what part(s) of the brain is responsible for critical thinking and problem solving

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Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

The human brain is the epicenter of our nervous system and plays a pivotal role in virtually every aspect of our lives. It’s a complex, highly organized organ responsible for thoughts, feelings, actions, and interactions with the world around us. Here is a look at the intricate anatomy of the brain, its functions, and the consequences of damage to different areas.

Introduction to the Brain and Its Functions

The brain is an organ of soft nervous tissue that is protected within the skull of vertebrates. It functions as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity. The brain consists of billions of neurons (nerve cells) that communicate through intricate networks. The primary functions of the brain include processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, forming thoughts and emotions, and storing memories.

Main Parts of the Brain – Anatomy

The three main parts of the brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

1. Cerebrum

• Location: The cerebellum occupies the upper part of the cranial cavity and is the largest part of the human brain.
• Functions: It’s responsible for higher brain functions, including thought, action, emotion, and interpretation of sensory data.
• Effects of Damage: Depending on the area affected, damage leads to memory loss, impaired cognitive skills, changes in personality, and loss of motor control.

2. Cerebellum

• Location: The cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum.
• Functions: It coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech.
• Effects of Damage: Damage causes problems with balance, movement, and muscle coordination (ataxia).

3. Brainstem

• Location: The brainstem is lower extension of the brain, connecting to the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
• Functions: This part of the brain controls many basic life-sustaining functions, including heart rate, breathing, sleeping, and eating.
• Effects of Damage: Damage results in life-threatening conditions like breathing difficulties, heart problems, and loss of consciousness.

Lobes of the Brain

The four lobes of the brain are regions of the cerebrum:

• Location: This is the anterior or front part of the brain.
• Functions: Decision making, problem solving, control of purposeful behaviors, consciousness, and emotions.
• Location: Sits behind the frontal lobe.
• Functions: Processes sensory information it receives from the outside world, mainly relating to spatial sense and navigation (proprioception).
• Location: Below the lateral fissure, on both cerebral hemispheres.
• Functions: Mainly revolves around auditory perception and is also important for the processing of both speech and vision (reading).
• Location: At the back of the brain.
• Functions: Main center for visual processing.

Left vs. Right Brain Hemispheres

The cerebrum has two halves, called hemispheres. Each half controls functions on the opposite side of the body. So, the left hemisphere controls muscles on the right side of the body, and vice versa. But, the functions of the two hemispheres are not entirely identical:

• Left Hemisphere: It’s dominant in language and speech and plays roles in logical thinking, analysis, and accuracy. .
• Right Hemisphere: This hemisphere is more visual and intuitive and functions in creative and imaginative tasks.

The corpus callosum is a band of nerves that connect the two hemispheres and allow communication between them.

Detailed List of Parts of the Brain

While knowing the three key parts of the brain is a good start, the anatomy is quite a bit more complex. In addition to nervous tissues, the brain also contains key glands:

• Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Divided into lobes, it coordinates thought, movement, memory, senses, speech, and temperature.
• Corpus Callosum : A broad band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain, facilitating interhemispheric communication.
• Cerebellum : Coordinates movement and balance and aids in eye movement.
• Pons : Controls voluntary actions, including swallowing, bladder function, facial expression, posture, and sleep.
• Medulla oblongata : Regulates involuntary actions, including breathing, heart rhythm, as well as oxygen and carbon dioxide levels.
• Limbic System : Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
• Amygdala: Plays a key role in emotional responses, hormonal secretions, and memory formation.
• Hippocampus: Plays a vital role in memory formation and spatial navigation.
• Thalamus : Acts as the brain’s relay station, channeling sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
• Basal Ganglia : A group of structures involved in processing information related to movement, emotions, and reward. Key structures include the striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus.
• Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) : Plays a role in the reward circuit of the brain, releasing dopamine in response to stimuli indicating a reward.
• Optic tectum : Also known as the superior colliculus, it directs eye movements.
• Substantia Nigra : Involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons.
• Cingulate Gyrus : Plays a role in processing emotions and behavior regulation. It also helps regulate autonomic motor function.
• Olfactory Bulb : Involved in the sense of smell and the integration of olfactory information.
• Mammillary Bodies : Plays a role in recollective memory.
• Function: Regulates emotions, memory, and arousal.

Glands in the Brain

The hypothalamus, pineal gland, and pituitary gland are the three endocrine glands within the brain:

• Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems. It contains many small nuclei. In addition to participating in eating and drinking, sleeping and waking, it regulates the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. It maintains the body’s homeostasis, regulating hunger, thirst, response to pain, levels of pleasure, sexual satisfaction, anger, and aggressive behavior.
• Pituitary Gland : Known as the “master gland,” it controls various other hormone glands in the body, such as the thyroid and adrenals, as well as regulating growth, metabolism, and reproductive processes.
• Pineal Gland : The pineal gland produces and regulates some hormones, including melatonin, which is crucial in regulating sleep patterns and circadian rhythms.

Gray Matter vs. White Matter

The brain and spinal cord consist of gray matter (substantia grisea) and white matter (substantia alba).

• White Matter: Consists mainly of axons and myelin sheaths that send signals between different brain regions and between the brain and spinal cord.
• Gray Matter: Consists of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals. Gray matter processes information and directs stimuli for muscle control, sensory perception, decision making, and self-control.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About the Human Brain

• The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons. Additionally, it has a similar or slightly higher number of non-neuronal cells (glial cells), making the total number of cells in the brain close to 170 billion.
• There are about 86 billion neurons in the human brain. These neurons are connected by trillions of synapses, forming a complex networks.
• The average adult human brain weighs about 1.3 to 1.4 kilograms (about 3 pounds). This weight represents about 2% of the total body weight.
• The brain is about 73% water.
• The myth that humans only use 10% of their brain is false. Virtually every part gets use, and most of the brain is active all the time, even during sleep.
• The average size of the adult human brain is about 15 centimeters (6 inches) in length, 14 centimeters (5.5 inches) in width, and 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) in height.
• Brain signal speeds vary depending on the type of neuron and the nature of the signal. They travel anywhere from 1 meter per second to over 100 meters per second in the fastest neurons.
• With age, the brain’s volume and/or weight decrease, synaptic connections reduce, and there can be a decline in cognitive functions. However, the brain to continues adapting and forming new connections throughout life.
• The brain has a limited ability to repair itself. Neuroplasticity aids recovery by allowing other parts of the brain to take over functions of the damaged areas.
• The brain consumes about 20% of the body’s total energy , despite only making up about 2% of the body’s total weight . It requires a constant supply of glucose and oxygen.
• Sleep is crucial for brain health. It aids in memory consolidation, learning, brain detoxification, and the regulation of mood and cognitive functions.
• Douglas Fields, R. (2008). “White Matter Matters”. Scientific American . 298 (3): 54–61. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0308-54
• Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.
• Kolb, B.; Whishaw, I.Q. (2003). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7167-5300-1.
• Rajmohan, V.; Mohandas, E. (2007). “The limbic system”. Indian Journal of Psychiatry . 49 (2): 132–139. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.33264
• Shepherd, G.M. (1994). Neurobiology . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508843-4.

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Understanding How the Brain Thinks

Neurologist and teacher Judy Willis describes how brains develop critical thinking skills.

Understanding How the Brain Works

For 21st century success, now more than ever, students will need a skill set far beyond the current mandated standards that are evaluated on standardized tests. The qualifications for success in today's ever-changing world will demand the ability to think critically, communicate clearly, use continually changing technology, be culturally aware and adaptive, and possess the judgment and open-mindedness to make complex decisions based on accurate analysis of information. The most rewarding jobs of this century will be those that cannot be done by computers.

For students to be best prepared for the opportunities and challenges awaiting them, they need to develop their highest thinking skills -- the brain's executive functions. These higher-order neural networks are undergoing their most rapid development during the school years, and teachers are in the best position to promote the activation of these circuits. With the help of their teachers, students can develop the skillsets needed to solve problems that have not yet been recognized, analyze information as it becomes rapidly available in the globalized communication systems, and to skillfully and creatively take advantage of the evolving technological advances as they become available.

Factory Model of Education Prepares for "Assembly Line" Jobs

Automation and computerization are exceeding human ability for doing repetitive tasks and calculations, but the educational model has not changed. The factory model of education, still in place today, was designed for producing assembly line workers to do assigned tasks correctly. These workers did not need to analyze, create, or question.

Ironically, in response to more information, many educators are mandated to teach more rote facts and procedures, and students are given bigger books with more to memorize. In every country where I've given presentations and workshops, the problem is the same: overstuffed curriculum.

Even in countries where high-stakes standardized testing is not a dominant factor, school curriculum and emphasis have changed to provide more time for this additional rote memorization. Creative opportunities -- the arts, debate, general P.E., collaborative work, and inquiry -- are sacrificed at the altar of more predigested facts to be passively memorized. These students have fewer opportunities to discover the connections between isolated facts and to build neural networks of concepts that are needed to transfer learning to applications beyond the contexts in which the information is learned and practiced.

The High Costs of Maintaining the Factory Model

If students do not have opportunities to develop their higher order, cognitive skillsets they won't develop the reason, logic, creative problem solving, concept development, media literacy, and communication skills best suited for the daily complexities of life or the professional jobs of their future. Without these skills, they won't be able to compete on the global employment market with students currently developing their executive functions.

Instead, the best jobs will go to applicants who analyze information as it becomes available, adapt when new information makes facts obsolete, and collaborate with other experts on a global playing field. All these skills require tolerance, willingness to consider alternative perspectives, and the ability to articulate one's ideas successfully.

As educators, it is our challenge to see that all students have opportunities to stimulate their developing executive function networks so when they leave school they have the critical skillsets to choose the career and life paths that will give them the most satisfaction.

Executive Function = Critical Thinking

What my field of neurology has called "executive functions" for over 100 years are these highest cognitive processes. These executive functions have been given a variety of less specific names in education terminology such as higher order thinking or critical thinking. These are skillsets beyond those computers can do because they allow for flexible, interpretive, creative, and multidimensional thinking -- suitable for current and future challenges and opportunities. Executive functions can be thought of as the skills that would make a corporate executive successful. These include planning, flexibility, tolerance, risk assessment, informed decision-making, reasoning, analysis, and delay of immediate gratification to achieve long-term goals. These executive functions further allow for organizing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, self-assessing, abstracting, and focusing.

The Prefrontal Cortex: Home to Critical Thinking

The executive function control centers develop in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC gives us the potential to consider and voluntarily control our thinking, emotional responses, and behavior. It is the reflective "higher brain" compared to the reactive "lower brain". This prime real estate of the PFC comprises the highest percentage of brain volume in humans, compared to all other animals, which is roughly 20% of our brains.

Animals, compared to humans, are more dependent on their reactive lower brains to survive in their unpredictable environments where it is appropriate that automatic responses not be delayed by complex analysis. As man developed more control of his environment, the luxury of a bigger reflective brain correlated with the evolution of the PFC to its current proportions.

The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature. This maturation is a process of neuroplasticity that includes 1) the pruning of unused cells to better provide for the metabolic needs of more frequently used neurons and 2) strengthening the connections in the circuits that are most used. Another aspect of neuroplasticity is the growth of stronger and increased numbers of connections among neurons. Each of the brain's over one billion neurons holds only a tiny bit of information. It is only when multiple neurons connect through their branches (axons and dendrites) that a memory is stored and retrievable.

This prefrontal cortex maturation, the pruning and strengthening process, continues into the twenties, with the most rapid changes in the age range of 8-16. Electricity flows from neuron to neuron through the axons and dendrites. This electrical flow carries information and also provides the stimulus that promotes the growth of these connections. Each time a network is activated -- the information recalled for review or use -- the connections become stronger and faster (speed through a circuit is largely determined by the layers of myelin coating that are built up around the axons -- this is also in response to the flow of the electric current of information transport when the circuit is activated). The stimulation of these networks during the ages of their rapid development strongly influences the development of the executive functions -- the social-emotional control and the highest thinking skillsets that today's students will carry with them as they leave school and become adults.

Preparing Students for the Challenges and Opportunities of the 21st Century

We have the obligation to provide our students with opportunities to learn the required foundational information and procedures through experiences that stimulate their developing neural networks of executive functions. We activate these networks through active learning experiences that involve students' prefrontal cortex circuits of judgment, critical analysis, induction, deduction, relational thinking with prior knowledge activation, and prediction. These experiences promote creative information processing as students recognize relationships between what they learn and what they already know. This is when neuroplasticity steps in and new connections (dendrites, synapses, myelinated axons) physically grow between formerly separate memory circuits when they are activated together. This is the physical manifestation of the "neurons that fire together, wire together" phenomenon.

Unless new rote memories are incorporated into larger, relational networks, they remain isolated bits of data in small, unconnected circuits. It is through active mental manipulation with prior knowledge that new information becomes incorporated into the already established neural network of previously acquired related memory.

Teaching that Strengthens Executive Function Networks

Making the switch from memorization to mental manipulation is about applying, communicating, and supporting what one already knows. The incorporation of rote memorization into the sturdy existing networks of long-term memory takes place when students recognize relationships to the prior knowledge stored in those networks.

When you provide students with opportunities to apply learning, especially through authentic, personally meaningful activities with formative assessments and corrective feedback throughout a unit, facts move from rote memory to become consolidated into related memory bank, instead of being pruned away from disuse.

The disuse pruning is another aspect of the brain's neuroplasticity. To best support the frequently used networks, the brain essentially dissolves isolated small neural networks of "unincorporated" facts and procedures that are rarely activated beyond drills and tests.

In contrast, opportunities to process new learning through executive functions promote its linkage to existing related memory banks through the growth of linking dendrites and synapses.

Students need to be explicitly taught and given opportunities to practice using executive functions to organize, prioritize, compare, contrast, connect to prior knowledge, give new examples of a concept, participate in open-ended discussions, synthesize new learning into concise summaries, and symbolize new learning into new mental constructs, such as through the arts or writing across the curriculum.

How to Engage Students' Developing Neural Networks to Promote Executive Function

The recommendations here are a few of the ways to engage students' developing networks of executive functions while they are undergoing their most rapid phase of maturation during the school years. Part 2 of this blog will delve more deeply into the mental manipulation strategies that promote consolidation of new input into existing memory circuits.

Judgment: This executive function, when developed, promotes a student's ability to monitor the accuracy of his or her work. Guidance, experiences, and feedback in estimation; editing and revising one's own written work; and class discussions for conflict resolution can activate the circuitry to build judgment.

Prioritizing: This executive function helps students to separate low relevance details from the main ideas of a text, lecture, math word problem, or complete units of study. Prioritizing skills are also used when students are guided to see how new facts fit into broader concepts, to plan ahead for long-term projects/reports, and to keep records of their most successful strategies that make the most efficient use of their time.

Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop this PFC executive function, they are limited in their capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable goals. They need support in recognizing the incremental progress they make as they apply effort towards their larger goals (see my previous two blogs about the "video game" model: How to Plan Instruction Using the Video Game Model and A Neurologist Makes the Case for the Video Game Model as a Learning Tool ).

Model Metacognition Development Yourself

Planning learning opportunities to activate executive function often means going beyond the curriculum provided in textbooks. This is a hefty burden when you are also under the mandate of teaching a body of information that exceeds the time needed for successful mental manipulation.

When you do provide these executive function-activating opportunities, students will recognize their own changing attitudes and achievements. Students will begin to experience and comment on these insights, "I thought ... would be boring, but it was pretty interesting" and "This is the first time I really understood ... " or simply, "Thanks" and "That was cool."

These student responses are teachable moments to promote metacognition. Consider sharing the processes you use to create the instruction that they respond to positively. These discussions will help students recognize their abilities to extend their horizons and focus beyond simply getting by with satisfactory grades. They can build their executive functions of long-term goal-directed behavior, advance planning, delay of immediate gratification. In this way, they can take advantage of opportunities to review and revise work -- even when it has been completed -- rather than to be satisfied with "getting it done." Your input can help students see the link between taking responsibility for class participation, collaboration, and setting high self-standards for all classwork and homework, such that they can say, "I did my best and am proud of my efforts."

As written on the gate of my college, the message we can send our students is:

Climb high. Aim Far. Your goal the sun; Your aim the stars.

Copyright © Judy Willis 2011

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The Anatomy of the Brain

The brain controls your thoughts, feelings, and physical movements

Associated Conditions

The brain is a unique organ that is responsible for many functions such as problem-solving, thinking, emotions, controlling physical movements, and mediating the perception and responses related to the five senses. The many nerve cells of the brain communicate with each other to control this activity.

Each area of the brain has one or more functions. The skull, which is composed of bone, protects the brain. A number of different health conditions can affect the brain, including headaches , seizures , strokes , multiple sclerosis , and more. These conditions can often be managed with medical or surgical care.

The brain is primarily composed of nerve cells, which are also called neurons. Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients to the neurons of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a fluid that provides nourishment and immune protection to the brain, flows around the brain and within the ventricular system (spaces between the regions of the brain).

The brain and the CSF are protected by the meninges, composed of three layers of connective tissue: the pia, arachnoid, and dura layers. The skull surrounds the meninges.

The brain has many important regions, such as the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum. The areas of the brain all interact with each other through hormones and nerve stimulation.

The regions of the brain include:

• Cerebral cortex : This is the largest portion of the brain. It includes two hemispheres (halves), which are connected to each other—physically and functionally—by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum runs from the front of the cerebral cortex to the back of the cerebral cortex. The outer part of the cerebral cortex is often described as gray matter, and the deeper areas are often described as white matter due to their microscopic appearance.
• Lobes of the cerebral cortex : Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is composed of four lobes. The frontal lobes are the largest, and they are located at the front of the brain. The temporal lobes are located on the sides of the brain, near and above the ears. The parietal lobes are at the top middle section of the brain. And the occipital lobes, which are the smallest lobes, are located in the back of the cerebral cortex.
• Limbic system : The limbic system is located deep in the brain and is composed of several small structures, including the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus .
• Internal capsule : This area is located deep in the brain and is considered white matter. The frontal regions of the cerebral cortex surround the left and right internal capsules. The internal capsule is located near the lateral ventricles.
• Thalamus : The left and right thalami are below the internal capsule, above the brainstem, and near the lateral ventricles.
• Hypothalamus and pituitary gland : The hypothalamus is a tiny region of the brain located directly above the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is a structure that extends directly above the optic chiasm, where the optic nerves meet.
• Brainstem : The brainstem is the lowest region of the brain and is continuous with the spinal cord. It is composed of three sections: the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem.
• Cerebellum : The cerebellum is located at the lower back of the brain, under the occipital lobe and behind the brainstem. It has two hemispheres (left and right) that are connected by a middle structure called the vermis.
• Blood vessels : The blood vessels that supply your brain include the anterior cerebral arteries , middle cerebral arteries , posterior cerebral arteries, basilar artery , and vertebral arteries . These blood vessels and the blood vessels that connect them to each other compose a collection of blood vessels described as the circle of Willis .
• Ventricular system : CSF flows in the right and left lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, the cerebral aqueduct, the fourth ventricle, and down into the central canal in the spinal cord.

The brain has a number of functions, including motor function (controlling the body’s movements), coordination, sensory functions (being aware of sensations), hormone control, regulation of the heart and lungs, emotions, memory, behavior, and creativity.

These functions often rely on and interact with each other. For example, you might experience an emotion based on something that you see and/or hear. Or you might try to solve a problem with the help of your memory. Messages travel very quickly between the different regions in the brain, which makes the interactions almost instantaneous.

Functions of the brain include:

• Motor function : Motor function is initiated in an area at the back of the frontal lobe called the motor homunculus. This region controls movement on the opposite side of the body by sending messages through the internal capsule to the brainstem, then to the spinal cord, and finally to a spinal nerve through a pathway described as the corticospinal tract.
• Coordination and balance : Your body maintains balance and coordination through a number of pathways in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem.
• Sensation : The brain receives sensory messages through a pathway that travels from the nerves in the skin and organs to the spine, then to the brainstem, up through the thalamus, and finally to an area of the parietal lobe called the sensory homunculus, which is directly behind the motor homunculus. Each hemisphere receives sensory input from the opposite side of the body. This pathway is called the spinothalamic tract.
• Vision : Your optic nerves in your eyes can detect whatever you see, sending messages through your optic tract (pathway) to your occipital lobes. The occipital lobes put those messages together so that you can perceive what you are seeing in the world around you.
• Taste and smell : Your olfactory nerve detects smell, while several of your cranial nerves work together to detect taste. These nerves send messages to your brain. The sensations of smell and taste often interact, as smell amplifies your experience of taste.
• Hearing : You can detect sounds when a series of vibrations in your ear stimulate your vestibulocochlear nerve. The message is sent to your brainstem and then to your temporal cortex so that you can make sense of the sounds that you hear.
• Language : Speaking and understanding language is a specialized brain function that involves several regions of your dominant hemisphere (the side of the brain opposite your dominant hand). The two major areas that control speech are Wernicke’s area , which controls the understanding of speech, and Broca’s area, which controls the fluency of your speech.
• Emotions and memory : Your amygdala and hippocampus play important roles in storing memory and associating certain memories with emotion.
• Hormones : Your hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and medulla all respond to the conditions of your body, such as your temperature, carbon dioxide level, and hormone levels, by releasing hormones and other chemicals that help regulate your body’s functions. Emotions such as fear can also have an influence on these functions.
• Behavior and judgment : The frontal lobes control reasoning, planning, and maintaining social interactions. This area of the brain is also involved in judgment and maintaining appropriate behavior.
• Analytical thinking : Mathematical problem solving is located in the dominant hemisphere. Often, this type of reasoning involves interaction with the decision-making regions of the frontal lobes.
• Creativity : There are many types of creativity, including the production of visual art, music, and creative writing. These skills can involve three-dimensional thinking, also described as visual-spatial skills. Creativity also involves analytical reasoning and usually requires a balance between traditional ways of thinking (which occurs in the frontal lobes) and "thinking outside the box."

There are many conditions that can affect the brain. You may experience self-limited issues, such as the pain of a headache, or more lasting effects of brain disease, such as paralysis due to a stroke. The diagnosis of brain illnesses may be complex and can involve a variety of medical examinations and tests, including a physical examination, imaging tests, neuropsychological testing, electroencephalography (EEG) , and/or lumbar puncture .

Common conditions that involve the brain include:

• Headaches : Head pain can occur due to chronic migraines or tension headaches. You can also have a headache when you feel sleepy, stressed, or due to an infection like meningitis (an infection of the meninges).
• Traumatic brain injury : An injury to the head can cause damage such as bleeding in the brain, a skull fracture, a bruise in the brain, or, in severe cases, death. These injuries may cause vision loss, paralysis, or severe cognitive (thinking) problems.
• Concussion : Head trauma can cause issues like loss of consciousness, memory impairment, and mood changes. These problems may develop even in the absence of bleeding or a skull fracture. Often, symptoms of a concussion resolve over time, but recurrent head trauma can cause serious and persistent problems with brain function, described as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA) : A temporary interruption in the blood supply to the brain can cause the affected areas to temporarily lose function. This can happen due to a blood clot, usually coming from the heart or carotid arteries. If the interruption in blood flow resolves before permanent brain damage occurs, this is called a TIA . Generally, a TIA is considered a warning that a person is at risk of having a stroke, so a search for stroke causes is usually necessary—and stroke prevention often needs to be initiated.
• Stroke : A stroke is brain damage that occurs due to an interruption of blood flow to the brain. This can occur due to a blood clot (ischemic stroke) or a bleed in the brain (hemorrhagic stroke) . There are a number of causes of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, including heart disease, hypertension, and brain aneurysms.
• Brain aneurysm : An aneurysm is an outpouching of a blood vessel. A brain aneurysm can cause symptoms due to pressure on nearby structures. An aneurysm can also bleed or rupture, causing a hemorrhage in the brain. Sometimes an aneurysm can be surgically repaired before it ruptures, preventing serious consequences.
• Dementia : Degenerative disease of the regions in the brain that control memory and behavior can cause a loss of independence. This can occur in several conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease , Lewy body dementia, Pick’s disease, and vascular dementia (caused by having many small strokes).
• Multiple sclerosis (MS) : This is a condition characterized by demyelination (loss of the protective fatty coating around nerves) in the brain and spine. MS can cause a variety of effects, such as vision loss, muscle weakness, and sensory changes. The disease course can be characterized by exacerbations and remissions, a progressive decline, or a combination of these processes.
• Parkinson’s disease : This condition is a progressive movement disorder that causes tremors of the body (especially the arms), stiffness of movements, and a slow, shuffling pattern of walking. There are treatments for this condition, but it is not curable.
• Epilepsy : Recurrent seizures can occur due to brain damage or congenital (from birth) epilepsy. These episodes may involve involuntary movements, diminished consciousness, or both. Seizures usually last for a few seconds at a time, but prolonged seizures (status epilepticus) can occur as well. Anti-epileptic medications can help prevent seizures, and some emergency anti-epileptic medications can be used to stop a seizure while it is happening.
• Meningitis or encephalitis : An infection or inflammation of the meninges (meningitis) or the brain (encephalitis) can cause symptoms such as fever, stiff neck, headache, or seizures. With treatment, meningitis usually improves without lasting effects, but encephalitis can cause brain damage, with long-term neurological impairment.
• Brain tumors : A primary brain tumor starts in the brain, and brain tumors from the body can metastasize (spread) to the brain as well. These tumors can cause symptoms that correlate to the affected area of the brain. Brain tumors also may cause swelling in the brain and hydrocephalus (a disruption of the CSF flow in the ventricular system). Treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

If you have a condition that could be affecting your brain, there are a number of complex tests that your medical team may use to identify the problem. Most important, a physical exam and mental status examination can determine whether there is any impairment of brain function and pinpoint the deficits. For example, you may have weakness of one part of the body, vision loss, trouble walking, personality or memory changes, or a combination of these issues. Other signs, such as rash or fever, which are not part of the neurological physical examination, can also help identify systemic issues that could be causing your symptoms.

Diagnostic tests include brain imaging tests such as computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These tests can identify structural and functional abnormalities. And sometimes, tests such as CT angiography (CTA), MRI angiography (MRA), or interventional cerebral angiography are needed to visualize the blood vessels in the brain.

Another test, an evoked potential test, can be used to identify hearing or vision problems in some circumstances. And a lumbar puncture may be used to evaluate the CSF surrounding the brain. This test can detect evidence of infection, inflammation, or cancer. Rarely, a brain biopsy is used to sample a tiny area of the brain to assess the abnormalities.

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Talo M, Yildirim O, Baloglu UB, Aydin G, Acharya UR. Convolutional neural networks for multi-class brain disease detection using MRI images . Comput Med Imaging Graph . 2019;10:101673. doi:10.1016/j.compmedimag.2019.101673

By Heidi Moawad, MD Dr. Moawad is a neurologist and expert in brain health. She regularly writes and edits health content for medical books and publications.

Frontal Lobe: What It Is, Function, Location & Damage

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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The frontal lobe is the brain’s largest region, located behind the forehead, at the front of the brain. These lobes are part of the cerebral cortex and are the largest brain structure.

The frontal lobe’s main functions are typically associated with ‘higher’ cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, thought, and attention .

It contains the motor cortex , which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s Area , which is essential for language production.

Frontal Lobe Functions

Below is a list of some of the associated functions of the frontal lobe:

Executive processes (capacity to plan, organize, initiate, and self-monitor) Voluntary behavior Problem-solving Voluntary motor control Intelligence Language processing Language comprehension Self-control Emotional control

The frontal lobes are believed to be our behavior and emotional control centers, meaning that this area is activated when needing to control our behaviors to be socially appropriate and to control our emotional responses, especially in social situations.

Moreover, the frontal lobes are thought to be the home of our personalities.

Alike to most lobes in the brain, there are two frontal lobes located in the left and right hemispheres.

Each lobe controls the operations on opposite sides of the body: the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa.

It is believed the left frontal lobe is the most dominant lobe and works predominantly with language, logical thinking, and analytical reasoning.

The right frontal lobe, on the other hand, is most associated with non-verbal abilities, creativity, imagination, and musical and art skills.

The frontal lobe, like other structures of the brain, does not always work in isolation from each other. The frontal lobes work alongside other brain regions in order to control a variety of functions.

Substructures

The frontal lobe contains the motor cortex , which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and Broca’s area, which is essential for language production.

Prefrontal Cortex

The prefrontal cortex is primarily responsible for the ‘higher’ brain functions of the frontal lobes, including decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and emotion regulation.

This area has also been found to be associated with the social skills and personality of humans.

This idea is supported by the famous case study of Phineas Gage , whose personality changed after losing a part of his prefrontal cortex after an iron rod impaled his head.

The frontal cortex has also been shown to be activated when an experience becomes conscious. Different ideas and perceptions are bound together in this region, both of which are necessary for conscious experience.  Concluding that this area may be especially important for consciousness.

Cognitive disorders that have been shown to be linked to this region are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ), Autism, bipolar disorder, depression , and schizophrenia.

The prefrontal cortex can be further divided into the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex.

Motor and Premotor Cortex

The motor cortex is critical for initiating motor movements, as well as coordinating motor movements, hence why it is called the motor cortex.

Each area of the motor cortex corresponds precisely with specific body parts. For instance, there is an area that controls the left and the right foot.

The premotor cortex is associated with planning and executing motor movements. Within this area, voluntary movement is rehearsed, distinguishing these movements from unconscious reactions.

The premotor cortex has also been shown to be important for imitation learning through the use of mirror neurons.  These neurons essentially allow us to reflect the body language, facial expressions, and emotions of others.

Furthermore, the prefrontal cortex can support cognitive functions of a social kind, such as showing empathy.

Broca’s Area

Another region of the frontal lobes worth mentioning is Broca’s area . This region is located in the dominant hemisphere of the frontal lobes, which is the left side for around 97% of humans.

This region is associated with the production of speech and written language, as well as with the processing and comprehension of language.

The name is taken from the French scientist Paul Broca, whose work with language-impaired patients led him to conclude that we speak with our left brains.

Language differences in those with Autism may be correlated to differences in the structure and function of Broca’s area (Bauman & Kemper, 2005).

As the frontal lobes are situated at the front of the brain and are large in size, this makes them more susceptible to damage. This area is the most common for traumatic brain injuries, with damage to this region causing a variety of symptoms.

Below is a list of symptoms that may occur if an individual has experienced damage within their frontal lobe:

• Changes in mood
• Attention deficits
• Atypical social skills
• Difficulty problem-solving
• Lack of impulse control/ risk-taking
• Loss of spontaneity in social interactions
• Reduced motivation
• Impaired judgment
• Reduced creativity

Damage to Broca’s area, in particular, has been shown to affect the ability to speak, understand language, and produce coherent sentences.

One of the most famous case studies associated with frontal lobe damage is the case of Phineas Gage . He was a railway construction worker who suffered an unfortunate accident when a metal rod impaled his brain in the frontal region.

Gage survived this accident but was said to have experienced some personality changes because of the trauma. Before the accident, Gage was described as a ‘well-balanced’ and smart, energetic person.

After his accident, he was described as being childlike in his intellectual capacities and had a loss of social inhibition (behaving in ways that were considered socially inappropriate).

This case study implies that the frontal lobes are essential to our personalities, intelligence, and social skills. As well as trauma to the head is a cause of damage to the frontal lobes, there are many other causes that can lead to damage.

For instance, a brain tumor, stroke, or infection can cause deficits in this lobe. Similarly, conditions such as cerebral palsy, Huntington’s disease, dementia, or other neurodegenerative diseases can lead to associated damage.

If someone is suspected of having frontal lobe damage, there are methods to diagnose this. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerized tomography (CT) scans can detect some differences in the frontal lobes after suffering a stroke or infection, as well as be able to detect dementia.

Also, neuropsychological evaluations can be completed to test for areas such as speech comprehension, social behavior, memory, problem-solving, and impulse control, among others.

One common test to establish frontal lobe damage is the Wisconsin Card Sorting task. Within this task, individuals will be shown cards of varying sorts, such as some having symbols, numbers, different shapes, and colors on them.

They will then be asked to sort the cards by a certain criterion, which will then change throughout the test. Those who have damage to a certain part of the frontal lobes may struggle with this task and will not adjust to new sorting criteria. They will stick with the original criteria (this is called perseveration).

Other tests worth noting as finger tapping tests, to test for motor skill ability, and the Token Test, which tests for language skills.

To be able to treat frontal lobe damage, occupational, speech, and physical therapy can be helpful for rehabilitating these lost or damaged skills.

Finally, a talking therapy called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is common for working on regulating emotions and aiding impulse behaviors.

CBT may not fully treat physical damage to the frontal lobes, but it can help those with impairments cope and manage their symptoms.

Research Studies

• Semmes, Weinstein, Ghent & Teuber (1963) suggested that the frontal lobes played a part in spatial orientation, particularly our body’s orientation in space.
• Eslinger & Grattan (1993) investigated damage to the prefrontal cortex. They suggested that people with damage to this area may not have problems with word comprehension or identifying objects by their names, but if asked to say or write as many words as possible or describe as many uses of an object, they would find this task difficult. This shows that damage to one area associated with language does not impair all aspects of language.
• Kolb & Milner (1981) discussed the involvement of the frontal lobes in facial expressions. They found that patients with frontal lobe damage had difficulty expressing spontaneous facial expressions and would also show fewer facial movements spontaneously.
• Kaufman, Geyer & Milstein (2017) reported that patients who suffered damage to their frontal lobes had changes to their personalities.
• It was found that these patients developed an abrupt, suspicious, and sometimes even argumentative manner.
• Some patients were reported to have displayed ‘emotional incontinence,’ whereby they would have bouts of pathological laughing or crying.
• Walker & Blummer (1975) found that damage to the frontal lobes resulted in displays of abnormal sexual behavior in the orbital region and reduced sexual interest if the dorsolateral region was damaged.
• Stuss et al. (1992) found that damage to certain areas of the frontal lobes resulted in ‘bland’ personalities. These patients also displayed fewer signs of distress in emotionally heightened situations.
• Catani et al. (2016) investigated the brains of people with Autism and found support for the hypothesis that Autism is associated with different connectivity in the frontal lobe region compared with neurotypical individuals.
• Mubarik & Tohid (2016) conducted a literature review of studies that investigated the frontal lobes of those with schizophrenia.
• They found that many people with schizophrenia have differences in the structure of white matter , grey matter , and functional activity in their frontal lobes compared to those without the condition.

Bauman, M. L., & Kemper, T. L. (2005). Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism: a review and future directions. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23 (2-3), 183-187.

Catani, M., Dell’Acqua, F., Budisavljevic, S., Howells, H., Thiebaut de Schotten, M., Froudist-Walsh, S., … & Murphy, D. G. (2016). Frontal networks in adults with autism spectrum disorder. Brain, 139 (2), 616-630.

Eslinger, P. J., & Grattan, L. M. (1993). Frontal lobe and frontal-striatal substrates for different forms of human cognitive flexibility. Neuropsychologia, 31 (1), 17-28.

Kaufman, D. M., Geyer, H. L., & Milstein, M. J. (2017). Chapter 21-neurotransmitters and drug abuse. Kaufman’s Clinical Neurology for Psychiatrists . 8th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 495-517.

Kolb, B., & Milner, B. (1981). Performance of complex arm and facial movements after focal brain lesions. Neuropsychologia, 19( 4), 491-503.

Mubarik, A., & Tohid, H. (2016). Frontal lobe alterations in schizophrenia: a review. Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy , 38(4), 198-206.

Semmes, J., Weinstein, S., GHENT, G., Meyer, J. S., & Teuber, H. L. (1963). Correlates of impaired orientation in personal and extrapersonal space. Brain, 86 (4), 747-772.

Stuss, D. T., Ely, P., Hugenholtz, H., Richard, M. T., LaRochelle, S., Poirier, C. A., & Bell, I. (1985). Subtle neuropsychological deficits in patients with good recovery after closed head injury. Neurosurgery, 17 (1), 41-47.

Walker, A. E., & Blumer, D. (1975). The localization of sex in the brain. In Cerebral localization (pp. 184-199). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

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The Cerebrum: Anatomy, Functions, and Cognitive Significance

The cerebrum, the largest and most prominent part of the human brain, plays a crucial role in numerous essential functions, including voluntary movement, language, sensory perception, and much more. Situated at the front and top of the skull, the term “cerebrum” is derived from the Latin word meaning “brain.” It serves as the cornerstone of our day-to-day activities, enabling us to interact with our environment and define our identities.

• The cerebrum is composed of two hemispheres, the left and the right, linked by the corpus callosum.
• Constituting nearly two-thirds of the brain’s total weight, the cerebrum plays a vital role in cognitive functions.
• One hemisphere, typically the left, exerts functional dominance, controlling language and speech, while the other interprets visual and spatial information.

Cerebral Hemispheres: Gray and White Matter

• The cerebral hemispheres consist of an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner core of myelinated nerve fibers known as white matter.
• The cerebral cortex is responsible for integrating sensory impulses, directing motor activity, and governing higher intellectual functions.
• In humans, the cortex is highly developed, setting the human brain apart from other animals.

Divisions of the Gray Matter: Four Lobes

The cerebral cortex, also called gray matter, forms the outermost layer of the cerebrum. It has an uneven surface with many folds, increasing its surface area. These folds include ridges called gyri and valleys called sulci.

The four major lobes of the cerebral cortex are:

• Frontal Lobe:  Located in front of the central sulcus, the frontal lobe handles reasoning, planning, speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions, and problem-solving.
• Parietal Lobe:  Situated behind the central sulcus, the parietal lobe is responsible for perceiving stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
• Temporal Lobe:  Found below the lateral fissure, the temporal lobe is involved in the perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory.
• Occipital Lobe:  Positioned at the back of the brain, behind the parietal and temporal lobes, the occipital lobe plays a key role in vision.

Each lobe contains various cortical association areas that collate information from different modalities, allowing us to interpret and experience our environment meaningfully.

Cerebral Fissures: Extensive Folding of the Brain

• The cerebrum’s surface is marked by numerous deep grooves called cerebral fissures.
• Key fissures include the lateral fissure, central fissure, calcarine fissure, parieto-occipital fissure, transverse fissure, and the longitudinal fissure.

Corpus Callosum: Integration of Sensory Input

• The corpus callosum, a thick band of white matter, facilitates the integration of sensory input and functional responses from both sides of the body.
• This structure enables seamless communication between the two cerebral hemispheres.

Other Cerebral Structures: Hypothalamus and Thalamus

• The cerebrum houses other critical structures such as the hypothalamus, responsible for controlling metabolism and maintaining homeostasis.
• The thalamus acts as a primary sensory relay center, directing sensory information to the appropriate regions of the cerebral cortex.

Functions of Cerebrum

The cerebrum is responsible for processing sensory information, controlling voluntary movements, regulating emotions, language, and higher cognitive functions such as learning, reasoning, and creativity.

• Processing the Five Senses: The cerebrum manages and processes sensory information from sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, allowing us to perceive and interact with the world around us.
• Language Skills: Different parts of the cerebrum control our ability to read, write, speak, and comprehend language, enabling effective communication.
• Working Memory: The cerebrum plays a role in short-term memory, allowing us to hold and manipulate information for tasks like making grocery lists or remembering appointments.
• Behavior and Personality Management: The frontal lobe, a part of the cerebrum, regulates our behavior and personality, acting as a filter to prevent impulsive actions or speech we may regret later.
• Muscle Movement: Specific areas of the cerebrum send signals to control our muscles, enabling us to perform voluntary movements like walking, talking, or using our hands.
• Learning, Logic, and Reasoning: Different areas of the cerebrum collaborate when we learn new skills, plan actions, or solve problems, contributing to our cognitive abilities.
• Sensory Processing: The cerebrum is responsible for processing sensory information, allowing us to interpret and understand the physical world around us.
• Emotional Control: It plays a role in regulating emotions, helping us manage our feelings and reactions to different situations.
• Spatial Orientation: The cerebrum aids in perceiving and understanding spatial information, helping us navigate and interact with our environment effectively.
• Higher Thought Processes: The cerebrum is essential for cognitive functions, imagination, creativity, and higher-level thinking, shaping our intellectual abilities.

The cerebrum’s functional distribution is based on its four major lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Each lobe controls specific processes and contributes to our overall cognitive capabilities:

Frontal Lobe:

• Speech control
• Behavior and personality regulation
• Emotional processing
• Body movement coordination
• Intelligence and self-awareness

Parietal Lobe:

• Language and symbol use
• Visual perception
• Sense of touch, pressure, and pain
• Interpretation of sensory information

Temporal Lobe:

• Memory storage and retrieval
• Hearing and language comprehension
• Organization and pattern recognition

Occipital Lobe:

• Visual processing, including light, color, and movement
• Spatial orientation awareness

The cerebrum’s intricate functions underscore its critical role in controlling voluntary actions, sensory processing, emotional regulation, cognitive abilities, and higher-level thinking. Its interplay between different areas and lobes allows us to experience and engage with the world in a conscious and meaningful manner.

Questions and Answers on Cerebrum

What is the cerebrum .

A: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions.

How many hemispheres does the cerebrum have? 

A: The cerebrum has two hemispheres, the left and the right.

What connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum? 

A: The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.

What is the function of the frontal lobe in the cerebrum?

A: The frontal lobe controls speech, behavior, personality, emotions, and body movement.

What are the major functions of the cerebrum? 

A: The cerebrum handles senses, language, movement, learning, reasoning, and problem-solving.

Which lobe is responsible for visual perception in the cerebrum? 

A: The occipital lobe is responsible for visual perception.

What does the parietal lobe control in the cerebrum? 

A: The parietal lobe controls language, touch, pressure, and visual perception.

What are the functions of the temporal lobe in the cerebrum? 

A: The temporal lobe is involved in memory, hearing, language comprehension, and patterns.

What does the cerebrum control in the body? 

A: The cerebrum controls sensory processing, emotional control , motor function, and learning.

How does the cerebrum affect intelligence and creativity? 

A: The cerebrum plays a crucial role in determining intelligence and supporting creative thinking.

• Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2016). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain (4th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
• Carlson, N. R. (2017). Physiology of Behavior (12th ed.). Pearson.
• Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2015). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (7th ed.). Worth Publishers.
• Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Hall, W. C., LaMantia, A. S., McNamara, J. O., & White, L. E. (Eds.). (2018). Neuroscience (6th ed.). Sinauer Associates.
• Herculano-Houzel, S. (2012). The human brain in numbers: A linearly scaled-up primate brain. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1-11. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00031
• Nolte, J. (2019). The Human Brain: An Introduction to its Functional Anatomy (8th ed.). Elsevier.
• Vanderah, T. W. (Ed.). (2017). Neuroscience for Rehabilitation (4th ed.). Elsevier.
• Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (2018). Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind (5th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.
• Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., Jessell, T. M., Siegelbaum, S. A., & Hudspeth, A. J. (Eds.). (2013). Principles of Neural Science (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
• Martin, J. H. (2019). Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

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The Four Cerebral Cortex Lobes of the Brain

• Cell Biology
• Weather & Climate
• B.A., Biology, Emory University
• A.S., Nursing, Chattahoochee Technical College

The cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often referred to as gray matter. The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The cortex covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum and cerebellum .

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes. Each of these lobes is found in both the right and left hemispheres of the brain. The cortex encompasses about two-thirds of the brain mass and lies over and around most of the structures of the brain. It is the most highly developed part of the human brain and is responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. The cerebral cortex is also the most recent structure in the history of brain evolution.

Cerebral Cortex Lobes Function

Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is located in the division of the brain known as the forebrain. It is divided into four lobes that each have a specific function. For example, there are specific areas involved in movement and sensory processes (vision, hearing, somatosensory perception (touch), and olfaction). Other areas are critical for thinking and reasoning. Although many functions, such as touch perception, are found in both the right and left cerebral hemispheres, some functions are found in only one cerebral hemisphere. For example, in most people, language processing abilities are found in the left hemisphere.

Four Cerebral Cortex Lobes

• Parietal Lobes : These lobes are positioned posteriorly to the frontal lobes and above the occipital lobes. They are involved in receiving and processing of sensory information. The somatosensory cortex is found within the parietal lobes and is essential for processing touch sensations.
• Frontal Lobes : These lobes are positioned at the front-most region of the cerebral cortex. They are involved with movement, decision-making, problem-solving, and planning. The right frontal lobe controls activity on the left side of the body and the left frontal lobe controls activity on the right side.
• Occipital Lobes : Located just below the parietal lobes, the occipital lobes are the main center for visual processing. The visual information is sent to the parietal lobes and temporal lobes for further processing.
• Temporal Lobes : These lobes are located directly below the frontal and parietal lobes. They are involved with memory, emotion, hearing, and language. Structures of the limbic system , including the olfactory cortex , amygdala , and the hippocampus are located within the temporal lobes.

In summary, the cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes that are responsible for processing and interpreting input from various sources and maintaining cognitive function. Sensory functions interpreted by the cerebral cortex include hearing, touch, and vision. Cognitive functions include thinking, perceiving, and understanding language.

Divisions of the Brain

• Forebrain - encompasses the cerebral cortex and brain lobes.
• Midbrain - connects the forebrain to the hindbrain.
• Hindbrain - regulates autonomic functions and coordinates movement.
• What Does the Brain's Cerebral Cortex Do?
• Parietal Lobes of the Brain
• Anatomy of the Brain: Your Cerebrum
• Gyri and Sulci of the Brain
• Anatomy of the Brain
• Divisions of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain
• Frontal Lobes: Movement and Cognition
• Temporal Lobes
• Occipital Lobes and Visual Perception
• Functions of the Central Nervous System
• Corpus Callosum and Brain Function
• White Matter and Your Brain
• Get a Description and Diagram of Thalamus Gray Matter
• Discover the Mysteries of Broca's Area and Speech
• Wernicke's Area in the Brain
• Basal Ganglia Function

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September 9, 2021

How the brain solves problems

by Delia Du Toit, Wits University

In trying to think of an introduction for this article it occurred to me that had I been inside an MRI, the screen would have showed several brain regions lighting up like Times Square as my mind was attempting to solve the problem.

First, the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and thalamus would recognize that the blank page meant that there was a problem that needed to be solved. The thought that the editor might not favor this first-person account in a science article would send the limbic system , the primal part of the brain where emotions are processed, into overdrive. The amygdala, that little almond-shaped nugget at the base of the brain, would look like a Christmas tree as anxiety ticked up.

Finally, as words started filling the screen, the prefrontal cortex behind the forehead would flicker and flash. The hippocampus would access memories of previous similar articles, the information-gathering process and even school-level English classes decades ago, to help the process along. And all this activity would happen at once.

Holistic problem solving

Depending on the problem in front of you, the entire brain could be involved in trying to find a solution, says Professor Kate Cockcroft, Division Leader of cognitive neuroscience at the Neuroscience Research Laboratory (Wits NeuRL) in the School of Human and Community Development.

"You would use many different brain regions to solve a problem, especially a novel or difficult one. The idea of processes being localized in one or two parts of the brain has been replaced with newer evidence that it is the connections among brain areas and their interaction that is important in cognitive processes . Some areas may be more activated with certain problems—a visual problem would activate the visual cortices, for example.

"All this activity takes place as electrochemical signals. The signals form within neurons, pass along the branch-like axons and jump from one neuron to the next across gaps called synapses, with the help of neurotransmitter chemicals. The pattern, size, shape and number of these signals, what they communicate with, and the region of the brain in which they happen, determine what they achieve."

Although problem solving is a metacognitive—"thinking about thinking"—process, that does not make it solely the domain of the highly evolved human prefrontal cortex , adds Dr. Sahba Besharati, Division Leader of social-affective neuroscience at NeuRL.

"This is the most recently evolved part of the human brain, but problem solving does not happen in isolation—it's immersed in a social context that influences how we interpret information. Your background, gender, religion or emotions, among other factors, all influence how you interpret a problem. This means that it would involve other brain areas like the limbic system, one of the oldest brain systems housed deep within the cortex," says Besharati.

"Problem-solving abilities are not a human peculiarity. Some animals are even better than us at solving certain problems, but we all share basic problem-solving skills—if there's danger, leave; if you're hungry, find food."

None of this would be possible without memory either, says Cockcroft. "Without it, we would forget what it is that we are trying to solve and we wouldn't be able to use past experiences to help us solve it."

And memory is, again, linked to emotion. "We use this information to increase the likelihood of positive results when solving new problems," she says.

Improving your skills

It has been proven time and again that just about any brain process can be improved—including problem-solving abilities. "Brain plasticity is a real thing—the brain can reorganize itself with targeted intervention," says Besharati. "Rehabilitation from neurological injury is a dynamic process and an ever-improving science that has allowed us to understand how the brain can change and adapt in response to the environment. Studies have also shown that simple memorisation exercises can assist tremendously in retaining cognitive skills in old age."

Of course, all these processes depend on your brain recognizing that there's a problem to be dealt with in the first place—if you don't realize you're spending money foolishly, you can't improve your finances. "Recognition of a problem can happen at both a conscious and unconscious level. Stroke patients who are not aware of their motor paralysis, for example, deludedly don't believe that they are paralyzed and will sometimes not engage in rehabilitation. But their delusions often spontaneously recover, suggesting recognition at an unconscious level and that, over time, the brain can restore function."

If all else fails, there might be some value to the adage "sleep on it," says Cockcroft. "Sleep is believed to assist memory consolidation—changing memories from a fragile state in which they can easily be damaged to a permanent state. In doing so, they become stored in different brain regions and new neural connections are formed that may assist problem solving. On waking, you may have formed associations between information that you didn't think of previously. This seems to be most effective within three hours of learning new information—perhaps we should institute compulsory naps for students after lectures!"

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Anatomy of the brain, what is the central nervous system (cns).

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and every process that regulates our body. The brain determines your personality and how you interact with the environment, including other people. This defines who you are.

What are the different parts of the brain?

The brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum:

Cerebrum. This is the front of the brain. It is made up of the right and left hemispheres, which are joined by the corpus callosum. The cerebrum controls: initiation of movement, coordination of movement, temperature, touch, vision, hearing, judgment, reasoning, problem solving, emotions, and learning. The cerebrum is responsible for communication (speaking and writing), memory, abstract thought, and appreciation for music and art.

Brainstem. This is the middle of the brain. It includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla. The brainstem controls movement of the eyes, face, and mouth. It also relays sensory messages (such as hot, pain, and loud) and controls respirations, consciousness, cardiac function, involuntary muscle movements, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.

Cerebellum. This is the back of the brain. It coordinates voluntary muscle movements and helps to maintain posture, balance, and equilibrium.

More specifically, other parts of the brain include the following:

Pons. A deep part of the brain, located in the brainstem, the pons contains many of the control areas for eye and face movements.

Medulla. The lowest part of the brainstem, the medulla is the most vital part of the entire brain and contains important control centers for the heart and lungs.

Spinal cord. A large bundle of nerve fibers located in the back that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Frontal lobe. The largest section of the brain located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics and movement. Recognition of smell often involves parts of the frontal lobe.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person to identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared to objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body.

Occipital lobe. This is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, these temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm, and some degree of smell recognition. The temporal lobes are also important in understanding sound and voice.

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Disorder: something that is not in order. Not arranged correctly. In medicine a disorder is when something in the body is not working correctly.

Electroencephalogram: visual recording showing the electrical activity of the brain (EEG)...  more

Emotion: any of a long list of feelings a person can have such as joy, anger and love...  more

What Are the Regions of the Brain and What Do They Do?

The brain has many different parts . The brain also has specific areas that do certain types of work. These areas are called lobes. One lobe works with your eyes when watching a movie. There is a lobe that is controlling your legs and arms when running and kicking a soccer ball. There are two lobes that are involved with reading and writing. Your memories of a favorite event are kept by the same lobe that helps you on a math test. The brain is controlling all of these things and a lot more. Use the map below to take a tour of the regions in the brain and learn what they control in your body.

The brain is a very busy organ. It is the control center for the body. It runs your organs such as your heart and lungs. It is also busy working with other parts of your body. All of your senses  –  sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste  –  depend on your brain. Tasting food with the sensors on your tongue is only possible if the signals from your taste buds are sent to the brain. Once in the brain, the signals are decoded. The sweet flavor of an orange is only sweet if the brain tells you it is.

Brain Waves

How do you tell if the brain is working? What is it doing and how do you measure it? The head gear on the right that looks like it's from a work of science fiction measures electrical activity in the brain. These electrical waves are called brain waves.

When neurons send a signal they use electrical currents to pass messages to other nearby neurons. Just one or two neurons signaling is too small a change to be noticed. When a huge group of neurons signal at once, however, they can be recorded and measured with the help of special tools.

Measuring electrical activity in the brain is usually done with electrodes. Electrodes are devices able to record electrical changes over time. These are attached to the surface of the skin in specific places around the head. Recordings of brain wave activity look like a series of waves. These are called electroencephalograms, or EEGs for short.

Measuring activity in the brain can be a very useful tool in scientific studies. They can also be used to help identify sleeping disorders and other medical conditions relating to the brain.

The first human electroencephalogram, recorded in 1924 by Hans Berger.

Computer animation credit: BodyParts3D, Copyright© 2010 The Database Center for Life Science licensed under CC Attribution-Share Alike 2.1 Japan.

Read more about: A Nervous Journey

View citation, bibliographic details:.

• Article: What's Your Brain Doing?
• Author(s): Brett Szymik
• Publisher: Arizona State University School of Life Sciences Ask A Biologist
• Site name: ASU - Ask A Biologist
• Date published: May 9, 2011
• Date accessed: June 3, 2024
• Link: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/brain-regions

Brett Szymik. (2011, May 09). What's Your Brain Doing?. ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved June 3, 2024 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/brain-regions

Chicago Manual of Style

Brett Szymik. "What's Your Brain Doing?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 09 May, 2011. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/brain-regions

MLA 2017 Style

Brett Szymik. "What's Your Brain Doing?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 09 May 2011. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 3 Jun 2024. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/brain-regions

Computer animation image of the human brain. The colors show the frontal lobe (red), parietal lobe (orange), temporal lobe (green), and occipital lobe (yellow).

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What Is Cognitive Psychology?

The Science of How We Think

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Topics in Cognitive Psychology

• Current Research
• Cognitive Approach in Practice

Careers in Cognitive Psychology

How cognitive psychology differs from other branches of psychology, frequently asked questions.

Cognitive psychology involves the study of internal mental processes—all of the workings inside your brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and learning.

Cognitive psychology--the study of how people think and process information--helps researchers understand the human brain. It also allows psychologists to help people deal with psychological difficulties.

This article discusses what cognitive psychology is, the history of this field, and current directions for research. It also covers some of the practical applications for cognitive psychology research and related career options you might consider.

Findings from cognitive psychology help us understand how people think, including how they acquire and store memories. By knowing more about how these processes work, psychologists can develop new ways of helping people with cognitive problems.

Cognitive psychologists explore a wide variety of topics related to thinking processes. Some of these include: 

• Attention --our ability to process information in the environment while tuning out irrelevant details
• Choice-based behavior --actions driven by a choice among other possibilities
• Decision-making
• Information processing
• Language acquisition --how we learn to read, write, and express ourselves
• Problem-solving
• Speech perception -how we process what others are saying
• Visual perception --how we see the physical world around us

History of Cognitive Psychology

Although it is a relatively young branch of psychology , it has quickly grown to become one of the most popular subfields. Cognitive psychology grew into prominence between the 1950s and 1970s.

Prior to this time, behaviorism was the dominant perspective in psychology. This theory holds that we learn all our behaviors from interacting with our environment. It focuses strictly on observable behavior, not thought and emotion. Then, researchers became more interested in the internal processes that affect behavior instead of just the behavior itself. 

This shift is often referred to as the cognitive revolution in psychology. During this time, a great deal of research on topics including memory, attention, and language acquisition began to emerge. 

In 1967, the psychologist Ulric Neisser introduced the term cognitive psychology, which he defined as the study of the processes behind the perception, transformation, storage, and recovery of information.

Cognitive psychology became more prominent after the 1950s as a result of the cognitive revolution.

Current Research in Cognitive Psychology

The field of cognitive psychology is both broad and diverse. It touches on many aspects of daily life. There are numerous practical applications for this research, such as providing help coping with memory disorders, making better decisions , recovering from brain injury, treating learning disorders, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.

Current research on cognitive psychology helps play a role in how professionals approach the treatment of mental illness, traumatic brain injury, and degenerative brain diseases.

Thanks to the work of cognitive psychologists, we can better pinpoint ways to measure human intellectual abilities, develop new strategies to combat memory problems, and decode the workings of the human brain—all of which ultimately have a powerful impact on how we treat cognitive disorders.

The field of cognitive psychology is a rapidly growing area that continues to add to our understanding of the many influences that mental processes have on our health and daily lives.

From understanding how cognitive processes change as a child develops to looking at how the brain transforms sensory inputs into perceptions, cognitive psychology has helped us gain a deeper and richer understanding of the many mental events that contribute to our daily existence and overall well-being.

The Cognitive Approach in Practice

In addition to adding to our understanding of how the human mind works, the field of cognitive psychology has also had an impact on approaches to mental health. Before the 1970s, many mental health treatments were focused more on psychoanalytic , behavioral , and humanistic approaches.

The so-called "cognitive revolution" put a greater emphasis on understanding the way people process information and how thinking patterns might contribute to psychological distress. Thanks to research in this area, new approaches to treatment were developed to help treat depression, anxiety, phobias, and other psychological disorders .

Cognitive behavioral therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy are two methods in which clients and therapists focus on the underlying cognitions, or thoughts, that contribute to psychological distress.

What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an approach that helps clients identify irrational beliefs and other cognitive distortions that are in conflict with reality and then aid them in replacing such thoughts with more realistic, healthy beliefs.

If you are experiencing symptoms of a psychological disorder that would benefit from the use of cognitive approaches, you might see a psychologist who has specific training in these cognitive treatment methods.

These professionals frequently go by titles other than cognitive psychologists, such as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists , or counseling psychologists , but many of the strategies they use are rooted in the cognitive tradition.

Many cognitive psychologists specialize in research with universities or government agencies. Others take a clinical focus and work directly with people who are experiencing challenges related to mental processes. They work in hospitals, mental health clinics, and private practices.

Research psychologists in this area often concentrate on a particular topic, such as memory. Others work directly on health concerns related to cognition, such as degenerative brain disorders and brain injuries.

Treatments rooted in cognitive research focus on helping people replace negative thought patterns with more positive, realistic ones. With the help of cognitive psychologists, people are often able to find ways to cope and even overcome such difficulties.

Reasons to Consult a Cognitive Psychologist

• Alzheimer's disease, dementia, or memory loss
• Brain trauma treatment
• Cognitive therapy for a mental health condition
• Interventions for learning disabilities
• Perceptual or sensory issues
• Therapy for a speech or language disorder

Whereas behavioral and some other realms of psychology focus on actions--which are external and observable--cognitive psychology is instead concerned with the thought processes behind the behavior. Cognitive psychologists see the mind as if it were a computer, taking in and processing information, and seek to understand the various factors involved.

A Word From Verywell

Cognitive psychology plays an important role in understanding the processes of memory, attention, and learning. It can also provide insights into cognitive conditions that may affect how people function.

Being diagnosed with a brain or cognitive health problem can be daunting, but it is important to remember that you are not alone. Together with a healthcare provider, you can come up with an effective treatment plan to help address brain health and cognitive problems.

Your treatment may involve consulting with a cognitive psychologist who has a background in the specific area of concern that you are facing, or you may be referred to another mental health professional that has training and experience with your particular condition.

Ulric Neisser is considered the founder of cognitive psychology. He was the first to introduce the term and to define the field of cognitive psychology. His primary interests were in the areas of perception and memory, but he suggested that all aspects of human thought and behavior were relevant to the study of cognition.

A cognitive map refers to a mental representation of an environment. Such maps can be formed through observation as well as through trial and error. These cognitive maps allow people to orient themselves in their environment.

While they share some similarities, there are some important differences between cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology. While cognitive psychology focuses on thinking processes, cognitive neuroscience is focused on finding connections between thinking and specific brain activity. Cognitive neuroscience also looks at the underlying biology that influences how information is processed.

Cognitive psychology is a form of experimental psychology. Cognitive psychologists use experimental methods to study the internal mental processes that play a role in behavior.

Sternberg RJ, Sternberg K. Cognitive Psychology . Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. 

Krapfl JE. Behaviorism and society . Behav Anal. 2016;39(1):123-9. doi:10.1007/s40614-016-0063-8

Cutting JE. Ulric Neisser (1928-2012) . Am Psychol . 2012;67(6):492. doi:10.1037/a0029351

Ruggiero GM, Spada MM, Caselli G, Sassaroli S. A historical and theoretical review of cognitive behavioral therapies: from structural self-knowledge to functional processes .  J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther . 2018;36(4):378-403. doi:10.1007/s10942-018-0292-8

Parvin P. Ulric Neisser, cognitive psychology pioneer, dies . Emory News Center.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Cognitive map . American Psychological Association.

Forstmann BU, Wagenmakers EJ, Eichele T, Brown S, Serences JT. Reciprocal relations between cognitive neuroscience and formal cognitive models: opposites attract? . Trends Cogn Sci . 2011;15(6):272-279. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.002

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Which Part of the Brain is Related to Critical Thinking?

The brain is a complex organ divided into many, many different regions and subregions. While we are far from understanding the brain’s functions completely, we do know that some regions are responsible, or at least primarily responsible, for certain things.

The region responsible for critical thinking is known as the prefrontal cortex, often abbreviated as PFC.  Let’s delve into what that means.

A Little Anatomy: Regions of The Brain

The brain is divided into four lobes: The frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. It is important to remember that the brain consists of a left and right side, or hemisphere, so there is a left and right temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and so on.

• Frontal lobe: This lobe is located at the front of the brain, hence the name “frontal”. You can imagine it as being just behind your forehead.
• Temporal lobe: This lobe is located on the sides of the brain, behind your ears.
• Parietal lobe: The parietal lobes are found above the temporal lobes and slightly behind them. Imagine them as above your ears and towards the back of your head.
• Occipital lobe: This lobe is located at the back of the head.

Functions of The Brain’s Regions

The big divisions of the brain into lobes contain a lot of different structures, each with their own names. The important one for now is the PFC, which is located in the very anterior (or forward-facing) portion of the frontal lobe. As a whole, the frontal lobe is responsible for higher-order cognition, including critical thinking, responding appropriately in social situations, and so much more.

Critical thinking is a common way of referring to what is formally called executive function in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. So if you were to try to find information about the role of the PFC in critical thinking, you might have an easier time if you searched for the role of the PFC in executive function.

But how do we know the PFC is responsible for critical thinking?

Learning About The Brain’s Functions

There are a few ways scientists can determine which areas of the brain control what functions. One way is to conduct a research study by which participants complete various tasks while undergoing brain imaging. The imaging can show which regions were most active while the participant performed certain tasks.

For example, one region might be much more active than another when performing a memory test, while another might be more active when engaging in reading comprehension. These patterns of activity hint at possible roles in the brain for these activities.

Another way is to conduct similar tests for people who have suffered brain damage. This damage might be from a stroke, brain tumor, trauma, or other injury. It could even be due to prior brain surgery that required removing a certain part of the brain.

If research participants with brain damage contained to a specific area are unable to perform tasks that those with intact brains can perform, then we can reason the said area is important for that task. For example, studies point to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex as being responsible for general executive functioning. Dorsolateral (dorsal = toward the back, lateral = toward the side) is a directional term meant to describe where the region is located, and such terms are commonly used in science and medicine when describing anatomy.

This also means the PFC is not simply the PFC, but it is further divided into subregions that appear to have specific functions. For example, while the dorsolateral PFC, also abbreviated as the dlPFC, is involved in executive function generally, which includes critical thinking, the ventromedial (ventral = toward the front, medial = toward the middle) PFC, or vmPFC appears to be involved in social and emotional aspects of executive function.

In other words, critical thinking is not really a single activity. It can be about choosing an appropriate response in a social scenario just as much as it can be about taking a math test and using reasoning to determine the best way to solve an equation.

Translational Research

As stated above, a good way to learn more about the brain’s functions is to examine individuals who have brain damage. If the damage leads to impairments, we can speculate the damaged area, or areas, are involved in the impairment.

Of course, this type of research in humans requires seeking out and recruiting people who have suffered such injuries, which can be difficult. One way around this is to conduct translational research.

Translational research is research done on non-humans that are meant to apply to, or translate to, human beings, at least somewhat. Mice and rats are often used for this type of research, but other non-human animals can be and are used as well.

While there are obvious differences in size and complexity between a rat’s brain versus a human’s brain, it is still a worthwhile field of study because we can learn more about the various roles of the brain’s subregions and how they are being destroyed or disabled changes things.

So the prefrontal cortex, or PFC, is responsible for critical thinking . The PFC is a portion of the frontal lobe, which is located in the furthest frontal region of the brain (behind your forehead). Critical thinking is often referred to as executive function in academic and scientific communities, so when you see executive function, remember this is a more formal term referring to critical thinking .

There are plenty of research studies on executive functioning that combine cognitive tasks with brain imaging to narrow down which regions are most active during a given task. These studies, especially in people who have suffered damage to their PFC, have shown us that the  PFC plays a primary role in critical thinking because when the PFC is damaged, executive functioning diminishes greatly or is absent completely.

Research on both humans and non-human animals has been done, and all point to the importance of the PFC in critical thinking.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4176938/pdf/nihms629074.pdf

https://www.edutopia.org/blog/understanding-how-the-brain-thinks-judy-willis-md#:~:text=The%20Prefrontal%20Cortex%3A%20Home%20to,%2C%20emotional%20responses%2C%20and%20behavior.

https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

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Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, what is critical thinking, critical thinking and decision-making what is critical thinking.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: What is Critical Thinking?

Lesson 1: what is critical thinking, what is critical thinking.

Critical thinking is a term that gets thrown around a lot. You've probably heard it used often throughout the years whether it was in school, at work, or in everyday conversation. But when you stop to think about it, what exactly is critical thinking and how do you do it ?

Watch the video below to learn more about critical thinking.

Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions . It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better.

This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical thinking is a broad skill that can be applied to so many different situations. You can use it to prepare for a job interview, manage your time better, make decisions about purchasing things, and so much more.

The process

As humans, we are constantly thinking . It's something we can't turn off. But not all of it is critical thinking. No one thinks critically 100% of the time... that would be pretty exhausting! Instead, it's an intentional process , something that we consciously use when we're presented with difficult problems or important decisions.

Improving your critical thinking

In order to become a better critical thinker, it's important to ask questions when you're presented with a problem or decision, before jumping to any conclusions. You can start with simple ones like What do I currently know? and How do I know this? These can help to give you a better idea of what you're working with and, in some cases, simplify more complex issues.  

Real-world applications

Let's take a look at how we can use critical thinking to evaluate online information . Say a friend of yours posts a news article on social media and you're drawn to its headline. If you were to use your everyday automatic thinking, you might accept it as fact and move on. But if you were thinking critically, you would first analyze the available information and ask some questions :

• What's the source of this article?
• Is the headline potentially misleading?
• What are my friend's general beliefs?
• Do their beliefs inform why they might have shared this?

After analyzing all of this information, you can draw a conclusion about whether or not you think the article is trustworthy.

Critical thinking has a wide range of real-world applications . It can help you to make better decisions, become more hireable, and generally better understand the world around you.

/en/problem-solving-and-decision-making/why-is-it-so-hard-to-make-decisions/content/

What Part of the Brain Controls Thinking? Here’s How It Affects You

• May 29, 2023

With more than 86 billion functional neurons, the brain is the most complex organ in the human body that deals with thinking. It controls everything it does and thinks.

In other words, it’s the “boss of your body.” So, many people wonder, “What part of the brain controls thinking?”

The thing is, this particular organ plays such a crucial role in our whole system. It develops functions for the five senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and hearing. And it helps primary functions such as breathing, talking, storing memories, and thinking.

It’s our most precious gift, according to Jim Kwik , international brain coach and trainer of Mindvalley’s Superbrain Quest. Why? Simply because it’s what “ allows us to learn, love, think, create, and even to experience joy. ”

Not only that, it’s “ the gateway to our emotions, to our capacity for deeply experiencing life, to our ability to have lasting intimacy ,” as well as helping us innovate, grow, and accomplish. 

Which Part of the Brain Controls Thinking?

The brain consists of three main parts:

• The cerebrum. It’s the outer part of the brain, which consists of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
• The cerebellum. It’s located at the bottom of the brain, near the back of your head.  
• The brain stem. This third part is located beneath the cerebrum and in front of the cerebellum in the brain stem.

These three parts control processes in the body, including movement, memory, and thinking.

The role of the cerebrum

The cerebrum makes up more than 85% of the brain’s weight. It’s the part of the brain that controls daily activities such as reading, learning, and speech. It also assists planned muscle movements such as walking, running, and body movement.

The cerebrum is the thinking part of the brain. It helps you play chess, solve a crossword puzzle, or figure out your next move in a complex video game.

The cerebrum has two hemispheres—the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. 

The two hemispheres have four sections called lobes—frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. Each of these lobes controls specific aspects of the thinking process.

The role of the cerebellum

If the brain is a super-efficient, bustling office complex, the cerebellum is the office’s facilities manager, maintaining the heartbeat of operations.

It works behind the scenes, taking care of fine motor movements, balance, and coordination. You know, the day-to-day tasks, like making sure you can navigate through your house without bumping into furniture or helping you catch a football mid-air on a Sunday afternoon.

Although it isn’t directly involved in thinking, the cerebellum plays an important role in this process. This part of the brain takes up to 10% of its total volume yet contains more than half of all the neurons in the brain.

Scientists have discovered that the “unconscious” cerebellum interacts with the “conscious” cerebrum to perform functions. The cerebellum carries out planned muscle movements such as running and jumping. That’s why sometimes scientists call it the “thinking cerebellum.”

Research nowadays suggests that the cerebellum is a key player in predicting our emotional reactions. The study found that “the cerebellum, which was initially considered to be mainly involved in motor coordination and execution, is now recognized as an associative center for higher cognitive and emotional functions even in the developing brain.”

The brainstem

Tucked away at the base of our brain is the brainstem. It connects the brain to the spinal cord and holds the reins of many automatic, essential bodily functions.

Here’s one way to look at it: Imagine your body as a busy city. The brainstem, then, would be akin to its efficient and diligent city hall, managing essential services like heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. 

These are our body’s critical life-support systems, running constantly in the background, much like a city’s water and power supply.

The brainstem also acts as a vital communication highway, ferrying messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It’s a bit like the city’s central post office, handling the constant flow of information to and from various parts of the body.

Within its compact structure, the brainstem houses numerous nuclei involved in different functions and relaying sensory information. It’s also where cranial nerves originate, controlling functions from eye movement to facial sensations and movements.

Other Brain Regions You Should Know About

Different brain activities are linked to different parts of the brain. Here are a few of the main ones explained:

Which part of the brain controls critical thinking?

When it comes to which part of the brain controls critical thinking and intelligence, we have to consider that the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and parietal lobe work together like a highly trained Olympic relay team. 

Each player has its own role: the prefrontal cortex in decision-making, the anterior cingulate cortex in conflict detection, and the parietal lobe in information processing. Understanding this synchrony can unlock our true critical thinking potential. 

Which part of the brain controls memory?

When it comes to the art of memory, we turn our attention to the hippocampus. 

Nestled deep within the brain, this small region takes on the monumental task of memory formation and recall. It stores information of past experiences and opens up the space to create new ones.

Learn more: What Part of the Brain Controls Memory?

Which part of the brain controls breathing?

Breathe in, breathe out—a simple act that sustains life and is meticulously regulated by the medulla oblongata in our brainstem.

This unsung hero of our nervous system ensures the continuity of this essential function, similar to the ceaseless rhythm of the ocean tides. Acknowledging its role can help us appreciate the fascinating intricacies of our bodies.

Learn more: What Part of the Brain Controls Breathing?

Which part of the brain deals with emotions?

Now, you know which parts of the brain control thinking and memory. But what about our emotions?

All positive and negative emotions and spontaneous feelings, from excitement to sadness, are processed in the limbic system. This system controls your emotions and interacts with other parts of the brain. 

At the same time, another part of the brain called the amygdala handles emotional reactions such as love, hate, and sexual desire.

Learn more: The Anatomy of Feelings: What Part of the Brain Controls Emotions?

Unleash Your Superbrain

With centuries of research, the human brain remains the biggest mystery in the world. It is the most complex part of the body and controls movement, sight, and thinking. And of course, it’s the part of our system that’s most closely related to our minds. 

And as Jim says, “We need to understand how our minds work so we can work our minds better.” 

If you need some guidance to start unlocking your superbrain and mind, Mindvalley is the place to be. With transformational quests such as Superbrain , guided by Jim Kwik, you’ll master your mind’s functions in no time. And you can embark on a journey of:

• Techniques for supercharging your memory, focus, and learning capacity
• The most beneficial brain diet
• How to clear your mind of unwanted thoughts
• How to transform the way your brain is wired
• Achieving top performance when learning

By unlocking your free access , you can sample classes from this program and many others. All you have to do is open your mind to your greatest potential. And don’t be afraid to take the first step.

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How we reviewed this article

2020 study: the cerebellum’s role in movement and cognition, consensus paper: the cerebellum’s role in movement and cognition, you might also like.

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• The Brain Facts Book

Important Brain Regions for Decision-Making

• Reviewed 8 May 2023
• Author Marissa Fessenden
• Source BrainFacts/SfN

You make many different types of decisions every day. Some of these rely primarily on logical reasoning — for example, when you compare the timetables for the bus and subway to determine the quickest way to get to a friend’s house. Other decisions have emotional consequences at stake, like when the person you’re trying to impress offers you a cigarette — your desire to be accepted might outweigh your rational consideration of smoking’s harms.

Decision-making requires a person to weigh values, understand rules, make plans, and form predictions about the outcomes of their choices. Both logical reasoning and emotional (affective) decision-making involve the brain’s prefrontal cortex (PFC). In particular, activity in the lateral PFC is especially important in overriding emotional responses during decision-making. The area’s strong connections with brain regions related to motivation and emotion, such as the amygdala and nucleus accumbens , seem to exert a sort of top-down control over emotional and impulsive responses. For example, brain imaging studies have found the lateral PFC is more active in people declining a small monetary reward given immediately in favor of receiving a larger reward in the future. This is one of the last areas of the brain to mature — usually in a person’s late 20s — which explains why teens sometimes may have trouble regulating emotions or controlling impulses.

The orbitofrontal cortex , a region of the PFC located just behind the eyes, also appears to be important in affective decision-making, especially in situations involving reward and punishment. The area has been implicated in addiction as well as social behavior. 

Adapted from the 8th edition of Brain Facts by Marissa Fessenden.

About the Author

Marissa Fessenden

Marissa Fessenden is a freelance science journalist and illustrator. They gravitate toward stories about genes, wildlife and places large and small, as well as times when art gets science-y or science gets artsy.

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