research proposal in social sciences

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Research Proposal

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
• Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here .

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.].
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
• Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal .  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal . Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a regular academic paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty-five pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to address some or all of the following key points:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you will study, but what is excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, where stated, their recommendations. Do not be afraid to challenge the conclusions of prior research. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you read more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.] .
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method is perfect so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your reader.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal . Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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This InfoGuide assists students starting their research proposal and literature review.

• Introduction
• Research Process
• Types of Research Methodology
• Data Collection Methods
• Anatomy of a Scholarly Article
• Finding a topic
• Identifying a Research Problem
• Problem Statement
• Research Question
• Research Design
• Search Strategies
• Psychology Database Limiters
• Literature Review Search
• Annotated Bibliography
• Writing a Literature Review

Writing a Rsearch Proposal

A  research proposal  describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.  Your paper should include the topic, research question and hypothesis, methods, predictions, and results (if not actual, then projected).

Research Proposal Aims

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Literature review

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Proposal Format

The proposal will usually have a  title page  that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

Introduction The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.. Your introduction should:

• Introduce your  topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and  research questions To guide your  introduction , include information about:  
• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights will your research contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong  literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or  synthesize  prior scholarship

Research design and methods

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your project. Next, your  research design  or  methodology  section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions. Write up your projected, if not actual, results.

Contribution to knowledge

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Lastly, your research proposal must include correct  citations  for every source you have used, compiled in a  reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use free APA citation generators like BibGuru. Databases have a citation button you can click on to see your citation. Sometimes you have to re-format it as the citations may have mistakes. 

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2.4: The Body of the Research Proposal

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Drawing on guidelines developed in the UBC graduate guide to writing proposals (Petrina, 2009), we highlight eight steps for constructing an effective research proposal:

• Presenting the topic
• Literature Review
• Identifying the Gap
• Research Questions that addresses the Gap
• Methods to address the research questions

Data Analysis

• Summary, Limitations and Implications

In addition to those eight sections, research proposals frequently include a research timeline. We discuss each of these eight sections as well as producing a research timeline below.

Presenting The Topic (Statement of Research Problem)

The research proposal should begin with a hook to entice your readers. Like a steaming fresh pie on a windowsill, you want to allure your reader by presenting your topic (the pie on the sill) and then alluding to its importance (the delicious scent and taste of the cooling cherry pie). This can be done in many ways, so long as you are able to entice your reader to the core themes of your research. Some suggestions include:

Highlighting a paradox that your work will attempt to resolve e.g., “Why is it that social research has been shown to bring about higher net-positive outcomes than natural scientific research, but is funded less?” or “Why is it that women earn less than men in meritocratic societies even though they have more qualifications?” Paradoxes are popular because they draw on problematics (see Chapter 1) and indicate an obstacle in the thinking of fellow researchers that you may offer hope in resolving.

• Presenting a narrative introduction (often used in ethnographic papers) to the problem at hand. The following opening statement from Bowen, Elliott & Brenton (2014, p. 20) illustrates:

It’s a hot, sticky Fourth of July in North Carolina, and Leanne, a married working-class black mother of three, is in her cramped kitchen. She’s been cooking for several hours, lovingly preparing potato salad, beef ribs, chicken legs, and collards for her family. Abruptly, her mother decides to leave before eating anything. “But you haven’t eaten,” Leanne says. “You know I prefer my own potato salad,” says her mom. She takes a plateful to go anyway,

• Provide an historical overview of the problem, discussing its significance in history and indicating how that interrelates to the present: “On January 23rd, 2020, tears were shed as cabbies heard the news of Uber’s approval to operate in the city of Vancouver.”
• Introduce your positionality to the problem: How did it come of concern? How are you personally related to the social problem in question? The following introduction by Germon (1999, p.687) illustrates:

Throughout the paper I locate myself as part of the disabled peoples movement, and write from a position of a shared value base and analyses of a collective experience. In doing so, I make no apology for flouting academic pretentions of objectivity and neutrality. Rather, I believe I am giving essential information which clarifies my motivation and political position

• Begin with a quotation : Because this is an overused technique, if you use it, make sure that it addresses your research question and that you can explicitly relate to it in the body of your introduction. Do not start with a quotation for the sake of.
• Begin with a concession : Start with a statement recognizing an opinion or approach different from the one you plan to take in your thesis. You can acknowledge the merits in a previous approach but show how you will improve it or make a different argument, e.g., “Although critical theory and antiracism explain oppression and exploitation in contemporary society, they do not fully address the experiences of Indigenous peoples”.
• Start with an interesting fact or statistics : This is a sure way to draw attention to the topic and its significance e.g. “Canada is the fourth most popular destination country in the world for international students in 2018, with close to half a million international students” (CBIE, 2018)
• A definition : You may start by defining a key term in your research topic. This is useful if it distinguishes how you plan to use a term or concept in your thesis.

The above strategies are not exhaustive nor are they only applicable to the introduction of your research proposal. They can be used to introduce any section of your thesis or any paper. Regardless of the strategy that you use to introduce your topic, remember that the key objective is to convince your reader that the issue is problematic and is worth investigating. A well developed statement of research problem will do the following:

• Contextualize the problem . This means highlighting what is already known and how it is problematic to the specific context in which you wish to study it. By highlighting what is already known, you can build on key facts (such as the prevalence and whether it has received attention in the past). Please note that this is not the literature review; you are simply fleshing out a few pertinent details to introduce the topic in a few sentences or a paragraph.
• Specify the problem by describing precisely what you plan to address. In other words, elaborate on what we need to know. For example, building on your contextualization of the problem, you can specify the problem with a statement such as: “There is an abundance of literature on international migration. In fact, the IOM (2018) estimates that there are close to 258 million international migrants globally, who contribute billions to the global economy. However, not much is known about the extent of intra-regional migration in the global south such as within the African continent. There is, hence, a pressing need to study this phenomenon in greater detail.”
• Highlight the relevance of the problem . This means explaining to the readers why we need to know this information, who will be affected, who will benefit?
• Outline the goal and objectives of the research.
• The goal of your research is what you hope to achieve by answering the research question. To write the goal of your research, go back to your research question and state the results you intend to obtain. For example, if your research question is “What effect does extended social media use have on female body images?”, the goal of your research could be stated as “The goal of this study is to identity the point at which social media use negatively impact female body images so that they can be informed about how to use it responsibly.
• The objectives of your study is a further elaboration on your goals i.e., details about the steps that you will take to achieve the goal. Based on the goal above, you probably will study incidents of depression among female social media users, changes in self-esteem and incidents of eating disorders. These could translate into objectives such as to: (1) compare the incidents of depression among female social media users based on length of use (2) assess changes in female social media users’ self esteem (3) determine if there are differences in the incidents of eating disorder among female social media users based on extent of use. Notice that in achieving those objectives, you will be able to reach the goal of answering your research question.

In summary, you should strive to have one goal for each research question. If your project has only one research question, one goal is sufficient. Your objectives are the pathways (or steps) that will get you to achieve the goal i.e., what will you need to do in order to answer the research question. Summarize the steps in no more than two or three objectives per goal.

Brief Literature Review

After the problem and rationale are introduced, the next step is to frame the problem within the academic discourse. This involves conducting a preliminary literature review covering, inter alia, the history of the phenomena itself and the scholarly theories and investigations that have attempted to understand it (Petrina, 2009). In elaborating on the history of the concepts and theories, you should also attempt to draw attention to the theories which will guide your own research (or which will be contested by your research). By foregrounding the major ways of perceiving the problem, you will then set the stage for your own methodology: the major concepts and tools you will use to investigate/interpret the problem.

While in graduate research proposals the literature review often composes a section of its own (Petrina, 2009), in undergraduate research this step can be incorporated into the introduction. However, you should avoid, as Wong (n.d.) writes, framing your research question “in the context of a general, rambling literature review,” where your research question “may appear trivial and uninteresting.” Try to respond to seminal papers in the literature and to identify clearly for your reader the key concepts in the literature that you will be discussing. Part of outlining the scholarly discussion should also focus on clarifying the boundaries of your topic. While making the significance concrete, try to hone in on select themes that your research will evaluate. This way, when you go to outline the methods you will use, the topic will have clearly defined boundaries and concerns. See chapter 5 for more guidance on how to construct an extended literature review.

Box 2.1 – Tips for the Literature Review

• Summarize : The literature in your literature review is not going to be exhaustive but it should demonstrate that you have a good grasp on key debates and trends in the field
• Quality not quantity : Despite the fact that this is non-exhaustive, there is no magic number of sources that you need. Do not think in terms of how many sources are sufficient. Think about presenting a decent representation of key themes in the literature.
• Highlight theory and methodology of your sources (if they are significant). Doing so could help justify your theoretical and methodological decisions, whether you are departing from previous approaches or whether you are adopting them.
• Synthesize your results. Do not simply state “According to Robinson (2021)….According to Wilson (2021)… etc”. Instead, find common grounds between sources and summarize the point e.g., “Researchers argue that we should not list our literature (Bartolic, 2021; Robinson, 2020; Wilson 2021).
• Justify methodological choice
• Assess and Evaluate: After assessing the literature in your field, you should be able to answer the following questions: Why should we study (further) this research topic/problem?
• Contribution : At the end of the literature, you should be able to determine contributions will my study make to the existing literature?

As you briefly discuss the key literature concerning your topic of interest, it is important that you allude to gaps. Gaps are ambiguities, faults, and missing aspects of previous studies. Think about questions that you have which are not answered by existing literature. Specifically, think about how the literature might insufficiently address the following, and locate your research as filling those gaps (see UNE, 2021):

• Population or sample : size, type, location, demography etc. [Are there specific populations that are understudied e.g., Indigenous people, female youth, BIPOC, the elderly etc.]
• Research methods : qualitative, quantitative, or mixed [Has the research in the area been limited to just a few methods e.g., all surveys? How is yours different?]
• Data analysis [Are you using a different method of analysis than those used in the literature?]
• Variables or conditions [Are you examining a new or different set of variables than those previously studied? Are the conditions under which your study is being conducted unique e.g., under pandemic conditions]
• Theory [Are you employing a theory in a new way?]

Refer to Chapter 6 (Literature Review) for more detail about this process and for a discussion on common types of gaps in social research.

Box 2.2 – Identifying a Gap

To indicate the usefulness and originality of your research, you should be conscious of how your research is both unique from previous studies in the field and how its findings will be useful. When you write your thesis or research report, you will expound on these gaps some more. However, in the body of your proposal, it is important that you explicitly highlight the insufficiency of existing literature (i.e. gaps). Below are some phrases that you can use to indicate gaps:

• …has not been clarified, studied, reported, or elucidated
• further research is required or needed
• …is not well reported
• key question(s) remains unanswered
• it is important to address …
• …poorly understood or known
• Few studies have (UNE, 2021)

Research Questions & Research Questions that Address the Gap

The gaps and literature you outline should set the context for your research questions. In outlining the major issues concerning your topic, you should have raised key concepts and actors (Wong, n.d.). Your research question should attempt to engage or investigate the key concepts previously stated, showing to your reader that you have developed a line of inquiry that directly touches upon gaps in the previous literature that can be concretely investigated (ie. concepts that are operationalized). After indicating what your research intends to study, formulate this gap into a set of research questions which make investigating this gap tangible. Refer to the previous chapter for more advice about devising a solid research question. Remember, as McCombes (2021) notes, a good research question is:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis (i.e., not answerable with a simple yes/no)
• Provide scope for debate Original (not one that is answered already)
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly.

Methods to Address Research Questions

By the time you begin writing your methodology section, you would have already introduced your topic and its significance, and have provided a brief account of its scholarly history (literature review) and the gaps you will be filling. The methods section allows you to discuss how you intend to fulfill said gap. In the methods section, you also indicate what data you intend to investigate (content: including the time, place, and variables) and how you intend to find it (the methods you will use to reveal content e.g., qualitative interviewing, discourse analysis, experimental research, and comparative research). Your ability to outline these steps clearly and plausibly will indicate whether your research is repeatable, possible, and effective. Repeatable research allows other researchers to repeat your methods and find the same results (Bhattacherjee, 2012), thereby proving that your findings were not invented but are discoverable by all. Your descriptions must be specific enough so that other researchers can repeat them and arrive at the same results. It is important in this section that you also justify why you believe this specific methodology is the most effective for answering the research question. This does not need to be extensive, but you should at least briefly note why you think, for instance, qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods (and your specific proposed approach) are appropriate for answering your research question. For more details about writing an immaculate methodology, refer to Chapter 7.

This short section requires you to discuss how you intend to interpret your findings. You will need to ask yourself five critical questions before you write this section: (1) will theory guide the interpretation of the results? (2) Will I use a matrix with pre-established codes to categorize results? (3) Will I use an inductive approach such as grounded theory that does not go into an investigation with strict codes? (4) Will I use statistics to explain trends in numerical data? (5) Will I be using a combination of these or another strategy to interpret my findings?This section should also include some discussion of the theories that you intend to use to possibly explain or understand your data. Be sure to outline key notions and explain how they will be operationalized to extrapolate the data you may receive. Again, this section also does not have to be extensive. At this point, you are demonstrating that you have given thought to what you intend to do with the data once you have collected it. This may change later on, but make sure that the proposed analytical strategy is appropriate to the data collected, for example, if you are evaluating newspaper discourse on the coronavirus pandemic, unless you intend to code the data quantitatively, you would not be expected to use statistics. Content, thematic or discourse analysis might be more intuitive. See the Data Analysis (Chapters 9 and 10) for more details.

Summarize, Engage with Limitations, and Implicate

After you have outlined the literature, the gaps in the literature, how you intend to investigate that gap, and how you intend to analyze what you have found, it is important to again reiterate the significance of your study. Allude to what your study could find and what this would mean . This requires returning to the significant territory that began your proposal and linking it to how your study could help to explain/change this understanding or circumstance. Report on the possible beneficial outcomes of your study. For instance, say you study the impact of welfare checks on homelessness. Then you could respond to the following question: How could my findings improve our responses to homelessness? How could it make welfare policies more effective? Remember you must explain the usefulness or benefits of the study to both the outside world and the research community. In addition to noting your strengths, also reflect on the weaknesses. All research has limitations but you need to demonstrate that you have taken steps to mitigate those that can be mitigated and that the research is valuable despite the weaknesses. Be straightforward about the things your study will not be able to find, and the potential obstacles that will be presented to you in conducting your study (in research that is conducted with a population, be sure to note harms/benefits that might come to them). With this in mind, try to address these obstacles to the best of your ability and to prove the value of your study despite inevitable tradeoffs. However, do not finish with a long list of inadequacies. End with a magnanimous crescendo –with the impression that despite the trials and limitations of research, you are prepared for the challenge and the challenge is well worth overcoming. This means reiterating the significance, potential uses and implications of the findings.

Box 2.3 – Seven Tips for Getting Started with Your Proposed Methodology

• Introduce the overall methodological approach (e.g., qualitative, quantitative, mixed)
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design (e.g., setting, participants, data collection process)
• Describe the specific methods of data collection (e.g., interviews, surveys, ethnography, secondary data etc.)
• Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret your results (i.e. statistical analysis, grounded theory; outline any theoretical framework that will guide the analysis; see below ).
• If necessary, provide background and rationale for unfamiliar methodologies.
• Highlight the ethical process including whether institutional ethics review was done
• Address potential limitations ( see below )

Bhattacherjee, Anol. (2012). Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices Textbooks Collection. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1002&context=oa_textbooks

Bowen, S., Elliott, S., & Brenton, J. (2014). The joy of cooking? Contexts , 13(3), 20-25.

CBIE [Canadian Bureau for International Education] (2018, August). International students in Canada . https://cbie.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/International-Students-in-CanadaENG.pdf

Germon, P. (1999). Purely academic? Exploring the relationship between theory and political activism. Disability & Society, 14(5), 687-692.

International Organization on Migration. (2018). “Global Migration Indicators.” global_migration_indicators_2018.pdf (iom.int)

McCombes, S. (2021, March 22). Developing Strong Research Questions: Criteria and Examples. Scribbr . https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/

UNE (2021). Gaps in the literature. UNE Library services. https://library.une.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Gaps-in-the-Literature.pdf

Petrina, Stephen. (2009). “Thesis Dissertation and Proposal Guide For Graduate Students.”

https://edcp-educ.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2013/08/researchproposal1.pdf

School of Social Sciences

How to write a research proposal

You will need to submit a research proposal with your PhD application. This is crucial in the assessment of your application and it warrants plenty of time and energy.

Your proposal should outline your project and be around 1,500 words.

Your research proposal should include a working title for your project.

Overview of the research

In this section, you should provide a short overview of your research. You should also state how your research fits into the research priorities of your particular subject area.

Here you can refer to the research areas and priorities of a particular research grouping or supervisor.

You must also state precisely why you have chosen to apply to the discipline area and how your research links into our overall profile.

Positioning of the research

This should reference the most important texts related to the research, demonstrate your understanding of the research issues, and identify existing gaps (both theoretical and practical) that the research is intended to address.

Research design and methodology

This section should identify the information that is necessary to carry out the analysis and the possible research techniques that could deliver the information.

Ethical considerations

You should identify and address any potential ethical considerations in relation to your proposed research. Please discuss your research with your proposed supervisor to see how best to progress your ideas in line with University of Manchester ethics guidance, and ensure that your proposed supervisor is happy for you to proceed with your application.

Your research proposal will be used to assess the quality and originality of your ideas, whether you are able to think critically and whether you have a grasp of the relevant literature. It also gives us important information about the perspectives you intend to take on your research area, and how you fit into the department's research profile overall. This is helpful when assigning a supervisor.

If you are applying to study an Economics postgraduate research programme, our advice and requirements are slightly different:

• How to write an economics proposal

Supervisors

We encourage you to discuss your proposal informally with a potential supervisor before making a formal application to ensure it is of mutual interest.

Please note that we cannot guarantee that we will be able to allocate you to the supervisor you initially contact and that we may allocate you to another expert in the area.

• Find a supervisor

Flexibility

You will not be forced to follow the proposal exactly once you have started to study. It is normal for students to refine their original proposal, in light of detailed literature review, further consideration of research approaches and comments received from your supervisors (and other academic staff).

Pitfalls to avoid

We sometimes have to reject students who meet the academic requirements but have not produced a satisfactory research proposal, therefore:

• Make sure that your research idea, question or problem is very clearly stated and well-grounded in academic research.
• Make sure that your proposal is well focused and conforms exactly to the submission requirements described here.
• Poorly specified, jargon-filled or rambling proposals will not convince us that you have a clear idea of what you want to do.

The University uses electronic systems to detect plagiarism and other forms of academic malpractice and for assessment. All Humanities PhD programmes require the submission of a research proposal as part of the application process. The Doctoral Academy upholds the principle that where a candidate approaches the University with a project of study, this should be original. While it is understandable that research may arise out of previous studies, it is vital that your research proposal is not the subject of plagiarism.

Example proposals

• Philosophy - Example 1
• Philosophy - Example 2
• Politics - Example 1
• Politics - Example 2
• Social Anthropology - Example 1
• Social Anthropology - Example 2
• Social Statistics - Example 1
• Social Statistics - Example 2
• Sociology - Example 1
• Sociology - Example 2

Further help

The following books may help you to prepare your research proposal (as well as in doing your research degree).

• Bell, J. (1999):  Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-time Researchers in Education & Social Science , (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
• Baxter, L, Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2001):  How to Research , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).
• Cryer, P. (2000):  The Research Student's Guide to Success , (Open University, Milton Keynes).
• Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. and Parry, O. (1997):  Supervising the PhD , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).
• Philips, E. and Pugh, D. (2005):  How to get a PhD: A Handbook for Students and their Supervisors , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).

If you need help and advice about your application, contact the Postgraduate Admissions Team.

Admissions contacts

University guidelines

You may also find it useful to read the advice and guidance on the University website about writing a proposal for your research degree application.

Visit the University website

How to write a Research Proposal: Explained with Examples

At some time in your student phase, you will have to do a Thesis or Dissertation, and for that, you will have to submit a research proposal. A Research Proposal in its most basic definition is a formally structured document that explains what, why, and how of your research. This document explains What you plan to research (your topic or theme of research), Why you are doing this research (justifying your research topic), and How you will do (your approach to complete the research). The purpose of a proposal is to convince other people apart from yourself that the work you’re doing is suitable and feasible for your academic position.

The process of writing a research proposal is lengthy and time-consuming. Your proposal will need constant edits as you keep taking your work forward and continue receiving feedback. Although, there is a structure or a template that needs to be followed. This article will guide you through this strenuous task. So, let’s get to work!

Research Proposal: Example

[ Let us take a running example throughout the article so that we cover all the points. Let us assume that we are working on a dissertation that needs to study the relationship between Gender and Money. ]

The Title is one of the first things the reader comes across. Your title should be crisp yet communicate all that you are trying to convey to the reader. In academia, a title gets even more weightage because in a sea of resources, sometimes your research project can get ignored because the title didn’t speak for itself. Therefore, make sure that you brainstorm multiple title options and see which fits the best. Many times in academic writing we use two forms of titles: the Main Title and the Subtitle. If you think that you cannot justify your research using just a Title, you can add a subtitle which will then convey the rest of your explanation.

[ Explanation through an example: Our theme is “Gender and Money”.

We can thus keep our title as: A study of “Gendered Money” in the Rural households of Delhi. ]

Insider’s Info: If you are not confident about your title in your research proposal, then write “Tentative Title” in brackets and italic below your Title. In this way, your superiors (professor or supervisor) will know that you are still working on fixing the title.

Overview / Abstract

The overview, also known as abstract and/or introduction, is the first section that you write for your proposal. Your overview should be a single paragraph that explains to the reader what your whole research will be about. In a nutshell, you will use your abstract to present all the arguments that you will be taking in detail in your thesis or research. What you can do is introduce your theme a little along with your topic and the aim of your research. But beware and do not reveal all that you have in your pocket. Make sure to spend plenty of time writing your overview because it will be used to determine if your research is worth taking forward or reading.

Existing Literature

This is one of the most important parts of your research and proposal. It should be obvious that in such a huge universe of research, the topic chosen by you cannot be the first of its kind. Therefore, you have to locate your research in the arguments or themes which are already out there. To do so, what you have to do is read the existing literature on the same topic or theme as yours. Without reading the existing literature you cannot possibly form your arguments or start your research. But to write the portion of existing literature you have to be cautious. In the course of your dissertation, at some point either before or after you submit your proposal, you will be asked to submit a “Literature Review”. Though it is very similar to existing literature, it is NOT the same.

Difference between “Literature Review” and “Existing Literature”

A literature review is a detailed essay that discusses all the material which is already out there regarding your topic. For a literature review, you will have to mention all the literature you have read and then explain how they benefit you in your field of research.

Whereas, an existing literature segment in your research proposal is the compact version of a literature review. It is a two to three-paragraph portion that locates your research topic in the larger argument. Here you need not reveal all your literature resources, but only mention the major ones which will be recurring literature throughout your research.

[ Explanation through an example: Now we know that our topic is: Our theme is “A study of “Gendered Money” in the Rural households of Delhi.”

To find the existing literature on this topic you should find academic articles relating to the themes of money, gender, economy, income, etc. ]

Insider’s Info : There is no limit when it comes to how much you read. You can read 2 articles or 20 articles for your research. The number doesn’t matter, what matters is how you use those concepts and arguments in your own thesis.

Research Gap

As you read and gather knowledge on your topic, you will start forming your own views. This might lead you to two conclusions. First, there exists a lot of literature regarding the relationship between gender and money, but they are all lacking something. Second, in the bundle of existing literature, you can bring a fresh perspective. Both of these thoughts help you in formulating your research gap. A research gap is nothing but you justifying why you should continue with your research even when it has been discussed many times already. Quoting your research gap helps you make a place for yourself in the academic world.

Based on 1st Conclusion, you can say that the research gap you found was that most of the studies done on the theme of gendered money looked at the urban situation, and with your analysis of ‘rural’ households, you will fill the gap.

Based on 2nd Conclusion, you can say that all the existing literature is mostly written from the economic point of view, but through your research, you will try to bring a feminist viewpoint to the theme of gendered money. ]

Insider’s Info : If you are unable to find a research gap for your dissertation, the best hack to fall back on is to say that all the research done up to this point have been based on western notions and social facts, but you will conduct research which holds in your localized reality.

Research Question / Hypothesis

Once you are sorted with your existing literature and have located your research gap, this section will be the easiest to tackle. A research question or hypothesis is nothing but a set of questions that you will try and answer throughout the course of your research. It is very crucial to include research questions in your proposal because this tells your superiors exactly what you plan to do. The number of questions you set for yourself can vary according to the time, resources, and finances you have. But we still recommend that you have at least three research questions stated in your proposal.

[ Explanation through an example: Now that we know what our topic is: our theme is “A study of “gendered money” in the rural households of Delhi.”

Some of the research questions you can state can be,

• Study the division for uses of wages, based on who earned it and where it is getting utilized. 
• How gender relations also play a role within the household not only in the form of kinship but in the indirect form of economics as well.
• How, even when we have the same currency signifying the meaning of money, it changes according to the source of who earned it.
• How moral values and judgments are added to the money comes from different sources. ]

Insider’s Info: If you are confused about your research question, you can look at the questions taken up by the other authors you studied and modify them according to your point of view. But we seriously recommend that the best way to do your research is by coming up with your research question on your own. Believe in yourself!

Research Methodology / Research Design

This part of the research proposal is about how you will conduct and complete your research. To understand better what research methodology is, we should first clarify the difference between methodology and method. Research Method is the technique used by you to conduct your research. A method includes the sources of collecting your data such as case studies, interviews, surveys, etc. On the other hand, Methodology is how you plan to apply your method . Your methodology determines how you execute various methods during the course of your dissertation.

Therefore, a research methodology, which is also known as research design, is where you tell your reader how you plan to do your research. You tell the step-by-step plan and then justify it. Your research methodology will inform your supervisor how you plan to use your research tools and methods.

Your methodology should explain where you are conducting the research and how. So for this research, your field will be rural Delhi. Explain why you chose to study rural households and not urban ones. Then comes the how, some of the methods you might want to opt for can be Interviews, Questionnaires, and/or Focused Group Discussions. Do not forget to mention your sample size, i.e., the number of people you plan to talk to. ]

Insider’s Info: Make sure that you justify all the methods you plan to use. The more you provide your supervisor with a justification; the more serious and formal you come out to be in front of them. Also, when you write your why down, it is hard to forget the track and get derailed from the goal.

This will not even be a section, but just 2 lines in your proposal where you will state the amount of time you plan to complete your dissertation and how you will utilize that time. This portion can also be included in your “Research Methodology” section. We have stated this as a separate subheading so that you do not miss out on this small but mighty aspect.

For this project, you can mention that you will be allocated 4 months, out of which 1 month will be utilized for fieldwork and the rest would be used for secondary research, compilation, and completion of the thesis. ]

Aim of the Research

The aim of the research is where you try to predict the result of your research. Your aim is what you wish to achieve at the end of this long process. This section also informs your supervisor how your research will be located in the ongoing larger argument corresponding to your selected topic/theme. Remember the research questions you set up for yourself earlier? This is the time when you envision answers to those questions.

You can present that through your research you will aim to find if the money which enters the household belongs equally to everyone, or does it get stratified and gendered in this realm. Through this research, you aim to present a fresh new perspective in the field of studies of gendered money. ]

Insider’s Info: The aim you write right now is just a prediction or the expected outcome. Therefore, even if the result of your research is different in the end it doesn’t matter.

Bibliography

The bibliography is the easiest and most sorted part of your proposal. It is nothing but a list of all the resources that you will study or already have studied for the completion of your research. This list will contain all the articles or essays mentioned by you in the existing literature section, and all the other things such as books, journal articles, reviews, news, etc.

The most basic format to write a bibliography is:

• Author’s Name with Surname mentioned first, then initials (Tiwari, E.)
• Article’s Title in single or double quotes ( ‘ ’ or “ ” )
• Journal Title in Italics ( Like this )
• Volume, issue number
• Year of Publication in brackets

Example: Tichenor, Veronica Jaris (1999). “Status and income as gendered resources: The case of marital power”. Journal of Marriage and Family . Pg 938-65 ]

Insider’s Info: You do not number or bullet your bibliography. They should be arranged alphabetically based on the surname of the author.

Learn: Citation with Examples

Also Check: How to Write Dissertation

https://www.uh.edu/~lsong5/documents/

https://www.yorksj.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/research/

Hello! Eiti is a budding sociologist whose passion lies in reading, researching, and writing. She thrives on coffee, to-do lists, deadlines, and organization. Eiti's primary interest areas encompass food, gender, and academia.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Purpose of guide.

• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
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• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
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• Primary Sources
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• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
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• Insiderness
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• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

This guide is intended to help college students organize and write a quality research paper for classes taught in the social and behavioral sciences. Note that, if you have any questions about a research and writing assignment, you should always seek advice from your professor before you begin. Requirements set forth by your professor will always supersede instructions provided under these general guidelines.

NOTE: This guide previously included pages describing how to successfully manage and complete specific course assignments in the social and behavioral sciences. They have been removed in order to create a separate writing guide entitled,   Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments .

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• Last Updated: May 30, 2024 9:38 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

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Writing a research proposal

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Preparing a research proposal

Before you write a research proposal, the best first step would be to provide a 500 word outline of your proposed research project. Forward this to any academic you feel would best suit your project – you can find contact details for staff in the subject websites. If you receive a positive response, you should then look to submit a formal application in the form of a research proposal.

What is a research proposal?

Your research proposal needs to outline the nature of your proposed PhD study and give some indication of how you will conduct your research. It is an integral part of the PhD application process, so it is certainly worth investing time and energy into it.

Your research proposal should leave a positive first impression upon the reader about your ‘fitness’ to study a PhD. It is  your  project, so it is important to demonstrate leadership in this first stage of the application process. An ideal proposal should leave the reader  feeling in no doubt that you have done some preliminary research about your subject and that you are knowledgeable and ready to tackle the challenges of the PhD.

Give your proposal your utmost attention and time, but also be realistic ‐ you are not expected to know everything at this stage. Your proposal can also be flexible. It is not a contract. Always ask someone else to read your proposal before you submit it, and to offer you some critical but supportive feedback.

Remember that a research proposal is about what  you  want to study; it immediately reflects your initial understanding of, and commitment to, PhD study. A research proposal can and should make a positive and powerful first impression about your potential to become a good researcher.

Importantly, the main purpose is to enable the university to assess whether you are a good ‘match’ for our supervisors and our areas of research expertise.

Therefore, in a good research proposal you will need to demonstrate two main things:

• that you are capable of  independent critical thinking and analysis
• that you are capable of  communicating your ideas clearly

Applying for a PhD is like applying for a job, you are not applying for a taught programme.

When you start a PhD you will become a valued researcher in an academic department. Through your research proposal your colleagues want to know whether they can work with you, and whether your ideas are focussed, interesting and realistic. Try and impress them!

Your proposal should be indicative and it should  outline  your areas of interest and your general insight into the research topic. You are  not  expected to be an expert and to be familiar with all the specific details of your subject. However, you are expected to have a good level of knowledge about the subject and where you might make a valuable contribution to research. The perfect research proposal should leave the reader interested, excited and wanting to find out more about your ideas, and about you!

6 steps to a successful research proposal

A good research proposal should not be complicated. However, it can be challenging to write and it is important to get right. A PhD is challenging, so it is good training working on your research proposal. Although there is no exact prescribed format for a general research proposal (across all subjects), a research proposal should generally include  six  main sections, as detailed below:

1)      A clear working title for your research project

• What will you call your project?
• What key words would describe your proposal?

2)      A clear statement about what you want to work on and why it is important, interesting, relevant and realistic

• What are your main research objectives? These could be articulated as hypotheses, propositions, research questions, or problems to solve
• What difference do you think your research will make?
• Why does this research excite you?
• What research ‘gaps’ will you be filling by undertaking your project?
• How might your research ‘add value’ to the subject?
• Is your research achievable in the time allocated? (e.g. 3 years full‐time)

3)      Some background knowledge and context of the area in which you wish to work, including key literature, key people, key research findings

• How does your work link to the work of others in the same field or related fields?
• Would your work support or contest the work of others?
• How does your work relate to the expertise within the department you are applying to?

4)      Some consideration of the methods/approach you might use

• How will you conduct your research?
• Will you use existing theories, new methods/approaches or develop new methods/approaches?
• How might you design your project to get the best results/findings?

5)      Some indication of the strategy and timetable for your research project and any research challenges you may face

• What would be the main stages of your project?
• What would you be expecting to do in each year of your PhD?
• What challenges might you encounter and how might your overcome these?

6)      A list of the key references which support your research proposal

• References should be listed in the appropriate convention for your subject area (e.g. Harvard). Such references should be used throughout your research proposal to demonstrate that you have read and understood the work of others
• Other relevant material that you are aware of, but not actually used in writing your proposal, can also be added as a bibliography

All of the above six sections are important but section 2 is particularly important because in any research project, establishing your main purpose represents the whole basis for completing the research programme. Therefore, the value of your proposed research is assessed in relation to your research aims and objectives.

How long should a good research proposal be?

A good research proposal is as long as it takes, but a guide would be 1000-2000 words. Remember that it is meant to be an accurate overview, not a thesis, so you need to provide enough detail for the reader to understand it. A paragraph would not be enough and 5000 words likely too much.

The '3Cs' rule

When you have written your research proposal, ask a friend to read it critically and provide you with feedback. Also, ask yourself whether it follows the '3Cs' rule:

CLEAR : is what you have written intelligible and clearly articulated? Does it make sense, or is it vague and confusing? Does your proposal leave the reader with a clear sense of the purpose and direction of your research project?

CONCISE : have you written your proposal in a succinct and focussed way?

COHERENT : does your proposal link together well so that it tells the reader a short story about what you want to do, why you want to do it and how you will do it?

If you can answer all of these questions with confidence, you have probably put together a good proposal.

Further information

You are very welcome to visit the department and talk to potential research supervisors and meet one of our current students. If you would like to do this please contact the Graduate Research Team with a selection of possible dates, your research interests, and any members of staff you would particularly like to meet.

Phone : +44(0) 1392 724490 Web:  Enquire online

• Boston University Libraries

Proposal Writing for Social Science Research (Spring 2023)

• Getting Started on Proposal Writing

About This Guide

Getting started, additional resources on the literature review, research/grant proposal writing, and dissertation writing.

• Social Science Databases
• Research Methods
• Writing Literature Reviews & Annotated Bibliographies

Related Research & How-to Guides

• Citing Your Sources

Create Bibliographies

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This guide was originally created for AN510 / AR510: Proposal Writing for Social Science Research. Advanced undergraduate and graduate students in other social science and humanities fields may also find this guide helpful as they prepare to write grant proposals, theses or dissertations.

Writing the Grant & Research / Dissertation Proposal

• Writing a Research Proposal in Cultural Anthropology
• Strategies in Minimizing the Labor Intensive Process of Dissertation Research Proposal Writing and Some Tips on What to Keep in Mind (Anthrodendum blog post)
• "The Dissertation Proposal," in Destination Dissertation
• How to Write Your Research Proposal (SOAS)
• On the Art of Writing Proposals (Social Science Research Council)
• Proposal & Grant Writing Guides, BU Wheelock College of Education & Human Development
• Writing Successful Grant Proposals from the Top Down and Bottom Up

Literature Reviews

• Six Steps to Writing a Literature Review
• Literature Review Tutorial [PPT], BU Alumni Medical Library
• The Literature Review (University of Toronto)
• "The Literature Review," in Destination Dissertation
• Literature Review (UConn Libraries)

Dissertation Writing

This guide was originally authored by Chris Smith, April, 2023. 

• Next: Social Science Databases >>
• Last Updated: Apr 8, 2024 8:17 AM
• URL: https://library.bu.edu/proposalsocialsci

Writing proposals for research funding is a peculiar facet of North American academic culture, and as with all things cultural, its attributes rise only partly into public consciousness. A proposal’s overt function is to persuade a committee of scholars that the project shines with the three kinds of merit all disciplines value, namely, conceptual innovation, methodological rigor, and rich, substantive content. But to make these points stick, a proposal writer needs a feel for the unspoken customs, norms, and needs that govern the selection process itself. These are not really as arcane or ritualistic as one might suspect. For the most part, these customs arise from the committee’s efforts to deal in good faith with its own problems: incomprehension among disciplines, work overload, and the problem of equitably judging proposals that reflect unlike social and academic circumstances.

MAIN SECTIONS

• Capture the reviewer’s attention
• Aim for clarity
• Establish the context
• What’s the pay-off?
• Use a fresh approach
• Describe your methodology
• Specify your objectives

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What (Exactly) Is A Research Proposal?

A simple explainer with examples + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Whether you’re nearing the end of your degree and your dissertation is on the horizon, or you’re planning to apply for a PhD program, chances are you’ll need to craft a convincing research proposal . If you’re on this page, you’re probably unsure exactly what the research proposal is all about. Well, you’ve come to the right place.

Overview: Research Proposal Basics

• What a research proposal is
• What a research proposal needs to cover
• How to structure your research proposal
• Example /sample proposals
• Proposal writing FAQs
• Key takeaways & additional resources

What is a research proposal?

Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification), and how  you plan to investigate it (your methodology). 

The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so to speak) is to convince  your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is  suitable  (for the requirements of the degree program) and  manageable  (given the time and resource constraints you will face). 

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to  sell  your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit . This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news). 

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “ what “, “ why ” and” how ” of the proposed study. Let’s look at each of these attributes in a little more detail:

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic . This needs to be specific and unambiguous . Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context. Here’s an example of a well-articulated research topic:

An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

• What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote or advocate for a brand of a specific makeup brand
• Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
• In what context – the United Kingdom

So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed explanation of your research topic . If possible, also briefly outline your research aims and objectives , and perhaps even your research questions (although in some cases you’ll only develop these at a later stage). Needless to say, don’t start writing your proposal until you have a clear topic in mind , or you’ll end up waffling and your research proposal will suffer as a result of this.

Need a helping hand?

As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original . In other words, what makes it  unique ? What gap in the current literature does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.

But,  originality  alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box, you also need to justify why your proposed topic is  important . In other words, what value will it add to the world if you achieve your research aims?

As an example, let’s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have commercial value . That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal. If you’re struggling to find a research topic that makes the cut, watch  our video covering how to find a research topic .

It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and valuable, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

• How will you actually undertake your research (i.e., your methodology)?
• Is your research methodology appropriate given your research aims?
• Is your approach manageable given your constraints (time, money, etc.)?

While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed-out methodology at the proposal stage, you’ll likely still need to provide a high-level overview of your research methodology . Here are some important questions you’ll need to address in your research proposal:

• Will you take a qualitative , quantitative or mixed -method approach?
• What sampling strategy will you adopt?
• How will you collect your data (e.g., interviews, surveys, etc)?
• How will you analyse your data (e.g., descriptive and inferential statistics , content analysis, discourse analysis, etc, .)?
• What potential limitations will your methodology carry?

So, be sure to give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at least a basic methodological plan before you start writing up your proposal. If this all sounds rather intimidating, the video below provides a good introduction to research methodology and the key choices you’ll need to make.

How To Structure A Research Proposal

Now that we’ve covered the key points that need to be addressed in a proposal, you may be wondering, “ But how is a research proposal structured? “.

While the exact structure and format required for a research proposal differs from university to university, there are four “essential ingredients” that commonly make up the structure of a research proposal:

• A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
• An initial literature review covering the existing research
• An overview of the proposed research methodology
• A discussion regarding the practicalities (project plans, timelines, etc.)

In the video below, we unpack each of these four sections, step by step.

Research Proposal Examples/Samples

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of two successful research proposals (Master’s and PhD-level), as well as our popular free proposal template.

Proposal Writing FAQs

How long should a research proposal be.

This varies tremendously, depending on the university, the field of study (e.g., social sciences vs natural sciences), and the level of the degree (e.g. undergraduate, Masters or PhD) – so it’s always best to check with your university what their specific requirements are before you start planning your proposal.

As a rough guide, a formal research proposal at Masters-level often ranges between 2000-3000 words, while a PhD-level proposal can be far more detailed, ranging from 5000-8000 words. In some cases, a rough outline of the topic is all that’s needed, while in other cases, universities expect a very detailed proposal that essentially forms the first three chapters of the dissertation or thesis.

The takeaway – be sure to check with your institution before you start writing.

How do I choose a topic for my research proposal?

Finding a good research topic is a process that involves multiple steps. We cover the topic ideation process in this video post.

How do I write a literature review for my proposal?

While you typically won’t need a comprehensive literature review at the proposal stage, you still need to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the key literature and are able to synthesise it. We explain the literature review process here.

How do I create a timeline and budget for my proposal?

We explain how to craft a project plan/timeline and budget in Research Proposal Bootcamp .

Which referencing format should I use in my research proposal?

The expectations and requirements regarding formatting and referencing vary from institution to institution. Therefore, you’ll need to check this information with your university.

What common proposal writing mistakes do I need to look out for?

We’ve create a video post about some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a proposal – you can access that here . If you’re short on time, here’s a quick summary:

• The research topic is too broad (or just poorly articulated).
• The research aims, objectives and questions don’t align.
• The research topic is not well justified.
• The study has a weak theoretical foundation.
• The research design is not well articulated well enough.
• Poor writing and sloppy presentation.
• Poor project planning and risk management.
• Not following the university’s specific criteria.

Key Takeaways & Additional Resources

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose:  to convince . Your research proposal needs to sell your study in terms of suitability and viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative to ensure a strong proposal.

At the same time, pay close attention to your university’s requirements. While we’ve covered the essentials here, every institution has its own set of expectations and it’s essential that you follow these to maximise your chances of approval.

By the way, we’ve got plenty more resources to help you fast-track your research proposal. Here are some of our most popular resources to get you started:

• Proposal Writing 101 : A Introductory Webinar
• Research Proposal Bootcamp : The Ultimate Online Course
• Template : A basic template to help you craft your proposal

If you’re looking for 1-on-1 support with your research proposal, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the proposal development process (and the entire research journey), step by step.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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51 Comments

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Bundle of thanks to you for the research proposal guide it was really good and useful if it is possible please send me the sample of research proposal

You’re most welcome. We don’t have any research proposals that we can share (the students own the intellectual property), but you might find our research proposal template useful: https://gradcoach.com/research-proposal-template/

Cheruiyot Moses Kipyegon

Thanks alot. It was an eye opener that came timely enough before my imminent proposal defense. Thanks, again

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Thank you. This is a great insight. I am a student preparing for a PhD program. I am requested to write my Research Proposal as part of what I am required to submit before my unconditional admission. I am grateful having listened to this video which will go a long way in helping me to actually choose a topic of interest and not just any topic as well as to narrow down the topic and be specific about it. I indeed need more of this especially as am trying to choose a topic suitable for a DBA am about embarking on. Thank you once more. The video is indeed helpful.

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Hi. For my MSc medical education research, please evaluate this topic for me: Training Needs Assessment of Faculty in Medical Training Institutions in Kericho and Bomet Counties

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I need any research proposal

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thank you for the video but i need a written example

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Research Advancing Justice

The ABF Announces the 2024 Doctoral and Postdoctoral Fellows

June 04, 2024

The American Bar Foundation (ABF) has awarded doctoral and postdoctoral fellowships to five outstanding scholars. Selected from a highly competitive pool of applicants, these scholars were chosen for their significant empirical and interdisciplinary research proposals in law and social science.  

This year, the selected scholars are:  

• Joshua Aiken, Doctoral Fellow in Law & Inequality
• Sino Esthappan , ABF/Northwestern University Doctoral Fellow in Law & Social Science
• Robert Gelles , ABF/University of Chicago Doctoral Fellow in Law & Social Science
• Kyneshawau Hurd , Postdoctoral Fellow in Law & Inequality  
• Ewurama Okai , ABF/AccessLex Institute Doctoral Fellow in Legal & Higher Education  

For over thirty years, the ABF has offered doctoral and postdoctoral fellowships to foster the next generation of scholars in law, social science, and higher education. The ABF offers fellows the opportunity to engage with our intellectual community, gain feedback on scholarly and professional projects in workshop settings, and utilize the ABF’s resources toward academic goals. Fellows receive valuable mentorship from ABF researchers, a stipend to support living expenses while they complete their dissertation projects, and support for research expenses. Past fellows have built on their experiences at the ABF by moving on to promising careers, including as tenure track professors, legal professionals, and applied researchers.  

These fellowships are possible thanks to the support of the Law & Society Association , the National Science Foundation , AccessLex Institute, Northwestern University, and the University of Chicago .   

“We are deepl y grateful for the donor support that allows us to identify and mentor the next generation of sociolegal scholars,” said ABF Executive Director Mark C. Suchman. “Our doctoral and postdoctoral fellows consistently bring fresh perspectives and innovative ideas that contribute to the ABF’s standing as the nation’s leading sociolegal research institute . W e hope these emerging scholars will benefit in turn from the ABF’s vibrant intellectual community and from the invaluable insights and guidance of their ABF mentors. ”  

Meet the 2024 Postdoctoral Fellow:

Meet the 2024 Doctoral Fellows:

About the American Bar Foundation

The American Bar Foundation (ABF) is the world’s leading research institute for the empirical and interdisciplinary study of law. The ABF seeks to expand knowledge and advance justice through innovative, interdisciplinary, and rigorous empirical research on law, legal processes, and legal institutions. To further this mission the ABF will produce timely, cutting-edge research of the highest quality to inform and guide the legal profession, the academy, and society in the

Sociology and Criminology

Lexi bibbs: rooted in iowa and studying crime in a new ph. d. program.

Lexi Bibbs says that she is very local, born and raised in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. In school growing up, she was active in mock trial, show choir, musical theatre, regular theatre, dance, gymnastics, and cheerleading. “It was a lot,” she says. While it is hard for her to find time to perform as an adult in college, “I still sing in the car,” she laughs.

Criminology was not her first career plan. Aptitude tests in school all suggested the same two careers for her: actress or coroner. She went to science camp and considered studying medicine. Trying to understand violent crime intrigued her as she watched “Criminal Minds” on TV.

Lexi studied psychology and criminology at the University of Northern Iowa but wanted to do something investigative. She wanted to study violent crime. She took the LSAT and qualified for law school but that didn’t feel right, and she took time off to become a 911 emergency dispatcher for Cedar Rapids. She enjoyed the job, but the environment wasn’t good for her, alone in a dark room hearing people at their worst and never knowing what happened to them. She missed being around people and took a job in the Cedar Rapids Library but still missed school. Her family often joked that she would be in school for life. She says that while many people can never imagine going back to school, “I can never imagine leaving it.”

Graduate programs in psychology weren’t the right fit. She wanted to understand psychology but specifically to investigate criminal behavior. Then she chanced upon the new Criminology PhD program right down the road in Iowa City. “It was everything I wanted in one place,” she says. The program covers research in crime, law, and social control, and having sociology in the department helps too.

The emergency dispatcher job gave her the idea for a current research project on resilience. One young man called in to calmly describe how he stabbed his father after an argument. Another person called for help finding the access panel to their attic. People respond so differently to the events in their lives. Why do some people recover from childhood trauma that ruins the lives of others from similar backgrounds? A combination of underlying tendencies and a triggering event could explain it.

Lexi says that she loves everything about the new criminology program and the professors she has come to know. Meg Rogers became more like a friend as they worked together teaching undergraduate classes. James Wo challenged her to conduct independent research and write her first real research paper. Alison Bianchi motivated her to develop a research grant proposal. “It has been terrifying and great,” she says. 

Lexi Bibbs has discovered that becoming a professor is the best way to never leave school.

NOTICE: The University of Iowa Center for Advancement is an operational name for the State University of Iowa Foundation, an independent, Iowa nonprofit corporation organized as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt, publicly supported charitable entity working to advance the University of Iowa. Please review its full disclosure statement.

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India Sri Lanka Joint Call for Research Proposal

The Ministry of Education, Research and Innovation Division, Government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India renewed the Programme of Cooperation (PoC) in Science and Technology, on August 14 th 2022. In terms of the PoC, funding can be made available for selected Joint Projects in bilateral mode involving scientist & technologists from India and Sri Lanka, in the following areas:

• Food Technology
• Plant base medicines
• Robotics & Automation
• Renewable Energy
• Waste Management
• Information and Communication Technology
• Sustainable Agriculture
• Aerospace Engineering
• Big data analysis
• Artificial intelligence
• Any other area of S&T with national relevance (with Justifications)

The Ministry of Education, Research and Innovation Division and DST (hereinafter referred to as the “Implementing Agencies”) hereby invite Indian and Sri Lankan scientists/researchers to submit proposals for Joint Research Projects in any of the above areas in terms of the provisions herein set out.

The guidelines and online format may be seen at e-PMS portal of DST. The applicants may apply online by using the following link:

https://onlinedst.gov.in/

Contact Details:

The following may be connected for further details and clarifications, if any-

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Julie A. Kalina-Hammond, LISW-S

Julie A. Kalina-Hammond, LISW- S is a licensed independent social worker serving as a Research Associate at the Begun Center's Center for Evidence-Based Practices in the role of Clinical Trainer and Fidelity Specialist.

Julie served as the Director of Forensic Services at an Integrated Health Center and has been in her field of practice for twenty-four years. This position included serving as the Treatment Manager for Mental Health Court, which included oversight of an interdisciplinary team. In addition, Julie developed and provided oversight to mental health services and drug and alcohol services within a county adult detention facility, including implementing services for inmates experiencing withdrawal. She was also a CIT Coordinator and manager of a First Responder Wellness Program. She is one of the founders of Community Alliance of Law Enforcement and Mental Health Systems (CALMHS) Committee. She is a Certified Forensic Social Worker and Certified First Responder Counselor. Prior to her work in social work, Julie was a probation officer. She has also taught undergraduate and graduate level social work classes. 

Julie received the 2014 Woman of Achievement award from Lakeland Community College’s Women’s Center in. In 2007 she received the Ohio Forensic Leadership Award. In 2003 she received the NAMI Lake County Coordinator’s Leadership Award. Julie has a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Criminal Justice from The Ohio State University and a Master of Social Science Administration from Case Western Reserve University. Her interests are working with persons with mental illness involved in the Criminal Justice System, working with First Responders and general social work practice.

Social Science Extreme Events Research (SSEER) Virtual Forum – 2024 Tornadoes

Description.

Members of the Social Science Extreme Events Research (SSEER) network and potential collaborators are invited to join a Virtual Forum in response to recent tornadoes that have affected the central, southern, and eastern United States. The forum will be held on Tuesday, June 25, from 11:00 am to 12:00 pm Mountain Time .  

During this forum, participants will hear from those who are hoping to conduct or support social science-led, tornado-focused research. Specifically, during this forum, we’ve invited practicing meteorologists and other professionals to join us to share their early observations regarding critical social science research needs. We also hope to hear from social scientists who are planning or who have already launched studies in response to the recent tornado outbreaks.  

Participants will also learn more about a Call for Proposals for Tornado Ready Research and Data Publication . This call funds tornado research and the publication of tornado-focused datasets and research instruments. We will prioritize funding research focused on places that house or serve socially marginalized populations, such as schools, nursing homes, correctional facilities, or manufactured homes. The program, which is supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, will offer awards ranging from $1,250 to $15,000 . Proposals will be accepted through August 9, 2024 . 

We hope you will join us if you are:   

• a locally-affected researcher in one of the states impacted by the recent tornadoes; 
• a social science researcher who has conducted prior research on tornadoes or who has launched an investigation in response to recent events;   
• a meteorologist or other practicing professional involved in tornado forecasting or recent post-tornado damage assessments;   
• interested in learning more about available resources to inform the ethical collection of perishable data, conducting emotionally challenging research, reciprocity in disaster research, and more. 
• a researcher planning to apply for funding through the Natural Hazards Center.   

If you have questions or would like to speak during this Virtual Forum, please contact Lori Peek at [email protected] . If you are new to hazards or disaster research, we hope you will access our CONVERGE Training Modules and Extreme Events Research Check Sheets .  

We will record this online meeting and post written updates, questions, and comments on the CONVERGE Virtual Forum page. If you are a social scientist who has not yet joined the SSEER network, please sign up .  

Our thoughts are with the people whose lives and communities have been affected by the recent tornadoes. Our hope is that the research generated in response to these calls can help reduce future harm and suffering from tornadoes and other natural hazards.  

If you have questions about the SSEER network or the CONVERGE initiative, please contact Lori Peek at [email protected] .

CONVERGE is funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Civil, Mechanical, and Manufacturing Innovation, Program on Humans, Disasters, and the Built Environment (Award #1841338). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.

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When mothers and children talk about problems, environment matters

Talking to their parents about daily stressors can help adolescents deal with their problems. This is particularly important during the transition to middle school, when youth often are faced with new peer and academic challenges. But does it matter where these conversations take place? That's the topic of a new study from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.

"We were interested in the environmental settings for mother-youth conversations. Where do they typically happen, and what are the preferred locations? We wanted to get the perspectives of both the youth and their mothers," said co-author Kelly Tu, associate professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies (HDFS), part of the College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences (ACES) at Illinois.

The study included a racially diverse community sample of 100 fifth-grade students and their mothers. The pairs were first asked to discuss recent peer and academic problems the child had experienced, then they were interviewed separately about their preferred environments for talking about these issues. The researchers focused on mother-child dyads because mothers often are the primary caregiver who spends more time with youth and tend to be more involved with day-to-day activities.

Youth and mothers identified seven preferred locations for their conversations, including the house in general, youth's bedroom, kitchen, living room, parent's bedroom, car, and outdoor leisure spaces.

"The youth most frequently mentioned the house in general, followed by their bedroom, the kitchen, and the living room. They felt the home was a safe space and being in a comfortable environment encouraged conversation," Tu said. "Their bedroom was the preferred location if they needed privacy, whereas if they wanted input from more family members, they preferred the kitchen or living room."

For mothers, the top three locations included the kitchen, youth's bedroom, and the car.

"Mothers often preferred to talk in the car because they could engage in side-to-side conversations with their child, which they felt made the conversation easier and less intimidating compared to directly looking at one another. In the interviews, they would say, 'Where we talk about this the most is in the car, when I'm doing pickup or taking them somewhere because it gives us time and space away from others.' However, the car was not a preferred setting for the kids -- perhaps they felt like they didn't have as much control in the conversation because it was a parent-dominated space," Tu noted.

Boys in particular mentioned outdoor leisure spaces, such as playing ball in the backyard or walking the dog. Family size also mattered in the responses. Only children were more likely to prefer the living room, perhaps because they were less likely to need the privacy of their bedroom. On the other hand, children with multiple siblings may not have their own room, so the parents' bedroom may be better for private conversations.

"We also found that families preferred to talk together in spaces that were already part of their established family routines because they provided opportunities for kids to initiate conversation," said lead author Dina Izenstark, an associate professor at San José State University who conducted the research as a doctoral student in HDFS. Mealtime routines can provide opportunities for each family member to talk about their day, while bedtime routines provide a more intimate setting for one-on-one conversations that need more discretion.

"Moms were talking about how they had been doing these things for a long time; for example, asking children about their day when tucking their kid in at bedtime or while eating dinner together. These kids are still young, and it may change during their teenage years, but they have the foundation for these conversations to continue to take place," Izenstark stated.

The research sample consisted of predominantly higher-income families, and results may not be directly generalizable to other groups, the researchers noted. For example, if a parent is working a third shift, the home is small, or there are multiple siblings, the time and space for privacy to talk about daily stressors may look different.

"We have to tailor our advice and rethink what it looks like for families in various circumstances. Every family is going to have their own pattern of moving through the day and their own rituals and routines, but we know that environmental setting matters and it is important for families to select a place to talk that is preferred by both the child and the parent as a way to more meaningfully connect with one another," Izenstark said.

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Materials provided by University of Illinois College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences . Original written by Marianne Stein. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

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• Dina Izenstark, Janet Y. Bang, Kelly M. Tu, Natalee Maynard. An Exploration of the Environmental Setting Mothers and Early Adolescent Youth Prefer to Have Conversations About Daily Stressors . The Journal of Early Adolescence , 2024; DOI: 10.1177/02724316241240111

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Many blame social media for poor mental health among teenagers, but the science is murky

If Jordy had a switch to instantly shut down social media, she would flip it.

"I'd switch it off, 100 per cent, even if it was for a week, just so people could have that taste of what it would be like," she said.

Now in her first year out of school, the 18-year-old studies nursing at university and works at a local cafe in Charleville, a small town 745 kilometres west of Brisbane, where she has lived most of her life.

Like Australian teenagers everywhere, she has another life online.

"It's like a second world, really," she said.

"You have reality and then you have social media — two extremely different things."

At the moment, she spends an average of five-and-a-half hours a day on her phone, but it's lower than her peak during high school.

"When I first got a phone I was on it constantly, probably like seven hours, eight hours a day," she said.

She has cut back since then because that second world was not always kind, especially when it came to body image — and despite the fact her parents were always strict about phone usage.

"Growing up, I've always been a big girl … and a sporty person — I'm pretty healthy," she said.

"But when we see images, it tends to be just very thin, skinny people.

"It can just take you down, with the click of your fingers."

Jordy was also being bullied at school, but social media meant it could happen around the clock, no matter where she was.

"A group of boys at my school had tagged me on TikTok telling me to go kill myself," she said.

"It was just so heartbreaking. I was just like, 'I go to school with you every day, we've never had an issue in the past.' That's probably the worst thing that's happened."

Jordy's mental health was tanking, and she began to withdraw from activities she used to love, like footy training or seeing friends.

"I just felt so scared to talk to my mum … I was just like, 'I don't want my mum to think I'm using social media the wrong way'," she said.

No matter how bad things got, logging off still felt impossible.

"It was like that fear of missing out, I guess. I think that's the addiction thing, right?" she said.

"You sort of just have to be on your phone to socialise."

Does more screen time cause worse mental health in teenagers?

Teen mental health has deteriorated at an accelerating rate in the last two decades — more or less exactly since social media and smartphones started to become widespread in 2007.

For obvious reasons, many people, especially concerned parents, have leapt to the conclusion that tech is the culprit.

But the science is surprisingly murky, even though there is a link — research shows more screen time is associated with higher rates of depression in adolescents.

"What we know about the link is there's a link, and that's pretty much what we know," said Aliza Werner-Seidler, a senior researcher at the Black Dog Institute.

"We have really good correlational data, there is a strong linear relationship, particularly in young girls.

"What we don't know is about causation — so is young people's mental health leading them to spend more time on social media and screens, or is it actually the other way around?

"We don't know the direction of the effect."

Dr Werner-Seidler is one of thousands of researchers around the world trying to solve that mystery.

Even if many people are convinced they already know the answer because of their own experience online.

"Personally I would say that it's both," Jordy said.

After a session doomscrolling perfect bodies on TikTok, she "would feel horrible" about herself.

"But then I'd continue to use it and then it made me feel even worse."

After 17 years, why don't we have the answers yet?

Despite 17 years of widespread smartphones and social media, researchers still don't have enough data to definitively say whether they're to blame for deteriorating teen mental health.

Getting those long-term studies done is particularly difficult because trends, algorithms and habits change so quickly.

"When I started this work, TikTok wasn't even a thing … Snapchat, really has only taken off in the last decade or so," Dr Werner-Seidler said.

"It's a very fast-moving field. And so it's very, very difficult to get a handle on it before the next thing comes out."

Part of the problem is that studies have focused on overall screen time, instead of looking at what people were doing online.

"Are they FaceTiming with Grandma? Are they viewing distressing content? Are they being groomed online?" Dr Werner-Seidler said.

"This idea of nuance and it matters what people do and how they do it and how long for and with whom.

"We can't tell any of this information just by looking at how long young people spend on screens."

What social media companies know but don't say

The National Mental Health Commission has been investigating the relationship between digital tech and teen mental health.

On Friday it released its findings after months of consultation, noting the lack of longitudinal evidence and calling for further research to be made a "top priority".

Frustratingly for Dr Werner-Seidler, and other researchers in this area, the data that might solve the mystery does exist — but they can't access it.

"Big tech companies have all of this information," she said.

"If they were to share it with academics and scientists, we would be able to learn so much more, so much more quickly."

The data that has so far emerged in other ways, courtesy of lawsuits and whistleblowers such as Frances Haugen in 2021, has been disturbing.

Ms Haugen, a former Facebook employee, revealed detailed internal research showing Instagram was harmful for teenage girls.

One slide from an in-house presentation reportedly said: "We make body image issues worse for one in three teen girls."

The peak body for Australia's technology industry — whose members include social media companies Meta, Snapchat and TikTok — has defended the sector's contribution to public research.

"DIGI's relevant members have long-standing research and community partnerships in mental health and online safety, and specific policies … informed by that work," a spokesperson said.

Depending on the platform, those policies might include parental controls, avenues to report inappropriate content and seek help, customisable settings, and age limits.

Adherence to those age limits has been mostly voluntary, and the federal government is spending $6.5 million on an age verification trial in the hopes of introducing a higher standard of proof.

Some social media companies are trying to get ahead of any future legislation.

Facebook's parent company Meta announced this week it would no longer allow Facebook users to edit their birthdate to say they're over 18 without verification — a feature that's been in place on Instagram in Australia since last year.

A window for change

The public and political mood when it comes to big tech has rarely been darker.

"I've never seen the appetite [for change] as strong as it is right now," said Alice Dawkins, executive director of Reset Tech Australia.

She says there's a window for change with the federal government currently reviewing its key legislation, the Online Safety Act.

"Our online safety laws are geared at protecting people from [one] another online … [but] there's virtually nothing that can be done about protecting people from the tech itself."

As it stands, companies are rarely obliged to share information on how their products, and not just the people using them, may cause harm.

"It's highly exceptional — think about other sectors, like food, like medicine, like toys — it's incredibly routine in those sectors to have risk assessment and risk mitigation of products," Ms Dawkins said.

"There's compounding public awareness of the problem … it's never been a more appropriate time for the government to legislate."

Dr Werner-Seidler said that for now, internal data was being used by big tech to keep users scrolling for as long as possible.

"These are commercial big companies [and] they use a whole bunch of engagement strategies to keep people coming back, and that is their goal," she said.

The conversation you need to have with your kids

Jordy eventually found the courage to tell her mum what was happening to her online.

"When it got really bad I was just like, 'Mum, I need to show you … this is what's happening.'"

After that, her parents insisted she cut back her screen time but, despite everything that had already happened, she still fought it.

"I was so mean to her … I would get so angry, I'd be like, 'Mum, it's not your life,'" she said.

But that was before Jordy noticed a big improvement in her mood and her grades.

"I'm thankful every day that my mum did what she did.

"You can't ever change the fact that your kids are going to use social media," said Jordy, although boundaries were useful in her case.

"Saying to your kids, 'What are you using social media for? Why do you have to be on social media?'

"For parents out there that are struggling, I think it's that conversation you need to have with your kids.

"As a kid, you're going to get frustrated, but it's really just parents trying to protect their kids from what's out there."

Mental health disorders among young people have soared by nearly 50 per cent in 15 years. The ABC is talking to youth, parents, and researchers about what's driving this pattern, and what can be done to turn things around.

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