case, the conflict concerns gender inequality rather than the class inequality emphasized by Marx and Engels. Although many variations of feminist theory exist, they all emphasize that society is filled with gender inequality such that women are the subordinate sex in many dimensions of social, political, and economic life (Lorber, 2010). Liberal feminists view gender inequality as arising out of gender differences in socialization, while Marxist feminists say that this inequality is a result of the rise of capitalism, which made women dependent on men for economic support. On the other hand, radical feminists view gender inequality as present in all societies, not just capitalist ones. Several chapters in this book emphasize the perspectives of feminist sociologists and other social scientists.

Conflict theory in its various forms views social problems as arising from society’s inherent inequality. Depending on which version of conflict theory is being considered, the inequality contributing to social problems is based on social class, race and ethnicity, gender, or some other dimension of society’s hierarchy. Because any of these inequalities represents a fundamental flaw in society, conflict theory assumes that fundamental social change is needed to address society’s many social problems.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on the interaction of individuals and on how they interpret their interaction. Its roots lie in the work of early 1900s American sociologists, social psychologists, and philosophers who were interested in human consciousness and action. Herbert Blumer (1969) (Blumer, 1969), a sociologist at the University of Chicago, built on their writings to develop symbolic interactionism, a term he coined. Drawing on Blumer’s work, symbolic interactionists feel that people do not merely learn the roles that society has set out for them; instead they construct these roles as they interact. As they interact, they negotiate their definitions of the situations in which they find themselves and socially construct the reality of these situations. In doing so, they rely heavily on symbols such as words and gestures to reach a shared understanding of their interaction.

Symbolic interactionism focuses on individuals, such as the people conversing here. Sociologists favoring this approach examine how and why individuals interact and interpret the meanings of their interaction.

An example is the familiar symbol of shaking hands. In the United States and many other societies, shaking hands is a symbol of greeting and friendship. This simple act indicates that you are a nice, polite person with whom someone should feel comfortable. To reinforce this symbol’s importance for understanding a bit of interaction, consider a situation where someone refuses to shake hands. This action is usually intended as a sign of dislike or as an insult, and the other person interprets it as such. Their understanding of the situation and subsequent interaction will be very different from those arising from the more typical shaking of hands. As the term symbolic interactionism implies, their understanding of this encounter arises from what they do when they interact and from their use and interpretation of the various symbols included in their interaction. According to symbolic interactionists, social order is possible because people learn what various symbols (such as shaking hands) mean and apply these meanings to different kinds of situations. If you visited a society where sticking your right hand out to greet someone was interpreted as a threatening gesture, you would quickly learn the value of common understandings of symbols.

Symbolic interactionism views social problems as arising from the interaction of individuals. This interaction matters in two important respects. First, socially problematic behaviors such as crime and drug use are often learned from our interaction with people who engage in these behaviors; we adopt their attitudes that justify committing these behaviors, and we learn any special techniques that might be needed to commit these behaviors. Second, we also learn our perceptions of a social problem from our interaction with other people, whose perceptions and beliefs influence our own perceptions and beliefs.

Because symbolic interactionism emphasizes the perception of social problems, it is closely aligned with the social constructionist view discussed earlier. Both perspectives emphasize the subjective nature of social problems. By doing so, they remind us that perceptions often matter at least as much as objective reality in determining whether a given condition or behavior rises to the level of a social problem and in the types of possible solutions that various parties might favor for a particular social problem.

Applying the Three Perspectives

To explain armed robbery, symbolic interactionists focus on how armed robbers decide when and where to rob a victim and on how their interactions with other criminals reinforce their own criminal tendencies.

Geoffrey Fairchild – The Robbery – CC BY 2.0.

To help you further understand the different views of these three theoretical perspectives, let’s see what they would probably say about armed robbery , a very serious form of crime, while recognizing that the three perspectives together provide a more comprehensive understanding of armed robbery than any one perspective provides by itself.

A functionalist approach might suggest that armed robbery actually serves positive functions for society, such as the job-creating function mentioned earlier for crime in general. It would still think that efforts should be made to reduce armed robbery, but it would also assume that far-reaching changes in our society would be neither wise nor necessary as part of the effort to reduce crime.

Conflict theory would take a very different approach to understanding armed robbery. It might note that most street criminals are poor and thus emphasize that armed robbery is the result of the despair and frustration of living in poverty and facing a lack of jobs and other opportunities for economic and social success. The roots of street crime, from the perspective of conflict theory, thus lie in society at least as much as they lie in the individuals committing such crime. To reduce armed robbery and other street crime, conflict theory would advocate far-reaching changes in the economic structure of society.

For its part, symbolic interactionism would focus on how armed robbers make such decisions as when and where to rob someone and on how their interactions with other criminals reinforce their own criminal tendencies. It would also investigate how victims of armed robbery behave when confronted by a robber. To reduce armed robbery, it would advocate programs that reduce the opportunities for interaction among potential criminal offenders, for example, after-school programs that keep at-risk youths busy in “conventional” activities so that they have less time to spend with youths who might help them get into trouble.

Key Takeaways

• According to C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination involves the ability to recognize that private troubles are rooted in public issues and structural problems.
• Functionalism emphasizes the importance of social institutions for social stability and implies that far-reaching social change will be socially harmful.
• Conflict theory emphasizes social inequality and suggests that far-reaching social change is needed to achieve a just society.
• Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the social meanings and understandings that individuals derive from their social interaction.

For Your Review

• Select an example of a “private trouble” and explain how and why it may reflect a structural problem in society.
• At this point in your study of social problems, which one of the three sociological theoretical perspectives sounds most appealing to you? Why?

Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and Method . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Boyd, E. M., Reynolds, J. R., Tillman, K. H., & Martin, P. Y. (2011). Adolescent girls’ race/ethnic status, identities, and drive for thinness. Social Science Research, 40 (2), 667–684.

Durkheim, É. (1952). Suicide (J. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press. (Original work published 1897).

Gans, H. J. (1972). The positive functions of poverty. American Journal of Sociology, 78 , 275–289.

Lorber, J. (2010). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics . New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Marx, K. (1906). Capital . New York, NY: Random House. (Original work published 1867).

Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1962). The communist manifesto. In Marx and Engels: Selected works (Vol. 2, pp. 21–65). Moscow, Russia: Foreign Language Publishing House. (Original work published 1848).

Mills, C. W. (1959). The sociological imagination . London, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Ryan, W. (1976). Blaming the victim (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books.

Social Problems Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Without a Nobel but with a Prize

The oldest (and the newest) board games in the world, openmind books, scientific anniversaries, why do big islands give rise to such unique creatures, featured author, latest book, sociocentrism and critical thinking.

Even before he became pope, Pope Francis spoke of self-referencing and even a certain narcissism in the Church, and of the need to stop looking inward and embrace the outside world. There is no doubt that the erstwhile cardinal’s opinions were certainly well founded. There may also be justification for a similar denunciation of certain groups in the secular world in which corporativism and sociocentrism appear to hold sway. Certain assemblies, groups, associations of all different sizes and profiles can be said to adopt a self-referencing view of reality, and –yes– a sort of narcissism.

The risk of sociocentrism

We regard this tendency toward sociocentrism as being only natural in groups of any kind, be they social, religious or professional, but we need be alert in case it becomes necessary to neutralize certain excesses. Although the common themes of the members of these groups are complex to analyze and synthesize, the following features can be observed in the most notable cases of sociocentrism:

• They have a narrow-minded perception of reality.
• They cultivate an almost arrogant self-referencing.
• The Other –anyone who is different– is observed with suspicion and mistrust.
• They are convinced they are in possession of the truth, that they are right.
• They may hold extreme positions and aspirations.
• Leaders are invested with generating collective thought.
• They adopt a certain proprietary, all-pervasive and sometimes outrageous rhetoric.

The profile of the critical thinker

I was pleased years ago to come across the term in question while I was browsing documents related with the critical thinking movement. The experts Richard Paul and Linda Elder (“The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking”, available on the Internet) underlined the need for critical thinkers to overcome the habitual tendency to egocentrism and sociocentrism. By the way, the adjective “critical” is sometimes used to define a thinker whom we perceive as independent, rigorous, inquisitive, well-informed and prudent (as indicated by another expert, Peter Facione, in “Critical Thinking: What It is and Why It Counts”). So it may be worth briefly insisting here that the critical thinker:

• Does not look for failures or errors but for truths.
• Does not take a superficial approach, but looks deeply into the issues.
• Does not display a negative attitude but an exploratory one.
• Does not automatically accept information before verifying it.
• Does not make hasty inferences, but takes time to be sure.
• Is not stubborn and inflexible, but reasonable and open-minded.
• Does not believe in his own good judgment, but aspires to it.
• Does not tend to formulate reproaches, but hesitates and reflects.
• Does not generate mistrust and insecurity but quite the reverse.
• Does not search for scapegoats, but analyzes the causes and consequences.
• Does not allow himself to be caught up in prejudices and mental models, but is aware of them.
• Does not allow anyone to think for him, but cultivates sensitive cognitive independence.

You will note that this profile of the autonomous thinker, someone who is markedly self-critical and aware of his prejudices, has little to do with the sociocentric scenario described above. Critical thinkers logically form part of groups, but do not adopt the weaknesses of sociocentrism; if they feel uncomfortable, they usually end up distancing themselves, perhaps after being perceived with suspicion, rejection and even hostility by the group.

Critical thinking is a pending task in the field of education, and is a critical strength in our professional profiles in the 21st century, as highlighted by the Davos  forum. Personal development can be said to involve assuming control of our personal lives, and of our perception of reality and our thought processes. We should all be able to reach –always with a solid basis– our own truths (conclusions, opinions, beliefs, values, moral principles and so on), while being aware that they are merely our own, although we can be satisfied with this fact.

Even though we may be secretly certain of possessing the truth or of being right, we must be able to respect other points of view without being tempted to impose our own . We must be capable of acquitting ourselves with convincing arguments when defending our positions, but we should do so (without compromising our assertiveness when necessary) with caution, conciseness, respect, and a willingness to listen to others. Our growth and development as human beings appears to be based on coexistence grounded in respect, and even empathy and solidarity . The reader must excuse this theorizing in the above paragraph, but it paves the way for what follows.

It was my own personal experience that led me to see Pope Francis’s self-critical position as being justified. A new statute of the World Confederation of Past Pupils of the Salesian Missions (drafted in Rome, the site of the congregation’s headquarters) encouraged us to “defend at all costs, with a spirit of social, political and financial commitment” such “ non-negotiable ” values as “life, freedom and truth” , and also to “fight against injustice, indifference…” . The association of ex-pupils assumed the solemn promissory manifesto of defending the truth at all costs, which produced in me a certain feeling of discomfort I have yet to shake off.

No, we cannot believe ourselves to be in possession of the truth, although we may seek it and value it, and even though it may be shared with a group. If we are members of a group –social, religious or professional, with either a high or low operational intensity, big or small–, we must be aware of this natural tendency toward sociocentrism, toward self-referencing, toward seeing things in a particular light and believing that this is the right and only legitimate way. In the name of equanimity, of objectivity, of respect for others, we must all practice critical thinking; that which allows us to be the protagonists of our own thought processes and our own lives, to think for ourselves, and to arrive at more personal and solid conclusions.

José Enebral Fernández

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• Neuro-philosophy of International Relations
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What is Critical Thinking? Here’s everything you need to know

Critical thinking refers to making reliable judgments through the objective analysis of factual information. The term ‘critical’ is derived from the Greek word kritikos that means discerning.

What Does A Critical Thinker Do?

• They formulate vital questions relevant to analyzing problems. For example, a graduate student looking for an internship might ask whether the internship would count as work experience relevant to their postgraduate studies.
• They gather pertinent information using hypothetical ideas to interpret and test its validity. For example, a young adult looking to be independent might plan their future using hypothetical future jobs and associated incomes.
• They think with an open mind using alternative paradigms of thought, recognizing the practical consequences of their assumptions. For example, a chef may be required to solve problems by substituting mainstream ingredients with alternative ones.
• They communicate productively with others while figuring out solutions to complicated problems. For example, surgeons from different specialities are required to communicate and work together to save lives.

Importance of Critical Thinking

• Critical thinking is universal : Critical thinking is a skill required in every domain, no matter what career you pursue. It is an asset in every field and always helps you succeed. For example, a first responder requires critical thinking to analyze a disaster site quickly, evaluate priorities and infer which actions need to be taken for maximum effectiveness. Additionally, parents should employ critical thinking while budgeting their expenses so that they may afford their children’s future education.
• Crucial for the economy: The global economy is dependent on information, technology and innovation. This increases the demand for people to have intellectual skills such as the ability to analyze information by integrating multiple sources of knowledge. For example, an environmentalist might adapt to alternative technology such as solar panels for sustainable energy use.
• Enhances language and presentation skills: Our ability to comprehend texts depends on how we analyze their logical structure. Critical thinking aids us in breaking down complicated ideas and expressing them clearly and systematically. For example, a student union representative would require good verbal skills to effectively communicate their ideas.
• Promotes creativity: Critical thinking encourages the formulation of new ideas that are relevant and useful to the task at hand. It ensures that from a plethora of creative ideas, the best ones are selected and modified if required. For example, a financial advisor might brainstorm new methods to reduce costs at the time of a budget crisis.
• Essential for self-reflection: Critical thinking provides us with the tools required for self-evaluation. This ensures that we lead a meaningful life that we can justify through our values and decisions. For example, a student might use self-reflection to remove distracting thoughts and behaviors during final exams.
• Lays the groundwork for science and democracy: Critical thinking encourages us to back up theories with knowledge and facts. This tool is essential in the field of science. Moreover, the effective functioning of a democracy requires its citizens to overcome inherent biases and make judgments about governance through critical analysis of social issues. For example, a citizen who employs critical thinking might ask questions like who published this, what their sources are, and what their intentions are to escape fake news and propaganda.

Benefits of Critical Thinking

• Promotes career success: According to a 2016 World Economic Forum report titled ‘The Future of Jobs’, critical thinking is one of the predicted skill sets required to thrive in the modern landscape. Critical thinking is crucial from the first step i.e., the job interview where applicants must communicate effectively and present themselves as suitable candidates.
• Improves decision-making : Critical thinking ensures that we make sound decisions independently through careful analysis of all the facts. For example, a detective must be able to objectively refer to facts surrounding a suspect without emotional interference.
• It can make you happier: With an increase in self-reflection and evaluation, critical thinking can help you understand yourself better. Moreover, it would help you focus on your strengths rather than any negative thoughts or beliefs.
• Improves relationships: Critical thinking encourages us to become open-minded and put ourselves in others’ shoes. This would enhance our relationships by letting us understand other peoples’ perspectives. For example, by employing self-reflection during an argument, you may see things from their point of view and thus make a more empathetic decision.

Process of Critical Thinking

The American philosopher John Dewey recognized five steps of critical thinking. First, is a suggestion wherein the mind recommends a conceivable solution to the issue. Next, the difficulty is transformed into a problem that must be solved. The third step involves using one suggestion after the other as a hypothesis . This helps to initiate observation and the collection of facts surrounding the problem. The next step is reasoning which refers to the mental interpretation of an idea. Finally, the whole process comes to an end by testing the hypothesis through overt or covert action.

Top 10 Critical Thinking Skills

Many mental actions occur in the process of critical thinking. The most important skills used are elaborated below:

• Identification: This skill requires you to determine the problem along with the factors involved in its formulation. After the situation has been diagnosed, you can delve deeper into its solution. For example, during a bombing, authorities may ask who is involved and what their agenda is.
• Analysis: Analysis refers to the careful examination of a problem and explaining its implication to others. This can be done by recognizing patterns, questioning evidence and interpreting qualitative and quantitative data. For example, policy analysts may predict the outcomes of governmental policies using statistical data.
• Reflection: It is essential to reflect on any personal biases, which may affect your judgment. For example, a surgeon must choose to not operate on a family member, since their emotions could cloud their judgment.
• Evaluation: Evaluating information refers to a thorough analysis of the situation instead of just looking at the obvious facts. This would help in judging the value of particular facts and further help in forming priorities. This skill is used by interviewers to judge applicants by investigating their motivations and thought processes.
• Reasoning: This skill involves both inductive and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning refers to drawing generalizations on the basis of a specific case. For example, you might draw the generalization that all crows are black based on the fact that every crow you have seen was black in colour. On the other hand, deductive reasoning includes using general truths to reach specific conclusions. For example, you might come to the conclusion that you are mortal based on the fact that all men are mortal.
• Research: Research is essential to verify details regarding arguments about a particular issue. Checking the sources of all information presented and checking their validity can help develop this skill. College students frequently employ research skills while writing academic papers.
• Inference : Inference refers to the ability to draw conclusions based on data presented to you. This skill can be honed by gathering all information before coming to a conclusion. Inferring helps you to draw potential outcomes while assessing a situation. For example, if a baby is crying, you might infer that he is hungry or sleepy.
• Communication : This critical thinking skill is vital while working in a group. Communication helps in sharing of ideas while attempting to find solutions to complex problems. Practising active listening can help improve this skill. For example, a teacher must effectively express herself while instructing students.
• Observation: Observation refers to paying close attention to one’s environment and drawing inferences based on collected data. For example, after observing that the ground is wet, you might draw the conclusion that it rained.
• Experimentation: While attempting to draw inferences of hypotheses, conducting experiments can help figure out if the results of a possible problem would occur in reality. For example, the Stanford prison experiment was used to investigate the social and psychological effects of power.

Arushi is a sociology and environmental studies. She is passionate about writing and researching about these two fields. She has a keen interest in social work and has collaborated with many volunteering programs in the past. Her hobbies include horse riding, trekking and painting.

Psychology • January 16, 2023

Exploring the Significance of Sociological Imagination

Sociological imagination is a concept that refers to the ability to connect personal experience with larger social structures and to see the link between personal troubles and public issues.

This allows us to see how our environment and society influence our lives. For example, you might blame yourself for not finding a job and hold yourself completely responsible for failing to develop the skills required by an employer. However, if your country is facing an economic crisis, businesses may have the means to employ only a small number of people.  In this case, low employment success may be the result of the environment and not a reflection of skill or desirability.

In this article, we will explore how the line between personal and public issues and how understanding a larger context can provide a more insightful perspective regarding the nature of your problems.

Social imagination can help you see the interconnectivity between the individual, society, and the world.

The Sociologist C. Wright Mills introduced the concept of sociological imagination in his book, published in 1959, titled “The Sociological Imagination.” Mills argued that personal lives and the social world are interconnected, and that personal choices and experiences cannot be fully understood without understanding the larger social structures in which they are embedded. He wrote, "neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both.”

Sociological imagination helps individuals view the world from a different perspective and to question the assumptions they may have taken for granted.

One of the key elements of sociological imagination is the ability to view personal troubles as public issues. A divorce may be considered a personal issue, citing incompatible personalities or actions made by one or both parties as the contributing factors. However, if the country is seeing higher divorce rates overall due to changes to the institution of marriage, divorce may instead be a public issue.

One’s preference for a certain pair of shoes may not be a personal preference at all but rather the influence of a trend that popularized that pair of shoes or peers’ opinions about the shoes. Of course, societal factors are not always the sole drivers of action, but sociological imagination allows us to analyze our personal preferences and choices and discover if there are societal, cultural, and other types of influences behind them.

How can we best describe sociological imagination in the context of today’s society?

The International Labour Organization reports that the impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic contributed to an estimated 8.8% loss of total working hours, the equivalent to the hours worked in one year by 255 million full-time workers. This loss of working hours had a wide-reaching impact worldwide, and many small businesses shut down as a result. A survey conducted by the International Labour Organization found that 80% of micro-enterprises and 70% of small firms experienced serious financial difficulties in the second quarter of 2020. Based on data provided by the BLS , many people lost their jobs due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Out of the 16.9 million people unemployed in July 2020, 9.6 million (57%) were unable to work because their employers closed or lost business due to the pandemic.

Looking at that tumultuous time from an outside perspective and seeing only the data about the rising unemployment rates and loss of working hours without considering the context would have led to the wrong assumptions about the situation.

During the pandemic, there were a large number of people choosing to become self-employed. This could have seemed strange if you had not considered that many businesses shut down and restrictions were put in place, blocking people in their homes, to contain the virus.

The main benefit of sociological imagination is that it allows you to see beyond the appearances of certain issues, regardless of whether there are personal problems or public ones. It can help you identify the root cause of the problem and see possible solutions to it.

Sociological imagination: The interplay between the individual and society

The framework created by Mills’ sociological research helps people realize the connection between personal experience and their society. Using sociological imagination, he identified five main social problems in American society: threats to democracy, threats to human freedom, moral insensibility, alienation, and the conflict between human reason and bureaucratic rationality.²

Mills believed that as bureaucratic organizations become bigger, they tend to become more centralized, and all the power falls into the hands of a small, elite group, posing a threat to democracy and freedom. His concern can be justified when looking at the events related to Facebook’s data and Cambridge Analytica.

In the 2010s, the British consulting firm Cambridge Analytica collected millions of Facebook users' personal data without their consent to use it for political advertising.

That scandal showed the danger of giving tech giants data on millions of people because, similar to the threats Millis envisioned, a small number of people running the companies gain the power to influence countless lives. This influence infringes on people's freedom, as they can be manipulated to think or choose certain things they might disagree with.

Sociological imagination forces us to take a second look at our lives and realize that something seemingly harmless, like introducing and sharing personal data on a social media website, can be dangerous.

It also brings to light that our apparent “free choices,” such as voting for a particular political candidate or choosing to support them, might have resulted from a carefully orchestrated marketing plan.  And, in some cases, our “free choices” may even be driven by manipulations.

The framework Mills created can help people free themselves from the unseen influences various institutions, groups, and structures have on them.

Envisioning a path for the future using the sociological imagination

Social imagination can help us see a path toward societal progress that acknowledges the needs of the individual.

Mills believed that many people’s feelings of alienation resulted from the modern division of labor. He observed that jobs in the United States and other parts of the world were broken up into simple, functional tasks, with machines or unskilled workers taking over the most tedious ones.¹

He considered that, with the rise of the automated workforce, autonomy , and authority became a privilege only available to individuals from the highest parts of the work hierarchy. As a result, most workers would have to accept that they would not be able to use their own judgment and would simply need to comply with the strict guidelines determined by those in power.

This society enforced a gradual removal of people’s autonomy in their work and encouraged the creation of what many felt were soulless occupations. Considering these circumstances, we saw the emergence of an unprecedented way to approach work.

The creator economy refers to the emergence of a new type of work occupation, where an individual becomes a content creator, providing value through a skill that highlights their uniqueness. For example, PewDiePie, one of YouTube’s most famous creators , became a millionaire by creating videos about gaming and other topics.

Analyzing these events using social imagination, we can see that the burning desire for meaning has led people to create novel jobs that did not exist before, which have at their center the uniqueness and autonomy of the individual. This evolution within the scope of America’s workforce became possible when people decided to take advantage of current opportunities, such as the internet, in order to solve a problem that arose in their society.

The framework that leverages the human imagination Mills envisioned can help us see the development of society as an interconnected series of events, and it gives us the possibility to identify the real problems and what we should do about them.

If you are interested in learning about concepts such as sociological imagination, the human psyche, and the interrelations between society and the individual, consider checking our Psychology Programs Overview or speaking with an Admission Advisor to learn more about our programs.

References:

• Elwell, F. W. (2002). The Sociology of C. Wright Mills .
• Elwell, F. W. (2015). Macrosociology: four modern theorists . Routledge.

People Also Ask

What does sociological imagination teach.

Sociological imagination teaches us to analyze our current problems and gives us a chance to prevent events such as the Great Resignation, which led to millions of Americans voluntarily quitting their jobs.

Even though the COVID-19 Pandemic was mainly the reason the Great Resignation started, the problem is more complex. According to the Pew Research Center , most workers who quit reported that the pay was too low (63%), there were no opportunities for advancement (63%), and they felt disrespected at work (57%).

Exploring imaginative thought related to sociology encourages us to unravel problems we may never have thought about and may make us consider the path toward societal progress we want to take. It allows the acknowledgment of people's desires and needs and provides a possible path toward addressing them.

What are the 3 components of sociological imagination?

The first component of sociological imagination is the ability to see the connection between individual behavior and larger social forces. This means understanding how the culture, political systems, and economy influence personal experiences such as getting a job or starting a family. The second component is the ability to identify how social systems generate behavior.

This requires understanding how seemingly personal troubles can be public issues. For example, explaining the unemployment of a single individual addresses only the character and skills of that individual. However, if there is an economic crisis and a significant number of people are unemployed during that time, we can consider it a public issue.

The third component is the ability to identify social forces that shape individual behavior. This is to understand how larger social influences such as race, power, and culture shape the opportunities of individuals.

What are the benefits of sociological imagination?

There are multiple benefits to practicing sociological imagination:

• Enhanced critical thinking: Sociological imagination leads people to see the interplay between larger societal structures and their own lives. For example, new developments in artificial intelligence might seem like a trump of humanity, but they could come with significant implications for the individual. Because we have the technology to automate certain jobs, people now performing them may soon be replaced. This nuanced thought is possible due to sociological imagination.
• Increased empathy: When a person uses sociological imagination, the impact of social inequality and other similar issues can become apparent, increasing one’s empathy toward others’ struggles. The homeless might seem lazy, but in reality, they could be in that position due to economic and discriminatory factors.
• Personal growth: Sociological imagination leads to personal growth by encouraging individuals to see the purpose they could serve in society. This enhances and makes more clear the impact of one individual on society at large.

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Sociology, Gen Ed, and Breaking the Rules

Though less students are majoring in social sciences, they’re still one of the most popular areas of study. santa clara sociologists explain why..

Christina Nelson ’24 says she’s always been a person who wants to understand “the why.” Why do we do the things we do? Why do we treat each other this way? The why of it all, she says, drove her to major in sociology.

“It seemed like it would help me answer those questions,” Nelson says of sociology, a social science that analyzes society and human behavior. Majors are trained to ask big questions about human interaction, conduct research and collect data, and address issues in groups, communities, cultures, and organizations.

Though sociology is not a vocationally oriented major—the way, say, mechanical engineering or organic chemistry are—Nelson says it’s an open one that could set her down any number of career paths.

Still, the social sciences and humanities posted some of the biggest declines in majors over a 10-year period in 2022 , according to the National Center for Education Statistics. Questions have been raised nationally about whether to continue requiring undergrads to take courses in these fields. And some states have specifically targeted fields like sociology and ethnic studies as part of an ideological broadside that has also included banning books, the teaching of Critical Race Theory, and diversity, equity, inclusion (DEI) initiatives.

Nelson calls that fear. “I think people are scared of sociology because it talks realistically about a lot of ugly truths that many would rather bury,” she says. Sociologists are taught to “question everything… which can feel threatening to large institutions.”

It’s worth noting here that although social sciences lost a significant number of declared majors in the last decade, the field remained one of the most popular in America. Of the 2 million bachelor’s degrees conferred in the 2019-2020 school year, social sciences and history awarded 161,200 degrees—the third most behind business and health sciences. Sociology remains “one of the most popular majors in the country,” says Santa Clara Professor Margaret Hunter .

The recent scrutiny of sociology is disappointing, Hunter says, but not all that surprising.  “Sociology has been characterized as an advocacy-oriented discipline that isn’t based in research,” she says. But that’s false. It’s scientific, producing quantitative or qualitative research: “It’s systematic investigation.”

“Our research disproportionately reveals inequalities—employment discrimination, by gender and race, etc. People don’t want to be confronted with the empirical realities of the world that we live in,” Hunter says.

The Department of Sociology at Santa Clara University promises to give students a “sociological imagination” that unveils a greater understanding of the forces that shape society and influence culture. Sociology can fulfill credits in SCU’s Core Curriculum, the general education that all undergraduates, regardless of major, are required to take.

Sociology is applicable in so many fields, Hunter says. Majors, for example, learn “how to do a good survey, how to review research, how to analyze data.” In tech, sociological principles can help determine how artificial intelligence created by humans can perpetuate inequalities in education or healthcare. It can help us understand how to reach different communities in preparing for climate change realities. “It’s highly relevant to anyone who lives in society,” she says.

Ruben Villa ’10 double majored in sociology and studio art. After graduating in the middle of the Great Recession, Villa likes to say he applied for a gig at a “company in Cupertino looking for a Photoshop expert” before learning Photoshop. He spent more than a decade working design jobs at places like Apple and Google before opening a creative studio in Gilroy, Calif.

Beyond his graphic design skills, Villa credits studying sociology for being able to navigate big corporate spaces. “It helped me understand a world that I was not introduced to by my parents,” says Villa, a first-generation college student whose parents immigrated from Mexico. “It helped me understand the rules of the game, the unspoken dynamics, the vocabulary, the etiquette.”

For example, Villa says he’s a “connoisseur of writing the perfect email.” He knows how to give feedback in a way that won’t make people feel defensive, that will get them to feel like they’re part of the process. It’s about “building community via communication,” he says.

Talking to Villa is like talking to someone who’s got it all figured out. It’s calming to meet a person who seems to know exactly what they’re doing and, especially, why they’re doing it. But in reality, Villa is just really good at identifying any given context he’s in. “If more folks understood their context, they might reconsider their place in it… and that could cause problems for the status quo,” he says. And that’s a threatening idea for those who make the rules. As Villa says, “Learning the rules helped me understand where and when it was beneficial to break them.”

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Researching accessibility—or lack thereof—in virtual reality expands career prospects for non-tech majors at SCU.

New Tech, New Storytelling Tricks

In his latest book, educator Michael Hernandez ’93 explores alternative ways to teach by embracing digital storytelling.

Super Powered Compassion

The latest children’s book from clinical psychologist Professor  Shauna Shapiro  teaches kids how to cultivate self-compassion.

In The Game

“We are going to showcase Santa Clara and what we are all about,” says the Warriors’ Brandin Podziemski ’23. Broncos take center court at Chase Center with a night of music, alumni reunions, and jersey swaps.

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Using the movie inside out to teach social thinking.

By:   Rachel Hopf, M.S., CCC-CF and Kristie Brown Lofland, M.S., CCC-A

Did you ever look at someone and wonder what is going on inside their head?” asks Riley in the opening line of the movie, Inside Out. Well, this new Pixar movie gives audiences a visually stunning peek. The story revolves around a young girl named Riley, who is uprooted from her comfortable Minnesota home when she moves to the busy and chaotic San Francisco.  Her emotions—Anger, Sadness, Disgust, Fear, and most important, Joy—disagree on how to handle this dramatic change.  Their disagreements start to stir up trouble in Headquarters, the central living and working place for the five emotions, and the audience is invited to watch as Riley and her emotions navigate and interact with a rapidly changing world. Although animated, Inside Out is a good depiction of how our minds react in social situations and create, process, and alter memories.  This is in large part due to director Pete Docter’s work with neurologists and psychologists who wanted to understand how the brain influences personalities. Altogether, these features provide Inside Out with natural potential for teaching social thinking in individuals with autism spectrum disorders.

Using movie time to teach social thinking is not necessarily a new concept.  In her book, Movie Time Social Learning, Anna Vagin, PhD, discusses how young children with social learning differences frequently watch television and movies without noticing much about the interactions on the screen.  In this scenario, watching movies is essentially “downtime.”  However, when we combine this recreational activity with carefully selected children’s movies (which will start, stop, and rewind as desired), we can teach children with social challenges to dissect social relationships, thoughts, and feelings in a therapy or classroom setting, or at home.  Using this program, children gain the opportunity to view and replay onscreen interactions to practice thinking and talking about how people relate to each other or why they are thinking a certain way.

Throughout Inside Out, students could be guided through a progressive series of tasks, from the simpler job of figuring out and recognizing the basic five emotions of anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and joy and how the characters are thinking, feeling, and planning; to a more complex exploration of how relationships develop and change over time, and how the student’s own emotions connect to the film.   For emerging social thinkers, the characters themselves are great visual representations of the five basic emotions.  The movie is full of visual literal interpretations, including “train of thought,”  “brain freeze,” and “things that get stuck in your head.”  Intermediate mind readers may discuss one of the movie’s core lessons:  it is okay and possible to experience two emotions at once. With support, they may also reflect upon what crying does for us and how it can make you feel better versus continuing to feel sad.  Advanced social thinkers may enjoy taking a look into the heads of Riley’s parents, where they’ll have an opportunity to experience the difference between the male and female perspective involving a situation with Riley’s behavior. Many subtle scenes can be used as discussion points for advanced social thinkers, including short versus long term memory, the creation of memories, abstract thought, perspective taking, recall and use memories, how facts and opinions look similar, and many, many more.  As Inside Out’s credits begin to roll, it leaves viewers with an extra dash of perspective-taking by visiting the minds (and emotions) of characters who interacted with Riley throughout the film. Here, Pixar does a delightful job of summing up a human universal and a central theme of the film:  for every feeling there is a thought, for every thought there is an action, and for every action there is a social reaction.

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