essay about chemistry of love

The Chemistry of Love: Why Do We Fall in Love?

The Chemistry of Love and Its Ingredients

Maybe you think falling in love is only explainable through a neurochemical lens. Or that attraction is the result of a formula whose variables line up with the chemistry of love and the neurotransmitters involved in the process. Where our impulsive brain orchestrates the magic, desire, obsession…

It’s not like that.  Everyone one of us has specific, deep, idiosyncratic, and sometimes even unconscious preferences. 

In fact, there’s clear evidence that we tend to fall in love with people who have similar characteristics. They have a similar level of intelligence, the same sense of humor, the same values…

But there’s something remarkable and fascinating here. We can be in a classroom with 30 people with similar characteristics as us. They might have similar tastes and equal values, and we’ll never fall in love with any of them.

The Indian poet and philosopher Kabir said  the path of love is long, and there’s only space for one person in the heart.  Then…  what other factors put us in the spell we call the chemistry of love?

“Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin…We’re a natural drug factory when we fall in love.” -Helen Fisher-

The Aroma of Genes

Intangible, invisible, and imperceptible. If we tell you right now that our genes give off a specific smell capable of awakening attraction between some people and not others, you may raise your eyebrows in skepticism.

• But  there’s something other than our genes that gives off a specific smell. We’re not conscious of it, but it guides our patterns of attraction. It’s our immune system, and more specifically, our MHC proteins.
• These proteins have a very specific job to do in our bodies: they trigger our defensive reactions.
• We know, for example, that women feel unconsciously more attracted to men with a different immune system than them. It is smell that guides them in this process. If they prefer genetic profiles different from their own, there’s a reason.  That is, if this couple has children, they’ll come with a more mixed genetic set. 

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.14(1); 2013 Jan

The biochemistry of love: an oxytocin hypothesis

C Sue Carter

1 C Sue Carter and Stephen W Porges are research scientists at the Research Triangle Institute International in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA

Stephen W Porges

Love is deeply biological. It pervades every aspect of our lives and has inspired countless works of art. Love also has a profound effect on our mental and physical state. A ‘broken heart’ or a failed relationship can have disastrous effects; bereavement disrupts human physiology and might even precipitate death. Without loving relationships, humans fail to flourish, even if all of their other basic needs are met.

As such, love is clearly not ‘just’ an emotion; it is a biological process that is both dynamic and bidirectional in several dimensions. Social interactions between individuals, for example, trigger cognitive and physiological processes that influence emotional and mental states. In turn, these changes influence future social interactions. Similarly, the maintenance of loving relationships requires constant feedback through sensory and cognitive systems; the body seeks love and responds constantly to interaction with loved ones or to the absence of such interaction.

Without loving relationships, humans fail to flourish, even if all of their other basic needs are met

Although evidence exists for the healing power of love, it is only recently that science has turned its attention to providing a physiological explanation. The study of love, in this context, offers insight into many important topics including the biological basis of interpersonal relationships and why and how disruptions in social bonds have such pervasive consequences for behaviour and physiology. Some of the answers will be found in our growing knowledge of the neurobiological and endocrinological mechanisms of social behaviour and interpersonal engagement.

Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. Theodosius Dobzhansky's famous dictum also holds true for explaining the evolution of love. Life on Earth is fundamentally social: the ability to interact dynamically with other living organisms to support mutual homeostasis, growth and reproduction evolved early. Social interactions are present in primitive invertebrates and even among prokaryotes: bacteria recognize and approach members of their own species. Bacteria also reproduce more successfully in the presence of their own kind and are able to form communities with physical and chemical characteristics that go far beyond the capabilities of the individual cell [ 1 ].

As another example, insect species have evolved particularly complex social systems, known as ‘eusociality’. Characterized by a division of labour, eusociality seems to have evolved independently at least 11 times. Research in honey-bees indicates that a complex set of genes and their interactions regulate eusociality, and that these resulted from an “accelerated form of evolution” [ 2 ]. In other words, molecular mechanisms favouring high levels of sociality seem to be on an evolutionary fast track.

The evolutionary pathways that led from reptiles to mammals allowed the emergence of the unique anatomical systems and biochemical mechanisms that enable social engagement and selectively reciprocal sociality. Reptiles show minimal parental investment in offspring and form non-selective relationships between individuals. Pet owners might become emotionally attached to their turtle or snake, but this relationship is not reciprocal. By contrast, many mammals show intense parental investment in offspring and form lasting bonds with the offspring. Several mammalian species—including humans, wolves and prairie voles—also develop long-lasting, reciprocal and selective relationships between adults, with several features of what humans experience as ‘love’. In turn, these reciprocal interactions trigger dynamic feedback mechanisms that foster growth and health.

Of course, human love is more complex than simple feedback mechanisms. Love might create its own reality. The biology of love originates in the primitive parts of the brain—the emotional core of the human nervous system—that evolved long before the cerebral cortex. The brain of a human ‘in love’ is flooded with sensations, often transmitted by the vagus nerve, creating much of what we experience as emotion. The modern cortex struggles to interpret the primal messages of love, and weaves a narrative around incoming visceral experiences, potentially reacting to that narrative rather than reality.

Science & Society Series on Sex and Science

Sex is the greatest invention of all time: not only has sexual reproduction facilitated the evolution of higher life forms, it has had a profound influence on human history, culture and society. This series explores our attempts to understand the influence of sex in the natural world, and the biological, medical and cultural aspects of sexual reproduction, gender and sexual pleasure.

It also is helpful to realize that mammalian social behaviour is supported by biological components that were repurposed or co-opted over the course of mammalian evolution, eventually allowing lasting relationships between adults. One element that repeatedly features in the biochemistry of love is the neuropeptide oxytocin. In large mammals, oxytocin adopts a central role in reproduction by helping to expel the big-brained baby from the uterus, ejecting milk and sealing a selective and lasting bond between mother and offspring [ 3 ]. Mammalian offspring crucially depend on their mother's milk for some time after birth. Human mothers also form a strong and lasting bond with their newborns immediately after birth, in a time period that is essential for the nourishment and survival of the baby. However, women who give birth by caesarean section without going through labour, or who opt not to breast-feed, still form a strong emotional bond with their children. Furthermore, fathers, grandparents and adoptive parents also form lifelong attachments to children. Preliminary evidence suggests that simply the presence of an infant releases oxytocin in adults [ 4 , 5 ]. The baby virtually ‘forces’ us to love it ( Fig 1 ).

As a one-year-old Mandrill infant solicits attention, she gains eye contact with her mother. © 2012 Jessie Williams.

Emotional bonds can also form during periods of extreme duress, especially when the survival of one individual depends on the presence and support of another. There is also evidence that oxytocin is released in response to acutely stressful experiences, possibly serving as hormonal ‘insurance’ against overwhelming stress. Oxytocin might help to assure that parents and others will engage with and care for infants, to stabilize loving relationships and to ensure that, in times of need, we will seek and receive support from others.

The case for a major role for oxytocin in love is strong, but until recently has been based largely on extrapolation from research on parental behaviour [ 4 ] or social behaviours in animals [ 5 , 6 ]. However, human experiments have shown that intranasal delivery of oxytocin can facilitate social behaviours, including eye contact and social cognition [ 7 ]—behaviours that are at the heart of love.

Of course, oxytocin is not the molecular equivalent of love. It is just one important component of a complex neurochemical system that allows the body to adapt to highly emotive situations. The systems necessary for reciprocal social interactions involve extensive neural networks through the brain and autonomic nervous system that are dynamic and constantly changing during the lifespan of an individual. We also know that the properties of oxytocin are not predetermined or fixed. Oxytocin's cellular receptors are regulated by other hormones and epigenetic factors. These receptors change and adapt on the basis of life experiences. Both oxytocin and the experience of love change over time. In spite of limitations, new knowledge of the properties of oxytocin has proven useful in explaining several enigmatic features of love.

To dissect the anatomy and chemistry of love, scientists needed a biological equivalent of the Rosetta stone. Just as the actual stone helped linguists to decipher an archaic language by comparison to a known one, animal models are helping biologists draw parallels between ancient physiology and contemporary behaviours. Studies of socially monogamous mammals that form long-lasting social bonds, such as prairie voles, are helping scientists to understand the biology of human social behaviour.

The modern cortex struggles to interpret the primal messages of love, and weaves a narrative around incoming visceral experiences, potentially reacting to that narrative rather than reality

Research in voles indicates that, as in humans, oxytocin has a major role in social interactions and parental behaviour [ 5 , 6 , 8 ]. Of course, oxytocin does not act alone. Its release and actions depend on many other neurochemicals, including endogenous opioids and dopamine [ 9 ]. Particularly important to social bonding are the interactions between oxytocin and a related peptide, vasopressin. The systems regulated by oxytocin and vasopressin are sometimes redundant. Both peptides are implicated in behaviours that require social engagement by either males or females, such as huddling over an infant [ 5 ]. It was necessary in voles, for example, to block both oxytocin and vasopressin receptors to induce a significant reduction in social engagement either among adults or between adults and infants. Blocking only one of these two receptors did not eliminate social approach or contact. However, antagonists for either the oxytocin or vasopressin receptor inhibited the selective sociality, which is essential for the expression of a social bond [ 10 , 11 ]. If we accept selective social bonds, parenting and mate protection as proxies for love in humans, research in animals supports the hypothesis that oxytocin and vasopressin interact to allow the dynamic behavioural states and behaviours necessary for love.

Oxytocin and vasopressin have shared functions, but they are not identical in their actions. The specific behavioural roles of oxytocin and vasopressin are especially difficult to untangle because they are components of an integrated neural network with many points of intersection. Moreover, the genes that regulate the production of oxytocin and vasopressin are located on the same chromosome, possibly allowing a co-ordinated synthesis or release of these peptides. Both peptides can bind to, and have, antagonist or agonist effects on each other's receptors. Furthermore, the pathways necessary for reciprocal social behaviour are constantly adapting: these peptides and the systems that they regulate are always in flux.

In spite of these difficulties, some of the functions of oxytocin and vasopressin have been identified. Vasopressin is associated with physical and emotional mobilization, and supports vigilance and behaviours needed for guarding a partner or territory [ 6 ], as well as other forms of adaptive self-defence [ 12 ]. Vasopressin might also protect against ‘shutting down’ physiologically in the face of danger. In many mammalian species, mothers behave agonistically in defence of their young, possibly through the interactive actions of vasopressin and oxytocin [ 13 ]. Before mating, prairie voles are generally social, even towards strangers. However, within approximately one day of mating, they begin to show high levels of aggression towards intruders [ 14 ], possibly serving to protect or guard a mate, family or territory. This mating-induced aggression is especially obvious in males.

By contrast, oxytocin is associated with immobility without fear. This includes relaxed physiological states and postures that allow birth, lactation and consensual sexual behaviour. Although not essential for parenting, the increase of oxytocin associated with birth and lactation might make it easier for a woman to be less anxious around her newborn and to experience and express loving feelings for her child [ 15 ]. In highly social species such as prairie voles, and presumably in humans, the intricate molecular dances of oxytocin and vasopressin fine-tune the coexistence of care-taking and protective aggression.

The biology of fatherhood is less well studied. However, male care of offspring also seems to rely on both oxytocin and vasopressin [ 5 ]; even sexually naive male prairie voles show spontaneous parental behaviour in the presence of an infant [ 14 ]. However, the stimuli from infants or the nature of the social interactions that release oxytocin and vasopressin might differ between the sexes [ 4 ].

Parental care and support in a safe environment are particularly important for mental health in social mammals, including humans and prairie voles. Studies of rodents and lactating women suggest that oxytocin has the capacity to modulate the behavioural and autonomic distress that typically follows separation from a mother, child or partner, reducing defensive behaviours and thereby supporting growth and health [ 6 ].

During early life in particular, trauma or neglect might produce behaviours and emotional states in humans that are socially pathological. As the processes involved in creating social behaviours and social emotions are delicately balanced, they might be triggered in inappropriate contexts, leading to aggression towards friends or family. Alternatively, bonds might be formed with prospective partners who fail to provide social support or protection.

Males seem to be especially vulnerable to the negative effects of early experiences, possibly explaining their increased sensitivity to developmental disorders. Autism spectrum disorders, for example, defined in part by atypical social behaviours, are estimated to be three to ten times more common in males than females. The implication of sex differences in the nervous system, and in response to stressful experiences for social behaviour, is only slowly becoming apparent [ 8 ]. Both males and females produce vasopressin and oxytocin and are capable of responding to both hormones. However, in brain regions that are involved in defensive aggression, such as the extended amygdala and lateral septum, the production of vasopressin is androgen-dependent. Thus, in the face of a threat, males might experience higher central levels of vasopressin.

In highly social species […] the intricate molecular dances of oxytocin and vasopressin fine-tune the coexistence of care-taking and protective aggression

Oxytocin and vasopressin pathways, including the peptides and their receptors, are regulated by coordinated genetic, hormonal and epigenetic factors that influence the adaptive and behavioural functions of these peptides across the animal's lifespan. As a result, the endocrine and behavioural consequences of stress or a challenge might be different for males and females [ 16 ]. When unpaired prairie voles were exposed to an intense but brief stressor, such as a few minutes of swimming or injection of the adrenal hormone corticosterone, the males (but not females) quickly formed new pair bonds. These and other experiments suggest that males and females have different coping strategies, and possibly experience both stressful experiences and even love in ways that are gender-specific.

Love is an epigenetic phenomenon: social behaviours, emotional attachment to others and long-lasting reciprocal relationships are plastic and adaptive and so is the biology on which they are based. Because of this and the influence on parental behaviour and physiology, the impact of an early experience can pass to the next generation [ 17 ]. Infants of traumatized or highly stressed parents might be chronically exposed to vasopressin, either through their own increased production of the peptide, or through higher levels of vasopressin in maternal milk. Such increased exposure could sensitize the infant to defensive behaviours or create a life-long tendency to overreact to threat. On the basis of research in rats, it seems, that in response to adverse early experiences or chronic isolation, the genes for vasopressin receptors can become upregulated [ 18 ], leading to an increased sensitivity to acute stressors or anxiety that might persist throughout life.

…oxytocin exposure early in life not only regulates our ability to love and form social bonds, it also has an impact on our health and well-being

Epigenetic programming triggered by early life experiences is adaptive in allowing neuroendocrine systems to project and plan for future behavioural demands. However, epigenetic changes that are long-lasting can also create atypical social or emotional behaviours [ 17 ] that might be more likely to surface in later life, and in the face of social or emotional challenges. Exposure to exogenous hormones in early life might also be epigenetic. Prairie voles, for example, treated with vasopressin post-natally were more aggressive later in life, whereas those exposed to a vasopressin antagonist showed less aggression in adulthood. Conversely, the exposure of infants to slightly increased levels of oxytocin during development increased the tendency to show a pair bond in voles. However, these studies also showed that a single exposure to a higher level of oxytocin in early life could disrupt the later capacity to pair bond [ 8 ]. There is little doubt that either early social experiences or the effects of developmental exposure to these neuropeptides can potentially have long-lasting effects on behaviour. Both parental care and exposure to oxytocin in early life can permanently modify hormonal systems, altering the capacity to form relationships and influence the expression of love across the lifespan. Our preliminary findings in voles suggest further that early life experience affects the methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene and its expression [ 19 ]. Thus, we can plausibly argue that “love is epigenetic.”

Given the power of positive social experiences, it is not surprising that a lack of social relationships might also lead to alterations in behaviour and concurrently changes in oxytocin and vasopressin pathways. We have found that social isolation reduced the expression of the gene for the oxytocin receptor, and at the same time increased the expression of genes for the vasopressin peptide (H.P. Nazarloo and C.S. Carter, unpublished data). In female prairie voles, isolation was also accompanied by an increase in blood levels of oxytocin, possibly as a coping mechanism. However, over time, isolated prairie voles of both sexes showed increases in measures of depression, anxiety and physiological arousal, and these changes were seen even when endogenous oxytocin was elevated. Thus, even the hormonal insurance provided by endogenous oxytocin in the face of the chronic stress of isolation was not sufficient to dampen the consequences of living alone. Predictably, when isolated voles were given additional exogenous oxytocin this treatment restored many of these functions to normal [ 20 ].

On the basis of such encouraging findings, dozens of ongoing clinical trials are attempting to examine the therapeutic potential of oxytocin in disorders ranging from autism to heart disease (Clinicaltrials.gov). Of course, as in voles, the effects are likely to depend on the history of the individual and the context, and to be dose-dependent. With power comes responsibility, and the power of oxytocin needs to be respected.

Although research has only begun to examine the physiological effects of these peptides beyond social behaviour, there is a wealth of new evidence indicating that oxytocin influences physiological responses to stress and injury. Thus, oxytocin exposure early in life not only regulates our ability to love and form social bonds, it also has an impact on our health and well-being. Oxytocin modulates the hypothalamic–pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, especially in response to disruptions in homeostasis [ 6 ], and coordinates demands on the immune system and energy balance. Long-term secure relationships provide emotional support and downregulate reactivity of the HPA axis, whereas intense stressors, including birth, trigger activation of the HPA axis and sympathetic nervous system. The ability of oxytocin to regulate these systems probably explains the exceptional capacity of most women to cope with the challenges of child-birth and child-rearing. The same molecules that allow us to give and receive love, also link our need for others with health and well-being.

The protective effects of positive sociality seem to rely on the same cocktail of hormones that carry a biological message of ‘love’ throughout the body

Of course, love is not without danger. The behaviours and strong emotions triggered by love might leave us vulnerable. Failed relationships can have devastating, even deadly, effects. In ‘modern’ societies humans can survive, at least after childhood, with little or no human contact. Communication technology, social media, electronic parenting and many other technological advances of the past century might place both children and adults at risk for social isolation and disorders of the autonomic nervous system, including deficits in their capacity for social engagement and love [ 21 ].

Social engagement actually helps us to cope with stress. The same hormones and areas of the brain that increase the capacity of the body to survive stress also enable us to better adapt to an ever-changing social and physical environment. Individuals with strong emotional support and relationships are more resilient in the face of stressors than those who feel isolated or lonely. Lesions in bodily tissues, including the brain, heal more quickly in animals that are living socially compared with those in isolation [ 22 ]. The protective effects of positive sociality seem to rely on the same cocktail of hormones that carry a biological message of ‘love’ throughout the body.

As only one example, the molecules associated with love have restorative properties, including the ability to literally heal a ‘broken heart’. Oxytocin receptors are expressed in the heart, and precursors for oxytocin seem to be crucial for the development of the fetal heart [ 23 ]. Oxytocin exerts protective and restorative effects in part through its capacity to convert undifferentiated stem cells into cardiomyocytes. Oxytocin can facilitate adult neurogenesis and tissue repair, especially after a stressful experience. We know that oxytocin has direct anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties in in vitro models of atherosclerosis [ 24 ]. The heart seems to rely on oxytocin as part of a normal process of protection and self-healing.

A life without love is not a life fully lived. Although research into mechanisms through which love protects us against stress and disease is in its infancy, this knowledge will ultimately increase our understanding of the way that our emotions have an impact on health and disease. We have much to learn about love and much to learn from love.

Acknowledgments

Discussions of ‘love and forgiveness’ with members of the Fetzer Institute's Advisory Council on Natural Sciences led to this essay and are gratefully acknowledged. We especially appreciate thoughtful editorial input from James Harris. Studies from the authors' laboratories were sponsored by the National Institutes of Health. We also express our gratitude for this support to our colleagues whose input and hard work informed the ideas expressed in this article.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

• Ingham CJ, Ben Jacob E (2008) Swarming and complex pattern formation in Paenicbachillus vortex studied by imaging and tracking cells . BMC Microbiol 8 : 36. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Woodward SH, Fischman BJ, Venkat A, Hudson ME, Varala K, Cameron SA, Clark AG, Robinson GE (2011) Genes involved in convergent evolution of eusociality in bees . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 : 7472–7477 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Keverne EB (2006) Neurobiological and molecular approaches to attachment and bonding. In Attachment and Bonding: A New Synthesis (eds Carter CS, Ahnert L, Grossman KE, Hrdy SB, Lamb ME, Porges SW, Sachser N), pp 101–117. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: MIT Press [ Google Scholar ]
• Feldman R (2012) Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans . Horm Behav 61 : 380–391 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kenkel WM, Paredes J, Yee JR, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Bales KL, Carter CS (2012) Neuroendrocrine and behavioural responses to exposure to an infant in male prairie voles . J Neuroendocrinol 24 : 874–886 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carter CS (1998) Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love . Psychoneuroendocrinology 23 : 779–818 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Meyer-Lindenberg A, Domes G, Kirsch P, Heinrichs M (2011) Oxytocin and vasopressin in the human brain: social neuropeptides for translational medicine . Nat Rev Neurosci 12 : 524–538 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carter CS, Boone EM, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Bales KL (2009) Consequences of early experiences and exposure to oxytocin and vasopressin are sexually dimorphic . Dev Neurosci 31 : 332–341 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aragona BJ, Wang Z (2009) Dopamine regulation of social choice in a monogamous rodent species . Front Behav Neurosci 3 : 15. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cho MM, DeVries AC, Williams JR, Carter CS (1999) The effects of oxytocin and vasopressin on partner preferences in male and female prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster ) . Behav Neurosci 113 : 1071–1080 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bales KL, Kim AJ, Lewis-Reese AD, Carter CS (2004) Both oxytocin and vasopressin may influence alloparental care in male prairie voles . Horm Behav 44 : 354–361 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferris CF (2008) Functional magnetic resonance imaging and the neurobiology of vasopressin and oxytocin . Prog Brain Res 170 : 305–320 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bosch OJ, Neumann ID (2012) Both oxytocin and vasopressin are mediators of maternal care and aggression in rodents: from central release to sites of action . Horm Behav 61 : 293–303 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carter CS, DeVries AC, Getz LL (1995) Physiological substrates of mammalian monogamy: the prairie vole model . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 19 : 303–314 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Carter CS, Altemus M (1997) Integrative functions of lactational hormones in social behaviour and stress management . Ann NY Acad Sci 807 : 164–174 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DeVries AC, DeVries MB, Taymans SE, Carter CS (1996) The effects of stress on social preferences are sexually dimorphic in prairie voles . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 : 11980–11984 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang TY, Meaney MJ (2010) Epigenetics and the environmental regulation of the genome and its function . Annu Rev Psychol 61 : 439–466 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang L, Hernandez VS, Liu B, Medina MP, Nava-Kopp AT, Irles C, Morales M (2012) Hypothalamic vasopressin system regulation by maternal separation: its impact on anxiety in rats . Neuroscience 215 : 135–148 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Connelly J, Kenkel W, Erickson E, Carter C (2011) Are birth and oxytocin epigenetic events? In Scientific Sessions Listings of Neuroscience 2011 , p 61. Washington, DC, USA: Society of Neuroscience; Abstract 388.10 [ Google Scholar ]
• Grippo AJ, Trahanas DM, Zimmerman RR 2nd, Porges SW, Carter CS (2009) Oxytocin protects against negative behavioral and autonomic consequences of long-term social isolation . Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 : 1542–1553 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Porges SW (2011) The Polyvagal Theory: Neurophysiological Foundations of Emotions, Attachment, Communication and Self-regulation . New York, New York, USA: WW Norton [ Google Scholar ]
• Karelina K, DeVries AC (2011) Modeling social influences on human health . Psychosom Med 73 : 67–74 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Danalache BA, Gutkowska J, Slusarz MJ, Berezowska I, Jankowski M (2010) Oxytocin-Gly-Lys-Arg: a novel cardiomyogenic peptide . PLoS ONE 5 : e13643. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Szeto A, Nation DA, Mendez AJ, Dominguez-Bendala J, Brooks LG, Schneiderman N, McCabe PM (2008) Oxytocin attenuates NADPH-dependent superoxide activity and IL-6 secretion in macrophages and vascular cells . Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 295 : E1495–E1501 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

Featured Topics

Featured series.

A series of random questions answered by Harvard experts.

Explore the Gazette

Read the latest.

Testing fitness of aging brain

DNR orders for Down syndrome patients far exceeded pandemic norm

Researchers reverse hair loss caused by alopecia

When love and science double date.

Illustration by Sophie Blackall

Alvin Powell

Harvard Staff Writer

Sure, your heart thumps, but let’s look at what’s happening physically and psychologically

“They gave each other a smile with a future in it.” — Ring Lardner

Love’s warm squishiness seems a thing far removed from the cold, hard reality of science. Yet the two do meet, whether in lab tests for surging hormones or in austere chambers where MRI scanners noisily thunk and peer into brains that ignite at glimpses of their soulmates.

When it comes to thinking deeply about love, poets, philosophers, and even high school boys gazing dreamily at girls two rows over have a significant head start on science. But the field is gamely racing to catch up.

One database of scientific publications turns up more than 6,600 pages of results in a search for the word “love.” The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is conducting 18 clinical trials on it (though, like love itself, NIH’s “love” can have layered meanings, including as an acronym for a study of Crohn’s disease). Though not normally considered an intestinal ailment, love is often described as an illness, and the smitten as lovesick. Comedian George Burns once described love as something like a backache: “It doesn’t show up on X-rays, but you know it’s there.”

Richard Schwartz , associate professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School (HMS) and a consultant to McLean and Massachusetts General (MGH) hospitals, says it’s never been proven that love makes you physically sick, though it does raise levels of cortisol, a stress hormone that has been shown to suppress immune function.

Love also turns on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is known to stimulate the brain’s pleasure centers. Couple that with a drop in levels of serotonin — which adds a dash of obsession — and you have the crazy, pleasing, stupefied, urgent love of infatuation.

It’s also true, Schwartz said, that like the moon — a trigger of its own legendary form of madness — love has its phases.

“It’s fairly complex, and we only know a little about it,” Schwartz said. “There are different phases and moods of love. The early phase of love is quite different” from later phases.

During the first love-year, serotonin levels gradually return to normal, and the “stupid” and “obsessive” aspects of the condition moderate. That period is followed by increases in the hormone oxytocin, a neurotransmitter associated with a calmer, more mature form of love. The oxytocin helps cement bonds, raise immune function, and begin to confer the health benefits found in married couples, who tend to live longer, have fewer strokes and heart attacks, be less depressed, and have higher survival rates from major surgery and cancer.

Schwartz has built a career around studying the love, hate, indifference, and other emotions that mark our complex relationships. And, though science is learning more in the lab than ever before, he said he still has learned far more counseling couples. His wife and sometime collaborator, Jacqueline Olds , also an associate professor of psychiatry at HMS and a consultant to McLean and MGH, agrees.

Spouses Richard Schwartz and Jacqueline Olds, both associate professors of psychiatry, have collaborated on a book about marriage.

Stephanie Mitchell/Harvard Staff Photographer

More knowledge, but struggling to understand

“I think we know a lot more scientifically about love and the brain than we did a couple of decades ago, but I don’t think it tells us very much that we didn’t already know about love,” Schwartz said. “It’s kind of interesting, it’s kind of fun [to study]. But do we think that makes us better at love, or helping people with love? Probably not much.”

Love and companionship have made indelible marks on Schwartz and Olds. Though they have separate careers, they’re separate together, working from discrete offices across the hall from each other in their stately Cambridge home. Each has a professional practice and independently trains psychiatry students, but they’ve also collaborated on two books about loneliness and one on marriage. Their own union has lasted 39 years, and they raised two children.

“I think we know a lot more scientifically about love and the brain than we did a couple of decades ago … But do we think that makes us better at love, or helping people with love? Probably not much.” Richard Schwartz, associate professor of psychiatry, Harvard Medical School

“I have learned much more from doing couples therapy, and being in a couple’s relationship” than from science, Olds said. “But every now and again, something like the fMRI or chemical studies can help you make the point better. If you say to somebody, ‘I think you’re doing this, and it’s terrible for a relationship,’ they may not pay attention. If you say, ‘It’s corrosive, and it’s causing your cortisol to go way up,’ then they really sit up and listen.”

A side benefit is that examining other couples’ trials and tribulations has helped their own relationship over the inevitable rocky bumps, Olds said.

“To some extent, being a psychiatrist allows you a privileged window into other people’s triumphs and mistakes,” Olds said. “And because you get to learn from them as they learn from you, when you work with somebody 10 years older than you, you learn what mistakes 10 years down the line might be.”

People have written for centuries about love shifting from passionate to companionate, something Schwartz called “both a good and a sad thing.” Different couples experience that shift differently. While the passion fades for some, others keep its flames burning, while still others are able to rekindle the fires.

“You have a tidal-like motion of closeness and drifting apart, closeness and drifting apart,” Olds said. “And you have to have one person have a ‘distance alarm’ to notice the drifting apart so there can be a reconnection … One could say that in the couples who are most successful at keeping their relationship alive over the years, there’s an element of companionate love and an element of passionate love. And those each get reawakened in that drifting back and forth, the ebb and flow of lasting relationships.”

Children as the biggest stressor

Children remain the biggest stressor on relationships, Olds said, adding that it seems a particular problem these days. Young parents feel pressure to raise kids perfectly, even at the risk of their own relationships. Kids are a constant presence for parents. The days when child care consisted of the instruction “Go play outside” while mom and dad reconnected over cocktails are largely gone.

When not hovering over children, America’s workaholic culture, coupled with technology’s 24/7 intrusiveness, can make it hard for partners to pay attention to each other in the evenings and even on weekends. It is a problem that Olds sees even in environments that ought to know better, such as psychiatry residency programs.

“There are all these sweet young doctors who are trying to have families while they’re in residency,” Olds said. “And the residencies work them so hard there’s barely time for their relationship or having children or taking care of children. So, we’re always trying to balance the fact that, in psychiatry, we stand for psychological good health, but [in] the residency we run, sometimes we don’t practice everything we preach.”

“There is too much pressure … on what a romantic partner should be. They should be your best friend, they should be your lover, they should be your closest relative, they should be your work partner, they should be the co-parent, your athletic partner. … Of course everybody isn’t able to quite live up to it.” Jacqueline Olds, associate professor of psychiatry, Harvard Medical School

All this busy-ness has affected non-romantic relationships too, which has a ripple effect on the romantic ones, Olds said. A respected national social survey has shown that in recent years people have gone from having three close friends to two, with one of those their romantic partner.

More like this

Strength in love, hope in science

Love in the crosshairs

Good genes are nice, but joy is better

“Often when you scratch the surface … the second [friend] lives 3,000 miles away, and you can’t talk to them on the phone because they’re on a different time schedule,” Olds said. “There is too much pressure, from my point of view, on what a romantic partner should be. They should be your best friend, they should be your lover, they should be your closest relative, they should be your work partner, they should be the co-parent, your athletic partner. There’s just so much pressure on the role of spouse that of course everybody isn’t able to quite live up to it.”

Since the rising challenges of modern life aren’t going to change soon, Schwartz and Olds said couples should try to adopt ways to fortify their relationships for life’s long haul. For instance, couples benefit from shared goals and activities, which will help pull them along a shared life path, Schwartz said.

“You’re not going to get to 40 years by gazing into each other’s eyes,” Schwartz said. “I think the fact that we’ve worked on things together has woven us together more, in good ways.”

Maintain curiosity about your partner

Also important is retaining a genuine sense of curiosity about your partner, fostered both by time apart to have separate experiences, and by time together, just as a couple, to share those experiences. Schwartz cited a study by Robert Waldinger, clinical professor of psychiatry at MGH and HMS, in which couples watched videos of themselves arguing. Afterwards, each person was asked what the partner was thinking. The longer they had been together, the worse they actually were at guessing, in part because they thought they already knew.

“What keeps love alive is being able to recognize that you don’t really know your partner perfectly and still being curious and still be exploring,” Schwartz said. “Which means, in addition to being sure you have enough time and involvement with each other — that that time isn’t stolen — making sure you have enough separateness that you can be an object of curiosity for the other person.”

Share this article

You might like.

Most voters back cognitive exams for older politicians. What do they measure?

Co-author sees need for additional research and earlier, deeper conversations around care

Treatment holds promise for painlessly targeting affected areas without weakening immune system

Finding right mix on campus speech policies

Legal, political scholars discuss balancing personal safety, constitutional rights, academic freedom amid roiling protests, cultural shifts

College sees strong yield for students accepted to Class of 2028  

Financial aid was a critical factor, dean says

Harvard study, almost 80 years old, has proved that embracing community helps us live longer, and be happier

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

2.5: Biochemistry of Love

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 90544

• https://nobaproject.com/ via The Noba Project

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

By Sue Carter and Stephen Porges

University of North Carolina, Northeastern University - Boston

Love is deeply biological. It pervades every aspect of our lives and has inspired countless works of art. Love also has a profound effect on our mental and physical state. A “broken heart” or a failed relationship can have disastrous effects; bereavement disrupts human physiology and may even precipitate death. Without loving relationships, humans fail to flourish, even if all of their other basic needs are met. As such, love is clearly not “just” an emotion; it is a biological process that is both dynamic and bidirectional in several dimensions. Social interactions between individuals, for example, trigger cognitive and physiological processes that influence emotional and mental states. In turn, these changes influence future social interactions. Similarly, the maintenance of loving relationships requires constant feedback through sensory and cognitive systems; the body seeks love and responds constantly to interactions with loved ones or to the absence of such interactions. The evolutionary principles and ancient hormonal and neural systems that support the beneficial and healing effects of loving relationships are described here.

learning objectives

• Understand the role of Oxytocin in social behaviors.
• Articulate the functional differences between Vasopressin and Oxytocin.
• List sex differences in reaction to stress.

Introduction

Although evidence exists for the healing power of love, only recently has science turned its attention to providing a physiological explanation for love. The study of love in this context offers insight into many important topics, including the biological basis of interpersonal relationships and why and how disruptions in social bonds have such pervasive consequences for behavior and physiology. Some of the answers will be found in our growing knowledge of the neurobiological and endocrinological mechanisms of social behavior and interpersonal engagement.

The evolution of social behavior

Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. Theodosius Dobzhansky’s famous dictum also holds true for explaining the evolution of love. Life on earth is fundamentally social: The ability to dynamically interact with other living organisms to support mutual homeostasis, growth, and reproduction evolved very early. Social interactions are present in primitive invertebrates and even among prokaryotes: Bacteria recognize and approach members of their own species. Bacteria also reproduce more successfully in the presence of their own kind and are able to form communities with physical and chemical characteristics that go far beyond the capabilities of the individual cell (Ingham & Ben-Jacob, 2008).

As another example, various insect species have evolved particularly complex social systems, known as eusociality. Characterized by a division of labor, eusociality appears to have evolved independently at least 11 times in insects. Research on honeybees indicates that a complex set of genes and their interactions regulate eusociality, and that these resulted from an “accelerated form of evolution” (Woodard et al., 2011). In other words, molecular mechanisms favoring high levels of sociality seem to be on an evolutionary fast track.

The evolutionary pathways that led from reptiles to mammals allowed the emergence of the unique anatomical systems and biochemical mechanisms that enable social engagement and selectively reciprocal sociality. Reptiles show minimal parental investment in offspring and form nonselective relationships between individuals. Pet owners may become emotionally attached to their turtle or snake, but this relationship is not reciprocal. In contrast, most mammals show intense parental investment in offspring and form lasting bonds with their children. Many mammalian species—including humans, wolves, and prairie voles—also develop long-lasting, reciprocal, and selective relationships between adults, with several features of what humans experience as “love.” In turn, these reciprocal interactions trigger dynamic feedback mechanisms that foster growth and health.

What is love? An evolutionary and physiological perspective

Human love is more complex than simple feedback mechanisms. Love may create its own reality. The biology of love originates in the primitive parts of the brain—the emotional core of the human nervous system—which evolved long before the cerebral cortex. The brain “in love” is flooded with vague sensations, often transmitted by the vagus nerve , and creating much of what we experience as emotion. The modern cortex struggles to interpret love’s primal messages, and weaves a narrative around incoming visceral experiences, potentially reacting to that narrative rather than to reality. It also is helpful to realize that mammalian social behavior is supported by biological components that were repurposed or co-opted over the course of mammalian evolution, eventually permitting lasting relationships between adults.

Is there a hormone of love and other relationships?

One element that repeatedly appears in the biochemistry of love is the neuropeptide oxytocin . In large mammals, oxytocin adopts a central role in reproduction by helping to expel the big-brained baby from the uterus, ejecting milk and sealing a selective and lasting bond between mother and offspring (Keverne, 2006). Mammalian offspring crucially depend on their mother’s milk for some time after birth. Human mothers also form a strong and lasting bond with their newborns immediately after birth, in a time period that is essential for the nourishment and survival of the baby. However, women who give birth by cesarean section without going through labor, or who opt not to breastfeed, are still able to form a strong emotional bond with their children. Furthermore, fathers, grandparents, and adoptive parents also form lifelong attachments to children. Preliminary evidence suggests that the simple presence of an infant can release oxytocin in adults as well (Feldman, 2012; Kenkel et al., 2012). The baby virtually forces us to love it.

The case for a major role for oxytocin in love is strong, but until recently was based largely on extrapolation from research on parental behavior (Feldman, 2012) or social behaviors in animals (Carter, 1998; Kenkel et al., 2012). However, recent human experiments have shown that intranasal delivery of oxytocin can facilitate social behaviors, including eye contact and social cognition (Meyer-Lindenberg, Domes, Kirsch, & Heinrichs, 2011)—behaviors that are at the heart of love.

Of course, oxytocin is not the molecular equivalent of love. Rather, it is just one important component of a complex neurochemical system that allows the body to adapt to highly emotional situations. The systems necessary for reciprocal social interactions involve extensive neural networks through the brain and autonomic nervous system that are dynamic and constantly changing across the life span of an individual. We also now know that the properties of oxytocin are not predetermined or fixed. Oxytocin’s cellular receptors are regulated by other hormones and epigenetic factors. These receptors change and adapt based on life experiences. Both oxytocin and the experience of love can change over time. In spite of limitations, new knowledge of the properties of oxytocin has proven useful in explaining several enigmatic features of love.

Stress and love

Emotional bonds can form during periods of extreme duress, especially when the survival of one individual depends on the presence and support of another. There also is evidence that oxytocin is released in response to acutely stressful experiences, perhaps serving as hormonal “insurance” against overwhelming stress. Oxytocin may help to ensure that parents and others will engage with and care for infants; develop stable, loving relationships; and seek out and receive support from others in times of need.

Animal models and the biology of social bonds

To dissect the anatomy and chemistry of love, scientists needed a biological equivalent of the Rosetta Stone. Just as the actual stone helped linguists decipher an archaic language by comparison to a known one, animal models are helping biologists draw parallels between ancient physiology and contemporary behaviors. Studies of socially monogamous mammals that form long-lasting social bonds, such as prairie voles, have been especially helpful to an understanding the biology of human social behavior.

There is more to love than oxytocin

Research in prairie voles showed that, as in humans, oxytocin plays a major role in social interactions and parental behavior (Carter, 1998; Carter, Boone, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, & Bales, 2009; Kenkel et al., 2012). Of course, oxytocin does not act alone. Its release and actions depend on many other neurochemicals, including endogenous opioids and dopamine (Aragona & Wang, 2009). Particularly important to social bonding are the interactions of oxytocin with a related neuropeptide known as vasopressin . The systems regulated by oxytocin and vasopressin are sometimes redundant. Both peptides are implicated in behaviors that require social engagement by either males or females, such as huddling over an infant (Kenkel et al., 2012). For example, it was necessary in voles to block both oxytocin and vasopressin receptors to induce a significant reduction in social engagement, either among adults or between adults and infants. Blocking only one of these two receptors did not eliminate social approach or contact. However, antagonists for either the oxytocin or vasopressin receptor inhibited the selective sociality, which is essential for the expression of a social bond (Bales, Kim, Lewis-Reese, & Carter, 2004; Cho, DeVries, Williams, & Carter, 1999). If we accept selective social bonds, parenting, and mate protection as proxies for love in humans, research in animals supports the hypothesis that oxytocin and vasopressin interact to allow the dynamic behavioral states and behaviors necessary for love.

Oxytocin and vasopressin have shared functions, but they are not identical in their actions. The specific behavioral roles of oxytocin and vasopressin are especially difficult to untangle because they are components of an integrated neural network with many points of intersection. Moreover, the genes that regulate the production of oxytocin and vasopressin are located on the same chromosome, possibly allowing coordinated synthesis or release of these peptides. Both peptides can bind to and have antagonist or agonist effects on each other’s receptors. Furthermore, the pathways necessary for reciprocal social behavior are constantly adapting: These peptides and the systems that they regulate are always in flux. In spite of these difficulties, some of the different functions of oxytocin and vasopressin have been identified.

Functional differences between vasopressin and oxytocin

Vasopressin is associated with physical and emotional mobilization, and can help support vigilance and behaviors needed for guarding a partner or territory (Carter, 1998), as well as other forms of adaptive self-defense (Ferris, 2008). Vasopressin also may protect against physiologically “shutting down” in the face of danger. In many mammalian species, mothers exhibit agonistic behaviors in defense of their young, possibly through the interactive actions of vasopressin and oxytocin (Bosch & Neumann, 2012). Prior to mating, prairie voles are generally social, even toward strangers. However, within a day or so of mating, they begin to show high levels of aggression toward intruders (Carter, DeVries, & Getz, 1995), possibly serving to protect or guard a mate, family, or territory. This mating-induced aggression is especially obvious in males.

Oxytocin, in contrast, is associated with immobility without fear. This includes relaxed physiological states and postures that permit birth, lactation, and consensual sexual behavior. Although not essential for parenting, the increase of oxytocin associated with birth and lactation may make it easier for a woman to be less anxious around her newborn and to experience and express loving feelings for her child (Carter & Altemus, 1997). In highly social species such as prairie voles (Kenkel et al., 2013), and presumably in humans, the intricate molecular dances of oxytocin and vasopressin fine-tune the coexistence of caretaking and protective aggression.

Fatherhood also has a biological basis

The biology of fatherhood is less well-studied than motherhood is. However, male care of offspring also appears to rely on both oxytocin and vasopressin (Kenkel et al., 2012), probably acting in part through effects on the autonomic nervous system (Kenkel et al., 2013). Even sexually naïve male prairie voles show spontaneous parental behavior in the presence of an infant (Carter et al., 1995). However, the stimuli from infants or the nature of the social interactions that release oxytocin and vasopressin may differ between the sexes (Feldman, 2012).

At the heart of the benefits of love is a sense of safety

Parental care and support in a safe environment are particularly important for mental health in social mammals, including humans and prairie voles. Studies of rodents and of lactating women suggest that oxytocin has the important capacity to modulate the behavioral and autonomic distress that typically follows separation from a mother, child, or partner, reducing defensive behaviors and thereby supporting growth and health (Carter, 1998).

The absence of love in early life can be detrimental to mental and physical health

During early life in particular, trauma or neglect may produce behaviors and emotional states in humans that are socially pathological. Because the processes involved in creating social behaviors and social emotions are delicately balanced, these be may be triggered in inappropriate contexts, leading to aggression toward friends or family. Alternatively, bonds may be formed with prospective partners who fail to provide social support or protection.

Sex differences exist in the consequences of early life experiences

Males seem to be especially vulnerable to the negative effects of early experiences, possibly helping to explain the increased sensitivity of males to various developmental disorders. The implications of sex differences in the nervous system and in the response to stressful experiences for social behavior are only slowly becoming apparent (Carter et al., 2009). Both males and females produce vasopressin and oxytocin and are capable of responding to both hormones. However, in brain regions that are involved in defensive aggression, such as the extended amygdala and lateral septum, the production of vasopressin is androgen-dependent. Thus, in the face of a threat, males may be experiencing higher central levels of vasopressin.

Oxytocin and vasopressin pathways, including the peptides and their receptors, are regulated by coordinated genetic, hormonal, and epigenetic factors that influence the adaptive and behavioral functions of these peptides across the animal’s life span. As a result, the endocrine and behavioral consequences of a stress or challenge may be different for males and females (DeVries, DeVries, Taymans, & Carter, 1996). For example, when unpaired prairie voles were exposed to an intense but brief stressor, such as a few minutes of swimming, or injection of the adrenal hormone corticosterone, the males (but not females) quickly formed new pair bonds. These and other experiments suggest that males and females have different coping strategies, and possibly may experience both stressful experiences, and even love, in ways that are gender-specific.

In the context of nature and evolution, sex differences in the nervous system are important. However, sex differences in brain and behavior also may help to explain gender differences in the vulnerability to mental and physical disorders (Taylor, et al., 2000). Better understanding these differences will provide clues to the physiology of human mental health in both sexes.

Loving relationships in early life can have epigenetic consequences

Love is “epigenetic.” That is, positive experiences in early life can act upon and alter the expression of specific genes. These changes in gene expression may have behavioral consequences through simple biochemical changes, such as adding a methyl group to a particular site within the genome (Zhang & Meaney, 2010). It is possible that these changes in the genome may even be passed to the next generation.

Social behaviors, emotional attachment to others, and long-lasting reciprocal relationships also are both plastic and adaptive, and so is the biology upon which they are based. For example, infants of traumatized or highly stressed parents might be chronically exposed to vasopressin, either through their own increased production of the peptide, or through higher levels of vasopressin in maternal milk. Such increased exposure could sensitize the infant to defensive behaviors or create a lifelong tendency to overreact to threat. Based on research in rats, it seems that in response to adverse early experiences of chronic isolation, the genes for vasopressin receptors can become upregulated (Zhang et al., 2012), leading to an increased sensitivity to acute stressors or anxiety that may persist throughout life.

Epigenetic programming triggered by early life experiences is adaptive in allowing neuroendocrine systems to project and plan for future behavioral demands. But epigenetic changes that are long-lasting also can create atypical social or emotional behaviors (Zhang & Meaney, 2010) that may be especially likely to surface in later life, and in the face of social or emotional challenges.

Exposure to exogenous hormones in early life also may be epigenetic. For example, prairie voles treated postnatally with vasopressin (especially males) were later more aggressive, whereas those exposed to a vasopressin antagonist showed less aggression in adulthood. Conversely, in voles the exposure of infants to slightly increased levels of oxytocin during development increased the tendency to show a pair bond. However, these studies also showed that a single exposure to a higher level of oxytocin in early life could disrupt the later capacity to pair bond (Carter et al., 2009).

There is little doubt that either early social experiences or the effects of developmental exposure to these neuropeptides holds the potential to have long-lasting effects on behavior. Both parental care and exposure to oxytocin in early life can permanently modify hormonal systems, altering the capacity to form relationships and influence the expression of love across the life span. Our preliminary findings in voles further suggest that early life experiences affect the methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene and its expression (Connelly, Kenkel, Erickson, & Carter, 2011). Thus, we can plausibly argue that love is epigenetic.

The absence of social behavior or isolation also has consequences for the oxytocin system

Given the power of positive social experiences, it is not surprising that a lack of social relationships also may lead to alterations in behavior as well as changes in oxytocin and vasopressin pathways. We have found that social isolation reduced the expression of the gene for the oxytocin receptor, and at the same time increased the expression of genes for the vasopressin peptide. In female prairie voles, isolation also was accompanied by an increase in blood levels of oxytocin, possibly as a coping mechanism. However, over time, isolated prairie voles of both sexes showed increases in measures of depression, anxiety, and physiological arousal, and these changes were observed even when endogenous oxytocin was elevated. Thus, even the hormonal insurance provided by endogenous oxytocin in face of the chronic stress of isolation was not sufficient to dampen the consequences of living alone. Predictably, when isolated voles were given additional exogenous oxytocin, this treatment did restore many of these functions to normal (Grippo, Trahanas, Zimmerman, Porges, & Carter, 2009).

In modern societies, humans can survive, at least after childhood, with little or no human contact. Communication technology, social media, electronic parenting, and many other recent technological advances may reduce social behaviors, placing both children and adults at risk for social isolation and disorders of the autonomic nervous system, including deficits in their capacity for social engagement and love (Porges, 2011).

Social engagement actually helps us to cope with stress. The same hormones and areas of the brain that increase the capacity of the body to survive stress also enable us to better adapt to an ever-changing social and physical environment. Individuals with strong emotional support and relationships are more resilient in the face of stressors than those who feel isolated or lonely. Lesions in various bodily tissues, including the brain, heal more quickly in animals that are living socially versus in isolation (Karelina & DeVries, 2011). The protective effects of positive sociality seem to rely on the same cocktail of hormones that carries a biological message of “love” throughout the body.

Can love—or perhaps oxytocin—be a medicine?

Although research has only begun to examine the physiological effects of these peptides beyond social behavior, there is a wealth of new evidence showing that oxytocin can influence physiological responses to stress and injury. As only one example, the molecules associated with love have restorative properties, including the ability to literally heal a “broken heart.” Oxytocin receptors are expressed in the heart, and precursors for oxytocin appear to be critical for the development of the fetal heart (Danalache, Gutkowska, Slusarz, Berezowska, & Jankowski, 2010). Oxytocin exerts protective and restorative effects in part through its capacity to convert undifferentiated stem cells into cardiomyocytes. Oxytocin can facilitate adult neurogenesis and tissue repair, especially after a stressful experience. We now know that oxytocin has direct anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in in vitro models of atherosclerosis (Szeto et al., 2008). The heart seems to rely on oxytocin as part of a normal process of protection and self-healing.

Thus, oxytocin exposure early in life not only regulates our ability to love and form social bonds, it also affects our health and well-being. Oxytocin modulates the hypothalamic–pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, especially in response to disruptions in homeostasis (Carter, 1998), and coordinates demands on the immune system and energy balance. Long-term, secure relationships provide emotional support and down-regulate reactivity of the HPA axis, whereas intense stressors, including birth, trigger activation of the HPA axis and sympathetic nervous system. The ability of oxytocin to regulate these systems probably explains the exceptional capacity of most women to cope with the challenges of childbirth and childrearing.

Dozens of ongoing clinical trials are currently attempting to examine the therapeutic potential of oxytocin in disorders ranging from autism to heart disease. Of course, as in hormonal studies in voles, the effects are likely to depend on the history of the individual and the context, and to be dose-dependent. As this research is emerging, a variety of individual differences and apparent discrepancies in the effects of exogenous oxytocin are being reported. Most of these studies do not include any information on the endogenous hormones, or on the oxytocin or vasopressin receptors, which are likely to affect the outcome of such treatments.

Research in this field is new and there is much left to understand. However, it is already clear that both love and oxytocin are powerful. Of course, with power comes responsibility. Although research into mechanisms through which love—or hormones such as oxytocin—may protect us against stress and disease is in its infancy, this knowledge will ultimately increase our understanding of the way that our emotions impact upon health and disease. The same molecules that allow us to give and receive love also link our need for others with health and well-being.

Acknowledgments

C. Sue Carter and Stephen W. Porges are both Professors of Psychiatry at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, and also are Research Professors of Psychology at Northeastern University, Boston.

Discussions of “love and forgiveness” with members of the Fetzer Institute’s Advisory Committee on Natural Sciences led to this essay and are gratefully acknowledged here. We are especially appreciative of thoughtful editorial input from Dr. James Harris. Studies from the authors’ laboratories were sponsored by the National Institutes of Health. We also express our gratitude for this support and to our colleagues, whose input and hard work informed the ideas expressed in this article. A version of this paper was previously published in EMBO Reports in the series on “Sex and Society”; this paper is reproduced with the permission of the publishers of that journal.

Outside Resources

Discussion questions.

• If love is so important in human behavior, why is it so hard to describe and understand?
• Discuss the role of evolution in understanding what humans call “love” or other forms of prosociality.
• What are the common biological and neuroendocrine elements that appear in maternal love and adult-adult relationships?
• Oxytocin and vasopressin are biochemically similar. What are some of the differences between the actions of oxytocin and vasopressin?
• How may the properties of oxytocin and vasopressin help us understand the biological bases of love?
• What are common features of the biochemistry of “love” and “safety,” and why are these important to human health?
• Aragona, B. J, & Wang, Z. (2009). Dopamine regulation of social choice in a monogamous rodent species. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3 , 15.
• Bales, K. L., Kim, A. J., Lewis-Reese, A. D., & Carter, C. S. (2004). Both oxytocin and vasopressin may influence alloparental care in male prairie voles. Hormones and Behavior, 44 , 454–361.
• Bosch, O. J., & Neumann, I. D. (2012). Both oxytocin and vasopressin are mediators of maternal care and aggression in rodents: from central release to sites of action. Hormones and Behavior, 61 , 293–303.
• Carter, C. S. (1998). Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23 , 779–818.
• Carter, C. S., & Altemus, M. (1997). Integrative functions of lactational hormones in social behavior and stress management. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Integrative Neurobiology of Affiliation 807 , 164–174.
• Carter, C. S., Boone, E. M., Pournajafi-Nazarloo, H., & Bales, K. L. (2009). The consequences of early experiences and exposure to oxytocin and vasopressin are sexually-dimorphic. Developmental Neuroscience, 31 , 332–341.
• Carter, C. S., DeVries, A. C., & Getz, L. L. (1995). Physiological substrates of mammalian monogamy: The prairie vole model. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 19 , 303–314.
• Cho, M. M., DeVries, A. C., Williams, J. R., Carter, C. S. (1999). The effects of oxytocin and vasopressin on partner preferences in male and female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). Behavioral Neuroscience, 113 , 1071–1080.
• Connelly, J., Kenkel, W., Erickson, E., & Carter, C. S. (2011). Are birth and oxytocin epigenetic events. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 388 .10.
• Danalache, B. A., Gutkowska, J., Slusarz, M. J., Berezowska, I., & Jankowski, M. (2010). Oxytocin-Gly-Lys-Arg: A novel cardiomyogenic peptide. PloS One, 5 (10), e13643.
• DeVries, A. C., DeVries, M. B., Taymans, S. E., & Carter, C. S. (1996). Stress has sexually dimorphic effects on pair bonding in prairie voles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 93 , 11980–11984.
• Feldman, R. (2012). Oxytocin and social affiliation in humans. Hormones and Behavior, 61 , 380–391.
• Ferris, C. F. (2008). Functional magnetic resonance imaging and the neurobiology of vasopressin and oxytocin. Progress in Brain Research, 170 , 305–320.
• Grippo, A. J., Trahanas, D. M., Zimmerman, R. R., Porges, S. W., & Carter, C. S. (2009). Oxytocin protects against negative behavioral and autonomic consequences of long-term social isolation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34 , 1542–1553.
• Ingham, C. J., & Ben-Jacob, E. (2008). Swarming and complex pattern formation in Paenicbachillus vortex studied by imaging and tracking cells. BMC Microbiol , 8, 36.
• Karelina, K., & DeVries, A. C. (2011). Modeling social influences on human health. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73 , 67–74.
• Kenkel, W.M., Paredes, J., Lewis, G.F., Yee, J.R., Pournajafi-Nazarloo, H., Grippo, A.J., Porges, S.W., & Carter, C.S. (2013). Autonomic substrates of the response to pups in male prairie voles. PlosOne Aug 5;8(8):e69965. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069965.
• Kenkel, W.M., Paredes, J., Yee, J. R., Pournajafi-Nazarloo, H., Bales, K. L., & Carter, C. S. (2012). Exposure to an infant releases oxytocin and facilitates pair-bonding in male prairie voles. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 24 , 874–886.
• Keverne, E. B. (2006). Neurobiological and molecular approaches to attachment and bonding. In C. S. Carter, L. Ahnert et al. (Eds.), Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Pp. 101-117.
• Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Domes, G., Kirsch, P., & Heinrichs, M. (2011). Oxytocin and vasopressin in the human brain: social neuropeptides for translational medicine. Nature: Reviews in Neuroscience 12 , 524–538.
• Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication and self-regulation . New York, NY: Norton.
• Szeto, A., Nation, D. A., Mendez, A. J., Dominguez-Bendala, J., Brooks, L. G., Schneiderman, N., & McCabe, P. M. (2008). Oxytocin attenuates NADPH-dependent superoxide activity and IL-6 secretion in macrophages and vascular cells. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism 295 , E1495–1501.
• Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenewald, T. L., Gurung, R. A., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychol Rev, 107 , 411–429.
• Woodard, S. H., Fischman, B. J., Venkat, A., Hudson, M. E., Varala, K., Cameron S.A., . . . Robinson, G. E. (2011). Genes involved in convergent evolution of eusociality in bees. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 108 , 7472–7477.
• Zhang, L., Hernandez, V. S., Liu, B., Medina, M. P., Nava-Kopp, A. T., Irles, C., & Morales, M. (2012). Hypothalamic vasopressin system regulation by maternal separation: Its impact on anxiety in rats. Neuroscience, 215 , 135–148.
• Zhang, T. Y., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the environmental regulation of the genome and its function. Annual Review of Psychology, 61 , 439–466.

Chemistry of Love

8 Pages Posted: 28 May 2019

Wairagu Mbugua

Moi University

Date Written: April 29, 2019

Love is not simply a matter of feelings of the heart. Rather, it entails a series of chemicals produced by the body which are triggered by the action of the brain. These chemicals are released at different stages in the cycle of love from lust, attraction, and attachment. They play essential roles which ultimately result in a long-lasting relationship between two consenting partners.

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Wairagu Mbugua (Contact Author)

Moi university ( email ).

PO Box 1948 Eldoret, RIFT VALLEY 30100 Kenya

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics, related ejournals, philosophy of mind ejournal.

Subscribe to this free journal for more curated articles on this topic

Psychological Anthropology eJournal

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Social & Personality Psychology eJournal

Untitled (Portrait of a Man and a Woman) (1851), daguerreotype, United States. Courtesy the Art Institute of Chicago

Most Popular

13 days ago

Aithor Review

11 days ago

Now Everyone Can Be a Mathematician With The New Apple Math Notes App

How to write a dissertation proposal.

10 days ago

How To Write A Book Title In An Essay

Elon musk criticizes apple’s ai approach and threatens device ban, the chemistry of love essay sample, example.

According to Dr. Helen Fisher , an anthropologist at Rutgers University, love as a holistic system can be divided into three basic subsystems , each with its own functional tasks and roles: sex drive, romantic love, and attachment. Sex drive is necessary to make a person start looking for partners; romantic love appears to help a person hold focus on one specific partner; attachment is crucial for building a long-lasting and reliable relationship with a selected partner (Chemistry.com).

Each of these subsystems need a driving force to operate and impact an individual’s behavior. Even though a loving relationship is a lot about psychology, it is still fueled by hormones; this is why using the expression “love chemistry” is fully justified. For the sex drive subsystem, testosterone and estrogen are crucial; the romantic love stage, or attraction, is “driven” mostly by dopamine and serotonin; attachment is sustained by such hormones as oxytocin and vasopressin (BBC Science).

Testosterone and estrogen are respectively male and female sex hormones that are responsible for sex-related physiological reactions, lust, and the motivation to look for a partner. Testosterone and estrogen cause sex drive to be present; however, specialists admit that sex can give a start to romance, as it increases the influx of dopamine to the brain (Chemistry.com). Dopamine and serotonin are hormones that cause euphoria and good mood; the same hormones are also secreted after taking certain drugs, so this is why one can be “high” from the feeling of love, act impulsively, and “get stuck” on the person they fell in love with. In its turn, attachment—as the most long-lasting phase of a love relationship—is driven by the same hormones that are responsible, in particular, for mother-and-child bonds (oxytocin); this hormone is also believed to be secreted when the two partners get intimate. So, a serious relationship is more about care and tenderness, than romance and turbulent feelings.

The popular expression “love chemistry” should be understood literally. Along with natural psychological processes, love is also, to a significant extent, dependent on the hormones secreted by our bodies during various stages of a relationship’s development. Sex drive, which makes us look for new partners (if we do not have one already), is regulated by the hormones of testosterone and estrogen. During moments of intimacy, the brain is affected by dopamine and serotonin—the hormones that are responsible for all the symptoms of romantic love, such as euphoria, concentration on the object of love, impulsiveness, and so on. As a relationship develops, it becomes reinforced by the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin; oxytocin, in particular, is the same hormone that is responsible for the forming of mother-and-child bonds. Thus, despite the claims that love is purely a solemn and sublime feeling, it also has a lot to do about biology and chemistry.

Dutton, Judy. “Love, Explained.” Chemistry.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014. http://www.chemistry.com/datingadvice/LoveExplained.

“The Science of Love.” BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/love/>.

Follow us on Reddit for more insights and updates.

Comments (0)

Welcome to A*Help comments!

We’re all about debate and discussion at A*Help.

We value the diverse opinions of users, so you may find points of view that you don’t agree with. And that’s cool. However, there are certain things we’re not OK with: attempts to manipulate our data in any way, for example, or the posting of discriminative, offensive, hateful, or disparaging material.

Comments are closed.

More from Expository Essay Examples and Samples

Nov 23 2023

Why Is Of Mice And Men Banned

Nov 07 2023

Pride and Prejudice Themes

May 10 2023

Remote Collaboration and Evidence Based Care Essay Sample, Example

Related writing guides, writing an expository essay.

Remember Me

What is your profession ? Student Teacher Writer Other

Forgotten Password?

Username or Email

Home — Essay Samples — Life — Love — describing love

Describing Love

• Categories: Love

About this sample

Words: 733 |

Published: Mar 19, 2024

Words: 733 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction:, defining love:, the power of love:, the paradox of love:, love as a journey:, analogies and metaphors:, the role of chemistry:, love and vulnerability:, conclusion:.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr. Karlyna PhD

Verified writer

• Expert in: Life

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

1 pages / 612 words

2 pages / 1125 words

1 pages / 522 words

3 pages / 1222 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Love

Romantic relationships have long been a topic of fascination and intrigue for researchers, psychologists, and individuals alike. From the complex interplay of love, trust, and communication to the impact of technology and [...]

Love of My Life AnalysisLove is an enigmatic and compelling force that has captivated artists, poets, and philosophers throughout the ages. It is a complex emotion that defies definition, yet its impact on our lives is [...]

In Nicola Yoon's novel "Everything, Everything," the author explores several meaningful themes that resonate with readers of all walks of life. Through her captivating storytelling and relatable characters, Yoon delves into the [...]

Love is a multifaceted and complex emotion that has the power to shape our lives in extraordinary ways. It can bring immense joy and happiness, but also heartbreak and pain. In this personal narrative essay, I will explore my [...]

Hi Handsome, I have been thinking quite a bit about what to say in this letter to fully manifest the love and gratitude I have for you. I am particularly fortunate to have crossed paths with you, Aaron Gulick, in this [...]

Ray Lawrence’s film Lantana and Ian McEwan’s novel Atonement share several key ideas that can be conveyed to the audience in similar ways. The guilt of betrayal, differences in class and the idea of love are all explored [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Essay on Love for Students and Children

500+ words essay on love.

Love is the most significant thing in human’s life. Each science and every single literature masterwork will tell you about it. Humans are also social animals. We lived for centuries with this way of life, we were depended on one another to tell us how our clothes fit us, how our body is whether healthy or emaciated. All these we get the honest opinions of those who love us, those who care for us and makes our happiness paramount.

What is Love?

Love is a set of emotions, behaviors, and beliefs with strong feelings of affection. So, for example, a person might say he or she loves his or her dog, loves freedom, or loves God. The concept of love may become an unimaginable thing and also it may happen to each person in a particular way.

Love has a variety of feelings, emotions, and attitude. For someone love is more than just being interested physically in another one, rather it is an emotional attachment. We can say love is more of a feeling that a person feels for another person. Therefore, the basic meaning of love is to feel more than liking towards someone.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Need of Love

We know that the desire to love and care for others is a hard-wired and deep-hearted because the fulfillment of this wish increases the happiness level. Expressing love for others benefits not just the recipient of affection, but also the person who delivers it. The need to be loved can be considered as one of our most basic and fundamental needs.

One of the forms that this need can take is contact comfort. It is the desire to be held and touched. So there are many experiments showing that babies who are not having contact comfort, especially during the first six months, grow up to be psychologically damaged.

Significance of Love

Love is as critical for the mind and body of a human being as oxygen. Therefore, the more connected you are, the healthier you will be physically as well as emotionally. It is also true that the less love you have, the level of depression will be more in your life. So, we can say that love is probably the best antidepressant.

It is also a fact that the most depressed people don’t love themselves and they do not feel loved by others. They also become self-focused and hence making themselves less attractive to others.

Society and Love

It is a scientific fact that society functions better when there is a certain sense of community. Compassion and love are the glue for society. Hence without it, there is no feeling of togetherness for further evolution and progress. Love , compassion, trust and caring we can say that these are the building blocks of relationships and society.

Relationship and Love

A relationship is comprised of many things such as friendship , sexual attraction , intellectual compatibility, and finally love. Love is the binding element that keeps a relationship strong and solid. But how do you know if you are in love in true sense? Here are some symptoms that the emotion you are feeling is healthy, life-enhancing love.

Love is the Greatest Wealth in Life

Love is the greatest wealth in life because we buy things we love for our happiness. For example, we build our dream house and purchase a favorite car to attract love. Being loved in a remote environment is a better experience than been hated even in the most advanced environment.

Love or Money

Love should be given more importance than money as love is always everlasting. Money is important to live, but having a true companion you can always trust should come before that. If you love each other, you will both work hard to help each other live an amazing life together.

Love has been a vital reason we do most things in our life. Before we could know ourselves, we got showered by it from our close relatives like mothers , fathers , siblings, etc. Thus love is a unique gift for shaping us and our life. Therefore, we can say that love is a basic need of life. It plays a vital role in our life, society, and relation. It gives us energy and motivation in a difficult time. Finally, we can say that it is greater than any other thing in life.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

• Services for education institutions
• Academic subject areas
• Peer connection
• Evidence of Studiosity impact
• Case studies from our partners
• Research Hub
• The Tracey Bretag Integrity Prize
• The Studiosity Symposium
• Studiosity for English learners
• Video case studies
• Meet the online team

Academic Advisory Board

Meet the board.

• Social responsibility
• Meet the team
• Join the team

Why I love chemistry (and you should too)

Rosemarie I Herbert, PhD

Aug 13, 2019

Chemistry makes most people think of violent explosions and vibrantly coloured liquids bubbling over a Bunsen burner.

I love chemistry because there is so much more to it than just explosions! The physiological reactions that keep you alive? All of them can be understood through chemical principles. The process behind our survival, breathing oxygen to convert our food into energy can be summarised using the familiar equation:

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O

The simple sugar molecule glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) is produced when our stomachs break down food. Glucose is then ferried in the blood to our cells, where it reacts with oxygen (O 2 ) to provide energy. Finally, water (H 2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) are released and we exhale the carbon dioxide into the air for plants to absorb – and plants then reverse the equation and make glucose!

Although most students would associate this equation with biology, it is chemistry that gives the equation its form. It is the chemists that decoded the hydrogen bonding that hold the DNA of life together, and came up with the process of sequencing DNA. In recognition of these great feats, there are 180 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry and the award has been granted almost every year since 1901. Although best known for her work in physics, Marie Curie was also awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Chemistry often seems to students an impenetrable world that they will never be able to break into. However, chemistry is filled with puzzles, and solving any puzzle can be incredibly satisfying, no matter how much hard work it takes.

The best part is that once you understand one section of chemistry, the rest of the puzzles can be solved much more quickly. Many students come to Studiosity requiring help with balancing equations, acid-base reactions and stoichiometry. However, once we Subject Specialists have helped students master balancing equations, the second two often come naturally. There is always more to learn and so even if one section doesn't feel like your cup of tea, others might spark your interest.

 On that note, did you know that the ‘spark’ and chemistry that people feel when they fall in love really is underlined by chemistry? Chemical reactions take place in your brain making you suddenly want to spend a lot more time with that person. If only the same thing occurred when you were studying chemistry. Those who love chemistry from first sight often find it easier to understand, but it’s definitely possible to understand chemistry even if you don’t feel passionate about it at first. I didn’t always love chemistry, but when I realised that it was going on all around me all the time, I was able to link the concepts in my textbook to the things I saw in everyday life such as driving a car, the electricity powering my home and even the digestion of a cookie.

I teach chemistry because I’m passionate about giving people the skills to approach any problem and chemistry provides a vehicle to teach critical thinking. Critical thinking is one of the key attributes that employers look for, and something that is not always taught particularly well. Students that master chemistry equip themselves with not only valuable hard-skills, but also soft-skills like this.

About Rosemarie

Topics: Educators , Learning , Chemistry

About Studiosity

Asking for feedback on your work is an essential part of learning. So when you want to better understand a concept or check you're on the right track, we're here for you. 

Find out if you have free access through your institution here .

Recent Posts

Posts by topic.

• Students (85)
• Higher education (64)
• Student Experience (46)
• University (46)
• Education (41)
• online study (34)
• Learning (28)
• Tertiary education (28)
• Educators (27)
• Interview (25)
• Research (24)
• Parents (23)
• English (18)
• High School (18)
• Technology (17)
• students first (17)
• Writing (16)
• Podcast (14)
• Student stories (14)
• Homework (13)
• Assignment Help (12)
• Education policy (12)
• Formative feedback (12)
• Literacy (12)
• academic integrity (12)
• student wellbeing (12)
• Events (11)
• Academic Advisory Board (10)
• Studiosity (10)
• covid19 (10)
• international student (10)
• Australia (9)
• Health and Wellbeing (9)
• Learning trends (9)
• Student satisfaction (9)
• Teaching (9)
• Secondary education (8)
• Equality (7)
• Science (7)
• Student retention (7)
• UK students (7)
• staff wellbeing (7)
• Student support (6)
• UK Higher Education (6)
• academic services (6)
• online learning (6)
• CanHigherEd (5)
• Online Tutoring (5)
• Workload (5)
• belonging (5)
• CVs and cover letters (4)
• Internet (4)
• Mathematics (4)
• Partnerships (4)
• School holidays (4)
• Student performance (4)
• Widening Participation (4)
• student success (4)
• #InthisTogether (3)
• Grammar (3)
• University of Exeter (3)
• teaching & learning (3)
• Charity (2)
• Government (2)
• Mentors (2)
• Primary education (2)
• Subject Specialists (2)
• accessibility (2)
• community (2)
• diversity (2)
• plagiarism prevention (2)
• student stress (2)
• webinar (2)
• Biology (1)
• Careers (1)
• Chemistry (1)
• EU students (1)
• First years (1)
• Indigenous Strategy (1)
• Nutrition (1)
• Teacher (1)
• academic support (1)
• academic writing (1)
• business schools (1)
• choice of language (1)
• dyslexia (1)
• ethical AI (1)
• job help (1)
• library services (1)
• podcasts (1)
• reflection (1)
• university of west of england (1)
• July 2015 (12)
• March 2020 (11)
• June 2020 (10)
• July 2020 (8)
• September 2020 (8)
• March 2015 (7)
• April 2015 (7)
• October 2019 (7)
• April 2020 (7)
• May 2018 (6)
• April 2019 (6)
• May 2020 (6)
• September 2022 (6)
• June 2015 (5)
• August 2015 (5)
• December 2017 (5)
• March 2018 (5)
• February 2020 (5)
• March 2021 (5)
• June 2021 (5)
• July 2016 (4)
• March 2017 (4)
• October 2017 (4)
• February 2018 (4)
• August 2018 (4)
• May 2019 (4)
• July 2019 (4)
• August 2019 (4)
• March 2024 (4)
• February 2015 (3)
• May 2015 (3)
• September 2015 (3)
• December 2015 (3)
• January 2016 (3)
• April 2016 (3)
• October 2016 (3)
• December 2016 (3)
• April 2017 (3)
• September 2017 (3)
• April 2018 (3)
• October 2018 (3)
• March 2019 (3)
• January 2020 (3)
• October 2020 (3)
• November 2020 (3)
• June 2022 (3)
• October 2022 (3)
• November 2022 (3)
• August 2023 (3)
• November 2023 (3)
• April 2024 (3)
• March 2016 (2)
• May 2016 (2)
• August 2016 (2)
• July 2017 (2)
• January 2018 (2)
• November 2018 (2)
• December 2018 (2)
• February 2019 (2)
• June 2019 (2)
• September 2019 (2)
• January 2021 (2)
• February 2021 (2)
• April 2021 (2)
• August 2021 (2)
• September 2021 (2)
• December 2021 (2)
• August 2022 (2)
• February 2023 (2)
• March 2023 (2)
• May 2023 (2)
• December 2023 (2)
• June 2024 (2)
• October 2008 (1)
• August 2013 (1)
• October 2015 (1)
• February 2016 (1)
• June 2016 (1)
• September 2016 (1)
• November 2016 (1)
• January 2017 (1)
• May 2017 (1)
• June 2017 (1)
• August 2017 (1)
• November 2017 (1)
• June 2018 (1)
• September 2018 (1)
• January 2019 (1)
• November 2019 (1)
• December 2019 (1)
• August 2020 (1)
• December 2020 (1)
• May 2021 (1)
• February 2022 (1)
• March 2022 (1)
• July 2022 (1)
• December 2022 (1)
• January 2023 (1)
• June 2023 (1)
• July 2023 (1)
• September 2023 (1)
• October 2023 (1)
• February 2024 (1)

Studiosity is personalised study help... anywhere!

Did you know us as ' YourTutor '? Even though we have a new name, it's the same awesome service, same us.

    ABN 41 114 279 668

Student zone, assignment calculator, calendars and organisers, study survival guides, free practice tests, student faqs, download our mobile app, student sign in, success stories.

Student Reviews & Testimonials

Specialist Sign In

Meet our specialists

Meet the team, media and research, student reviews.

Read more on Google

Studiosity acknowledges the Traditional Indigenous Custodians of country throughout Australia, and all lands where we work, and recognises their continuing connection to land, waters, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past and present.

Contact     •    FAQ     •    Privacy    •    Accessibility     •    Acceptable Use     •    Terms of Use AI-for-Learning Polic y    •    Academic Integrity Policy

• Academics / Featured

I LOVE chemistry! (7 reasons why you could too.)

by Kate · August 5, 2016

Whenever I tell someone that my major is chemistry I am always met with the same reaction: a momentary flash of surprise in the eyes and some garbled, mixed statement of “Oh wow! Good for you!” or “Ugh, you poor soul…”

Regularly, I am witness to the fact that the very mention of the word “chemistry” can fill people with dread – but it doesn’t have to! Give chemistry a chance and you’ll understand the beauty and wonder that it can have. To be perfectly honest, in high school I hated chemistry too. Then my hands-on experience with chemistry at UVic changed my mind, and consequently, my life.

I love my degree, and for those of you who need further convincing that chemistry is not some sort of cruel and unusual punishment, here are my reasons why:

1. Chemistry is the connecting science. As you learn more about chemistry, you’ll begin to find it is the perfect balance between the more conceptual sciences like physics and math, and the more palpable sciences like biology and geology. Chemistry nestles perfectly between the other science subjects and connects interdisciplinary ideas, such as how quantum mechanics relates to how cells work in the body.

3. It’s very hands-on. Not many other undergraduate disciplines have you plan out your own experiments, test them in the lab, and report your findings as a part of the regular curriculum. At UVic, students learn through interesting lab experiences that engage critical thinking and relate to current real-world applications.

4. Learn about the world around you.  The more you learn about chemistry, the better you’ll be able to draw your own conclusions and interpretations about the natural and synthetic processes that have been around you all along.

While your friends spend their days reading books in the library, you’ll get to isolate the substances that give spices their distinct smell; make silly putty that changes colour with heat as you play with it; change a solution from lime green to bright orange in seconds; and test the true alcohol content of local beers!

6. The professors and lab instructors are amazing! While amazing professors are not exclusive to the Chemistry Department, we have them none-the-less. You’ll find the UVic chemistry professors and lab instructors to be passionate about what they do, helpful and supportive, and excited to share their love of chemistry with the world.

Share this:

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)

You may also like...

Learning About This University Research Secret Changed my Life

January 6, 2016

 by  Malcolm

An Ode To Cherry Blossoms

March 14, 2019

 by  Avery

The Benefits of Wasting Time

February 2, 2017

 by  Jessica

8 Responses

• Pingbacks 0

Awesome!! I want to take this class!!!!

Hello Kate. I once taught Chemistry at U. Vic. and at Camosun College. In school it was the only subject, along with Math. that I was interested in. When Rachael Carson’s famous book came out….CHEMISTRY became very unfashionable, and the 50’s T-shirts “Better living through Chemistry ” went the way of the dodo. It is great to hear you speaking of it the way you do. Thank-you. My life’s work is vindicated !

If you or anyone else reading this has not read Oliver Sack’s book, “Uncle Tungsten” I can highly recommend it for it’s clarity and for it’s passion. It is his story of how as a child he was fascinated by Chemical Elements and spent many hours of his young life seeking out, and studying them. Yes, his family had money….which helped! He used to go out and by a sample…. I got to read it for the first time last year. I have not been so excited by a book for a long time…..but I think that ever since I was quite young, thanks to my father, Chemistry has been one of my passions. Thanks again so much for your initiating this.

Waoooo, I like chemistry

Hi good morning. Pls I will like to feature this article of yours in my newsletter. Do I have the permission?

Hi Amusa, thanks for your comment. I would be honored to have you feature this article! 🙂 Please just be sure to cite myself and the MyUVic Life Blog when you do.

Omg chemistry seems to be so interesting, I have to study a lot of chemistry for my admission exam but I just can’t understand what are my teachers saying. I used to be really good at chemistry 2 years ago, I don’t know how I became a bad student at this subject. Do you have any recommendations? I feel I understand better something if I read it, so do you have book recommendations to get into chemistry?

Honestly speaking, something relatable happened to me too…but when you study chemistry by relating it with your real on going life it will definitely help you to cope up with your this problem even YouTube videos are best to grasp the concepts.

I love chemistry.It is one of my favourite subjects.

Recent Posts

• Places I’ve travelled during my year-abroad in pictures
• Quick and cheap meals I’ve been making in the UK
• Take yourself out on a date: be alone
• Reflecting on personal growth after 2 years at university
• UEA Campus Tour

let’s get social

• UVic on Instagram
• UVic on Facebook
• My first year @ UVic on Facebook
• This is UVic on YouTube
• UVic social media links
• Future undergraduate students
• Future graduate students
• An art-filled semester! +63
• I LOVE chemistry! (7 reasons why you could... +63
• 10 Weekly Reset Ideas to Increase Productivity! +61
• A typical day on campus ! +59
• Losing Opportunity +38

• MyU : For Students, Faculty, and Staff

hUMNs of Chemistry #16

She/her/hers Associate Professor

Tell us about your journey to the University of Minnesota.

I first came to the U in the fall of 2006 as a chemistry graduate student, worked in Christy Haynes' group, and received my PhD in 2011. After a postdoc, I joined the chemistry department at the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) as an assistant professor in 2014. During my time at VMI I realized I really enjoyed teaching and running teaching labs. My partner and I also missed living in the Twin Cities. I came back to the U in the Fall of 2017 as the term assistant professor for analytical chemistry.

What courses do you teach? What can students expect to get out of your course?

I teach introductory analytical chemistry lecture and lab, modern methods of instrumental chemistry lab, general chemistry I and general chemistry II. In all of the courses I teach students work on their critical thinking skills and how errors effect the accuracy and precision of their experiments.

Tell us about an important mentor in your academic life?

I can't choose just one, but the chemistry professors at my undergrad, Cornell College, were amazing. They had high expectations, but were always supportive and kind. They made learning tough topics approachable and were amazing role models. I try to be as good of a professor as they were and are each day.

What do you do outside of the classroom/lab/office for fun?

I enjoy being outdoors as much as possible. I like walking with my spouse and dogs, running with my running group, biking, and cross-country skiing. I read cozy mystery novels and travel during breaks in the academic year.

What’s your favorite piece of chemistry/science pop culture media? Why do you love it?

I still love the cheesy 1980's movie Real Genius. The idea of blowing up a giant jiffy pop popcorn bag with a military grade laser to destroy the evil professor's house is still hilarious. 

What was your very first job?

I worked as a fry cook at my undergraduate college's snack cafe. I worked the flat top, fryer, and made milkshakes.

Where is your favorite spot in the Twin Cities?

I love the trailhead @ Theodore Wirth Park. I spend most of my winter skiing there and I love how you can be out in nature and be able to see the city skyline.

Tell us about who makes up your household (including pets).

I live with my husband and two golden retrievers, Pepper(11) and Grey(2).

Arceus Pogany

They/Them/Theirs Senior Laboratory Technician

Please give a brief description of your role within the UMN Chemistry department.

I work with Patrick Schildt and Laura Kundel in the stockroom to support various teaching labs. Getting/creating materials, cleaning spaces and equipment, helping with safety and more to have successful classes.

I graduated from Macalester college and found it to be the best time of my life. Working in academia was a career goal, since an environment of learning is exactly what I like the best. I had a couple roles in commercial laboratories before ending up at the East Bank. I hope this is the start of a long career at the U!

Do you have a background in or like chemistry? Tell us about it!

My background is in biology, but that's because it was the most broad science major to pick. I have the problem of liking too many different things to pick just one, so that's why I majored in biology. I've always been interested in organic chemistry, since my father was an avid gardener and he had his compost heap down to a science to ensure the right ratio of nitrogen and carbon to get rich soil for his vegetables.

What professional successes are most important to you?

Improving myself every day. Be it with learning a new skill, mastering an old one, or staying informed about scientific discoveries, I like to feel like I go to bed a better person than when I woke up.

What do you hope to contribute to the chemistry community at the University?

Enthusiasm, accuracy, and a cheerful greeting everyday.

The Magic School Bus. I refused to play with dolls, but Ms. Frizzle was my one exception when mom bought a Ms. Frizzle doll from a Scholastic book fair when I was in elementary school. I loved her so much I almost tore her head off, and mom had to meticulously match the thread color with the fabric and stitch it back together. Someday I'll probably buy the whole series on disc if I can find it.

I worked for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Department at the Minnesota Valley National Wildlife Refuge in Bloomington as a Youth Conservation Corps member. I did all sorts of things, like painting park buildings, catching and banding birds, clearing trails, cutting down invasive species, educating visitors, and wildlife surveys to name just some of the fun things I was able to do. I really loved the job!

I like to go hiking in the state parks with my DSLR camera. I will usually have quite a few pictures of fungus, moss, birds, and interesting tree bark by the time I'm finished.

What non-chemistry interest or activity of yours might surprise department members?

I started foraging for mushrooms a few years ago and it's been very fun! A giant puffball even popped up in the front yard that I was able to harvest for stir fry. It really is just like tofu for cooking.

Lake of the Isles. Mom and I love to walk, bike, or kayak around it. I keep a keen eye out for the birds, as we've seen kingfishers, egrets, loons, herons, and all sorts of migrating songbirds around it.

I live with my mom, Gillian and one-and-a-half year old cat, Matey. I also have numerous houseplants and a bioluminescent dinoflagellate (Pyrocystis fusiformis) colony!

Are there any family or cultural traditions you want to share with our community?

I have native white sage growing in the boulevard that we harvest and put into campfires to make wishes and share gratitude for what we have.

Daneasha Zackery

She/her/hers Graduate Student, Douglas Group

One day, as an undergraduate, one of my professors approached me about a great opportunity. She had told me about the Chemnext program hosted by the University of Minnesota. She said if I was interested in graduate school, then I should apply immediately (as the deadline was only two days away). I applied, and luckily, I was chosen to come and experience this community that I have come to appreciate dearly. It was during the Chemnext experience that I realized UofM was somewhere I wanted to be.

Are you involved in any student groups? What inspired you to get involved?

I am a member of NoBCChE. I was inspired to connect with other Black scientists along this journey in higher education to extend my sense of community.

What advice do you have for incoming chemistry students?

This journey is not linear, and will most likely be quite difficult at points, but always remember to celebrate your achievements. No matter how small they may seem in comparison to the overarching goal you have in graduate school, they are the things that will compel you to keep going and keep pursuing your dreams.

Dr. Eric Crumpler was my first chemistry professor and mentor. He is the person who made me realize that I could pursue chemistry as a career, and his teaching and mentorship taught me the value of "people first" as a way to approach being a scientist. We hold a social obligation to use our knowledge and findings to better the lives of the whole.

I am a big foodie and a snack enthusiast!

Related news releases

• Professor George Barany retires after a 44 year career at the University of Minnesota
• hUMNs of Chemistry #15
• Hannah Kenagy and Melissa Ramirez join Department of Chemistry
• hUMNs of Chemistry #14
• hUMNs of Chemistry #13
• Future undergraduate students
• Future transfer students
• Future graduate students
• Future international students
• Diversity and Inclusion Opportunities
• Learn abroad
• Living Learning Communities
• Mentor programs
• Programs for women
• Student groups
• Visit, Apply & Next Steps
• Information for current students
• Departments and majors overview
• Departments
• Undergraduate majors
• Graduate programs
• Integrated Degree Programs
• Additional degree-granting programs
• Online learning
• Academic Advising overview
• Academic Advising FAQ
• Academic Advising Blog
• Appointments and drop-ins
• Academic support
• Commencement
• Four-year plans
• Honors advising
• Policies, procedures, and forms
• Career Services overview
• Resumes and cover letters
• Jobs and internships
• Interviews and job offers
• CSE Career Fair
• Major and career exploration
• Graduate school
• Collegiate Life overview
• Scholarships
• Diversity & Inclusivity Alliance
• Anderson Student Innovation Labs
• Information for alumni
• Get engaged with CSE
• Upcoming events
• CSE Alumni Society Board
• Alumni volunteer interest form
• Golden Medallion Society Reunion
• 50-Year Reunion
• Alumni honors and awards
• Outstanding Achievement
• Alumni Service
• Distinguished Leadership
• Honorary Doctorate Degrees
• Nobel Laureates
• Alumni resources
• Alumni career resources
• Alumni news outlets
• CSE branded clothing
• International alumni resources
• Inventing Tomorrow magazine
• Update your info
• CSE giving overview
• Why give to CSE?
• College priorities
• Give online now
• External relations
• Giving priorities
• CSE Dean's Club
• Donor stories
• Impact of giving
• Ways to give to CSE
• Matching gifts
• CSE directories
• Invest in your company and the future
• Recruit our students
• Connect with researchers
• K-12 initiatives
• Diversity initiatives
• Research news
• Give to CSE
• CSE priorities
• Corporate relations
• Information for faculty and staff
• Administrative offices overview
• Office of the Dean
• Academic affairs
• Finance and Operations
• Communications
• Human resources
• Undergraduate programs and student services
• CSE Committees
• CSE policies overview
• Academic policies
• Faculty hiring and tenure policies
• Finance policies and information
• Graduate education policies
• Human resources policies
• Research policies
• Research overview
• Research centers and facilities
• Research proposal submission process
• Research safety
• Award-winning CSE faculty
• National academies
• University awards
• Honorary professorships
• Collegiate awards
• Other CSE honors and awards
• Staff awards
• Performance Management Process
• Work. With Flexibility in CSE
• K-12 outreach overview
• Summer camps
• Outreach events
• Enrichment programs
• Field trips and tours
• CSE K-12 Virtual Classroom Resources
• Educator development
• Sponsor an event

Leaving Cert chemistry: A ‘fair’ paper with plenty of choice and few surprises

Students familiar with past papers should feel confident in their performance,.

Photograph: Alan Betson

[  Examwatch 2024: Reaction to all the big Leaving Cert and Junior Cycle exams  ]

The higher-level chemistry paper was fair, offering students wide choice in an exam with few surprises, teachers have said.

“Questions remained true to form,” said Enda Dowd, a chemistry teacher at the Institute of Education in Dublin.

“Students familiar with past papers should feel confident in their performance, as the language of the paper was more approachable than previous years. If well-prepared, they should have had little issue with answering eight good questions with eleven to choose from.

“The exam covered a wide range of topics from the course, giving students ample choice.”

Prof Hugh Brady: ‘Quality of Irish university experience is slipping, and going to get worse over time’

‘We have heard horrible stories of what can happen’: Leaving Cert holidays spell euphoria for students but anxiety for parents

Leaving Cert physical education: a contemporary exam, but students challenged for time

Leaving Cert economics: ‘Nice paper with plenty of choice’

Mary Mullaghy, ASTI subject representative and a teacher at Eureka Secondary School, Kells, Co Meath, said that the wide range of topics should allow students who had put in the hard work to shine.

“It was a good test of the students’ knowledge, understanding and analytical skills. There were plenty of questions based on laboratory practical work with particular emphasis on observational skills and analytical skills. The fundamentals of chemistry were well examined, and the everyday applications of chemistry were covered throughout the paper.”

Mr Dowd said there were one or two surprises, but nothing unfair.

“Students may have been expecting questions on the steam distillation of clove oil and on the oxidation of phenylmethanol but they didn’t appear and they may have been surprised by questions that did arise on the recrystallisation of benzoic acid, given similar questions were asked in 2022,” he said.

“It emphasises the importance of students having a broad grasp of all of the experiments and not trying to guess what might come up, as they may get caught out.”

He said that question eight, on organic chemistry, is usually a challenging question.

“But this year’s addition was more friendly, with the description of the free radical substitution mechanism being asked.

“Students not hugely confident with their maths may have found some parts of question nine challenging as it required them to calculate changes in pH and concentrations of monobasic acids, and so might have avoided it,” he said.

Mr Dowd and Ms Mullaghy both said that it was good to see the examination papers follow the pattern of previous years in structure and style of questions.

“There were references to the work of Laurence Bragg, Dorothy Hodgkin and Marie and Pierre Curie,” said Ms Mullaghy.

“As always there was very good coverage of organic chemistry which is the basis of our pharmachemical industry and important for the Irish economy.”

Ms Mullaghy said that the ordinary level paper seemed more challenging than usual.

“There were some unseen terms such as ‘multistriatin’ which apparently is an organic compound released by the female elm bark beetle when she has found a good source of food. However, there was probably sufficient choice on the paper for those who had covered the course.”

Ms Mullaghy, who sits on the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) development group for chemistry, said that she hoped to see progress in the specification for the new chemistry specification.

“We hope that the NCCA will provide a list of mandatory experiments for the new

Chemistry specification/ syllabus as requested by 97 per cent  of teachers surveyed by the Irish Science Teachers’ Association (ISTA),” she said.

“Vagueness in specifications can lead to the ruination of a subject, as is evidenced by the decrease in numbers of students taking the revised agricultural science subject.”

Try this one at home:

Leaving Cert chemistry, higher level, q11(c)

-Water hardness is caused by certain dissolved metal ions.

(i) Write the chemical formulae for the two metal ions that most commonly cause hardness when dissolved in water.

(ii) Identify an anion which is commonly dissolved in water with these metal ions when temporary hardness is involved.

(iii) Identify an anion which is commonly dissolved in water with these metal ions when permanent hardness is involved

• Follow The Irish Times education section on Facebook and X (Twitter) and stay up to date

IN THIS SECTION

Leaving cert music: few bum notes in exam which featured queen, the beatles, tchaikovsky and bach, at home in youghal with jockey – and dancer with the stars – davy russell, eight years after seeking asylum in garda station ‘i walked out in uniform’, ‘i thought i was going to die’: dublin man describes surviving plane crash in remote part of alaska, ‘i am absolutely overwhelmed’: natasha o’brien attends solidarity protest in limerick, two notices pinned up in a country pub offer an insight into the paradox of eamon ryan, latest stories, do i have to declare ongoing investments to revenue, how farmers are embracing environment restoration: ‘i kind of live for the corncrake’, eamon ryan’s career is a lesson in how sincere politicians can succeed in setting the agenda, israeli forces strap wounded palestinian to jeep during raid, russia missile attack on kyiv region injures two and damages houses, ukraine says.

• Terms & Conditions
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Information
• Cookie Settings
• Community Standards

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Recent advances in scanning electrochemical microscopy for probing the sites in electrocatalysts.

In electrochemical reactions, the study of catalyst activity is becoming increasingly extensive. The insights into the active sites of catalysts have been providing ideas for efficiently designing highly active and selective catalysts. Therefore, powerful in-situ characterization tools can provide strong evidence and persuasive power for electrochemical process. Scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM) has gained increasing attention as a powerful analytical tool for characterizing catalytic activity in electrochemical process. In this review, we summarized the application methods of SECM in electrochemical reactions such as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR), nitrate reduction reaction (NitRR). We also briefly introduced the common operation modes of SECM. The recent progress of SECM in probing the reaction sites, reaction kinetics and charge transfer of electrocatalysts is reviewed. Finally, we discuss the challenges and prospects of SECM in characterizing the activity of electrocatalysts. This paper provides a reference for readers on SECM experimental method and theoretical analysis.

• This article is part of the themed collections: Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers and Journal of Materials Chemistry A Recent Review Articles

Article information

Download citation, permissions.

J. Li, H. Yang, X. Gu, Y. Zou, D. Zhan and J. Peng, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA01292E

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

Read more about how to correctly acknowledge RSC content .

Social activity

Search articles by author.

This article has not yet been cited.

Advertisements

Advertisement

Supported by

Remembering Willie Mays as Both Untouchable and Human

Mays, who died on Tuesday at 93, had been perfect for so long that the shock of seeing baseball get the best of him was the shock of seeing a god become mortal.

• Share full article

By Kurt Streeter

At the end, the Say Hey Kid looked nothing like the extraordinary force who had been at the center of the American imagination for much of the 20th century.

The Kid — Willie Mays — struggled at the plate and stumbled on the basepaths. A line drive arced his way, easily catchable for Mays during most of his career. But he fell. Another outfield mistake caused the game to be tied in the ninth inning.

He was a creaky-kneed 42 years old on that October afternoon, Game 2 of the 1973 World Series — Mays’s New York Mets in Oakland facing the A’s. On the grandest stage, the ravages of time had settled upon the game’s most gilded star.

That he would redeem himself at the plate three innings later is often forgotten. The unthinkable had happened. Mays had not only failed, he had appeared lost, clumsy and out of sorts.

The shock of seeing him that way would linger long past his playing days as a warning: Don’t be like Willie Mays, sticking around too long, stumbling in center field, a shadow of his former self. Such became the axiom, uttered in so many words by everyone from politicians to business leaders to commentators weighing in on great athletes who yearn to play into their twilight.

Quit before it is too late.

In retirement, Mays, who died on Tuesday at 93, did his best to ignore the game that would be his last. But there is another way to view its echoes.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Main Navigation

• Contact NeurIPS
• Code of Ethics
• Code of Conduct
• Create Profile
• Journal To Conference Track
• Diversity & Inclusion
• Proceedings
• Future Meetings
• Exhibitor Information
• Privacy Policy

NeurIPS 2024

Conference Dates: (In person) 9 December - 15 December, 2024

Homepage: https://neurips.cc/Conferences/2024/

Call For Papers 

Abstract submission deadline: May 15, 2024

Full paper submission deadline, including technical appendices and supplemental material (all authors must have an OpenReview profile when submitting): May 22, 2024

Author notification: Sep 25, 2024

Camera-ready, poster, and video submission: Oct 30, 2024 AOE

Submit at: https://openreview.net/group?id=NeurIPS.cc/2024/Conference  

The site will start accepting submissions on Apr 22, 2024 

Subscribe to these and other dates on the 2024 dates page .

The Thirty-Eighth Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2024) is an interdisciplinary conference that brings together researchers in machine learning, neuroscience, statistics, optimization, computer vision, natural language processing, life sciences, natural sciences, social sciences, and other adjacent fields. We invite submissions presenting new and original research on topics including but not limited to the following:

• Applications (e.g., vision, language, speech and audio, Creative AI)
• Deep learning (e.g., architectures, generative models, optimization for deep networks, foundation models, LLMs)
• Evaluation (e.g., methodology, meta studies, replicability and validity, human-in-the-loop)
• General machine learning (supervised, unsupervised, online, active, etc.)
• Infrastructure (e.g., libraries, improved implementation and scalability, distributed solutions)
• Machine learning for sciences (e.g. climate, health, life sciences, physics, social sciences)
• Neuroscience and cognitive science (e.g., neural coding, brain-computer interfaces)
• Optimization (e.g., convex and non-convex, stochastic, robust)
• Probabilistic methods (e.g., variational inference, causal inference, Gaussian processes)
• Reinforcement learning (e.g., decision and control, planning, hierarchical RL, robotics)
• Social and economic aspects of machine learning (e.g., fairness, interpretability, human-AI interaction, privacy, safety, strategic behavior)
• Theory (e.g., control theory, learning theory, algorithmic game theory)

Machine learning is a rapidly evolving field, and so we welcome interdisciplinary submissions that do not fit neatly into existing categories.

Authors are asked to confirm that their submissions accord with the NeurIPS code of conduct .

Formatting instructions:   All submissions must be in PDF format, and in a single PDF file include, in this order:

• The submitted paper
• Technical appendices that support the paper with additional proofs, derivations, or results 
• The NeurIPS paper checklist  

Other supplementary materials such as data and code can be uploaded as a ZIP file

The main text of a submitted paper is limited to nine content pages , including all figures and tables. Additional pages containing references don’t count as content pages. If your submission is accepted, you will be allowed an additional content page for the camera-ready version.

The main text and references may be followed by technical appendices, for which there is no page limit.

The maximum file size for a full submission, which includes technical appendices, is 50MB.

Authors are encouraged to submit a separate ZIP file that contains further supplementary material like data or source code, when applicable.

You must format your submission using the NeurIPS 2024 LaTeX style file which includes a “preprint” option for non-anonymous preprints posted online. Submissions that violate the NeurIPS style (e.g., by decreasing margins or font sizes) or page limits may be rejected without further review. Papers may be rejected without consideration of their merits if they fail to meet the submission requirements, as described in this document. 

Paper checklist: In order to improve the rigor and transparency of research submitted to and published at NeurIPS, authors are required to complete a paper checklist . The paper checklist is intended to help authors reflect on a wide variety of issues relating to responsible machine learning research, including reproducibility, transparency, research ethics, and societal impact. The checklist forms part of the paper submission, but does not count towards the page limit.

Please join the NeurIPS 2024 Checklist Assistant Study that will provide you with free verification of your checklist performed by an LLM here . Please see details in our  blog

Supplementary material: While all technical appendices should be included as part of the main paper submission PDF, authors may submit up to 100MB of supplementary material, such as data, or source code in a ZIP format. Supplementary material should be material created by the authors that directly supports the submission content. Like submissions, supplementary material must be anonymized. Looking at supplementary material is at the discretion of the reviewers.

We encourage authors to upload their code and data as part of their supplementary material in order to help reviewers assess the quality of the work. Check the policy as well as code submission guidelines and templates for further details.

Use of Large Language Models (LLMs): We welcome authors to use any tool that is suitable for preparing high-quality papers and research. However, we ask authors to keep in mind two important criteria. First, we expect papers to fully describe their methodology, and any tool that is important to that methodology, including the use of LLMs, should be described also. For example, authors should mention tools (including LLMs) that were used for data processing or filtering, visualization, facilitating or running experiments, and proving theorems. It may also be advisable to describe the use of LLMs in implementing the method (if this corresponds to an important, original, or non-standard component of the approach). Second, authors are responsible for the entire content of the paper, including all text and figures, so while authors are welcome to use any tool they wish for writing the paper, they must ensure that all text is correct and original.

Double-blind reviewing:   All submissions must be anonymized and may not contain any identifying information that may violate the double-blind reviewing policy.  This policy applies to any supplementary or linked material as well, including code.  If you are including links to any external material, it is your responsibility to guarantee anonymous browsing.  Please do not include acknowledgements at submission time. If you need to cite one of your own papers, you should do so with adequate anonymization to preserve double-blind reviewing.  For instance, write “In the previous work of Smith et al. [1]…” rather than “In our previous work [1]...”). If you need to cite one of your own papers that is in submission to NeurIPS and not available as a non-anonymous preprint, then include a copy of the cited anonymized submission in the supplementary material and write “Anonymous et al. [1] concurrently show...”). Any papers found to be violating this policy will be rejected.

OpenReview: We are using OpenReview to manage submissions. The reviews and author responses will not be public initially (but may be made public later, see below). As in previous years, submissions under review will be visible only to their assigned program committee. We will not be soliciting comments from the general public during the reviewing process. Anyone who plans to submit a paper as an author or a co-author will need to create (or update) their OpenReview profile by the full paper submission deadline. Your OpenReview profile can be edited by logging in and clicking on your name in https://openreview.net/ . This takes you to a URL "https://openreview.net/profile?id=~[Firstname]_[Lastname][n]" where the last part is your profile name, e.g., ~Wei_Zhang1. The OpenReview profiles must be up to date, with all publications by the authors, and their current affiliations. The easiest way to import publications is through DBLP but it is not required, see FAQ . Submissions without updated OpenReview profiles will be desk rejected. The information entered in the profile is critical for ensuring that conflicts of interest and reviewer matching are handled properly. Because of the rapid growth of NeurIPS, we request that all authors help with reviewing papers, if asked to do so. We need everyone’s help in maintaining the high scientific quality of NeurIPS.  

Please be aware that OpenReview has a moderation policy for newly created profiles: New profiles created without an institutional email will go through a moderation process that can take up to two weeks. New profiles created with an institutional email will be activated automatically.

Venue home page: https://openreview.net/group?id=NeurIPS.cc/2024/Conference

If you have any questions, please refer to the FAQ: https://openreview.net/faq

Abstract Submission: There is a mandatory abstract submission deadline on May 15, 2024, six days before full paper submissions are due. While it will be possible to edit the title and abstract until the full paper submission deadline, submissions with “placeholder” abstracts that are rewritten for the full submission risk being removed without consideration. This includes titles and abstracts that either provide little or no semantic information (e.g., "We provide a new semi-supervised learning method.") or describe a substantively different claimed contribution.  The author list cannot be changed after the abstract deadline. After that, authors may be reordered, but any additions or removals must be justified in writing and approved on a case-by-case basis by the program chairs only in exceptional circumstances. 

Ethics review: Reviewers and ACs may flag submissions for ethics review . Flagged submissions will be sent to an ethics review committee for comments. Comments from ethics reviewers will be considered by the primary reviewers and AC as part of their deliberation. They will also be visible to authors, who will have an opportunity to respond.  Ethics reviewers do not have the authority to reject papers, but in extreme cases papers may be rejected by the program chairs on ethical grounds, regardless of scientific quality or contribution.  

Preprints: The existence of non-anonymous preprints (on arXiv or other online repositories, personal websites, social media) will not result in rejection. If you choose to use the NeurIPS style for the preprint version, you must use the “preprint” option rather than the “final” option. Reviewers will be instructed not to actively look for such preprints, but encountering them will not constitute a conflict of interest. Authors may submit anonymized work to NeurIPS that is already available as a preprint (e.g., on arXiv) without citing it. Note that public versions of the submission should not say "Under review at NeurIPS" or similar.

Dual submissions: Submissions that are substantially similar to papers that the authors have previously published or submitted in parallel to other peer-reviewed venues with proceedings or journals may not be submitted to NeurIPS. Papers previously presented at workshops are permitted, so long as they did not appear in a conference proceedings (e.g., CVPRW proceedings), a journal or a book.  NeurIPS coordinates with other conferences to identify dual submissions.  The NeurIPS policy on dual submissions applies for the entire duration of the reviewing process.  Slicing contributions too thinly is discouraged.  The reviewing process will treat any other submission by an overlapping set of authors as prior work. If publishing one would render the other too incremental, both may be rejected.

Anti-collusion: NeurIPS does not tolerate any collusion whereby authors secretly cooperate with reviewers, ACs or SACs to obtain favorable reviews. 

Author responses:   Authors will have one week to view and respond to initial reviews. Author responses may not contain any identifying information that may violate the double-blind reviewing policy. Authors may not submit revisions of their paper or supplemental material, but may post their responses as a discussion in OpenReview. This is to reduce the burden on authors to have to revise their paper in a rush during the short rebuttal period.

After the initial response period, authors will be able to respond to any further reviewer/AC questions and comments by posting on the submission’s forum page. The program chairs reserve the right to solicit additional reviews after the initial author response period.  These reviews will become visible to the authors as they are added to OpenReview, and authors will have a chance to respond to them.

After the notification deadline, accepted and opted-in rejected papers will be made public and open for non-anonymous public commenting. Their anonymous reviews, meta-reviews, author responses and reviewer responses will also be made public. Authors of rejected papers will have two weeks after the notification deadline to opt in to make their deanonymized rejected papers public in OpenReview.  These papers are not counted as NeurIPS publications and will be shown as rejected in OpenReview.

Publication of accepted submissions:   Reviews, meta-reviews, and any discussion with the authors will be made public for accepted papers (but reviewer, area chair, and senior area chair identities will remain anonymous). Camera-ready papers will be due in advance of the conference. All camera-ready papers must include a funding disclosure . We strongly encourage accompanying code and data to be submitted with accepted papers when appropriate, as per the code submission policy . Authors will be allowed to make minor changes for a short period of time after the conference.

Contemporaneous Work: For the purpose of the reviewing process, papers that appeared online within two months of a submission will generally be considered "contemporaneous" in the sense that the submission will not be rejected on the basis of the comparison to contemporaneous work. Authors are still expected to cite and discuss contemporaneous work and perform empirical comparisons to the degree feasible. Any paper that influenced the submission is considered prior work and must be cited and discussed as such. Submissions that are very similar to contemporaneous work will undergo additional scrutiny to prevent cases of plagiarism and missing credit to prior work.

Plagiarism is prohibited by the NeurIPS Code of Conduct .

Other Tracks: Similarly to earlier years, we will host multiple tracks, such as datasets, competitions, tutorials as well as workshops, in addition to the main track for which this call for papers is intended. See the conference homepage for updates and calls for participation in these tracks. 

Experiments: As in past years, the program chairs will be measuring the quality and effectiveness of the review process via randomized controlled experiments. All experiments are independently reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).

Financial Aid: Each paper may designate up to one (1) NeurIPS.cc account email address of a corresponding student author who confirms that they would need the support to attend the conference, and agrees to volunteer if they get selected. To be considered for Financial the student will also need to fill out the Financial Aid application when it becomes available.