a comprehensive literature review on employee job satisfaction

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Transformational Leadership and Employee Job Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Employee Relations Climate and the Moderating Role of Subordinate Gender

Associated data.

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Scholars have paid extensive attention to transformational leadership for decades. However, existing studies still lack ample discussions on the underlying mechanism and boundary conditions of its influence on employee job satisfaction. This study proposed a moderated mediation model based on social exchange theory. We collected survey data from 211 frontline employees to verify our hypotheses. The results showed that transformational leadership was positively associated with employee job satisfaction via the mediation role of the perceived employee relations climate. Furthermore, the relationship between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate, as well as the indirect relationship between the two, was demonstrated to be more significant for male employees. This study offered a new account of the mechanisms of transformational leadership and clarified a boundary condition for its effectiveness.

1. Introduction

With the increasing competition of economic globalization and popularity of the employee-centered management approach, improving the leadership effectiveness of managers has become one of the most important ways to enhance the core competitiveness of companies and to maintain a sustainable competitive advantage [ 1 ]. In the past 20 years, transformational leadership has become one of the most popular leadership styles in both academia and in practice [ 2 , 3 ]. Transformational leadership is generally used to describe leaders who articulate a vision of the future that is shared with their subordinates, intellectually stimulate their subordinates, and pay attention to the individual differences among people [ 4 ]. Transformational leadership can motivate subordinates to put the interests of an organization first, as well as to put in extra effort to serve the organization [ 5 ].

Extant studies have shown that transformational leadership is positively related to the attitudes that employees have toward their jobs as well as work outcomes [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. For example, Judge et al. [ 9 ] and Lowe et al. [ 10 ] demonstrated that there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and the attitudes that employees have toward their jobs as well as their job performance. Employee job satisfaction refers to the attitudes or viewpoints that employees hold about their job or job experiences; as such, it is an evaluation of their overall roles at work [ 11 , 12 ]. The relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction is well established in the current literature [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Satisfied employees are a valuable organizational resource for success, well-being, and sustainability in the long run [ 16 ]. Extant studies have explored the mechanisms of transformational leadership from the perspective of intrinsic motivation and employee’s perceived relationship with the leader [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. For example, empirical studies examined the mediation role of self-efficacy, psychological empowerment, psychological safety, and trust in leaders [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. In addition to the employee’s personal motivation, job characteristics, and leader–follower interaction, recent studies on employee job satisfaction argued that employees’ perceptions of organizational settings were also critical in raising employee job satisfaction [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. For example, Ahmad et al. [ 27 ] found that the organizational climate perceived by employees had an impact on job satisfaction. Bulińska-Stangrecka and Bagieńska [ 28 ] argued that employee relations played a role in shaping job satisfaction.

Meanwhile, research on transformational leadership has turned to discuss the impact of transformational leadership on promoting changes in the relationship between employees and the organization. Some studies argued that transformational leadership affects employee’ perceived organizational support; perceived organizational trust; and perceived climate which supports creative thinking [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. However, there lacks ample empirical results to support whether transformational leadership affects employee job satisfaction from the perspective of employee’s perceived relationship with the organization. These findings raise the question of whether transformational leadership is able to affect employee attitudes toward the employee relations climate of their organization and whether this amendment in perception will affect employee job satisfaction. Empirically testing the mediating mechanism of employees’ perceived relations climate will enhance our knowledge on the effectiveness of transformational leadership. In addition, is transformational leadership effective for all employees? There is still a lack of in-depth discussion on the underlying mechanisms and boundary effects in the existing literature.

Employee relations climate refers to the shared perception and feeling of management practices among organizational members [ 33 ]. It reflects a highly engaged and employee-centered culture [ 33 , 34 ]. The employee relations climate is an important aspect of organizational effectiveness, and it is a source of communication between management and employees [ 35 ]. We propose that it works as a mediator between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. Transformational leadership will lead to close connections between employees and the organization and will create an employee-centered climate. This kind of climate will allow employees to feel the friendly side of the organization and will enable them to maintain a positive attitude in the work place, improving employee job satisfaction [ 36 , 37 ]. In addition, while an increasing number of gender studies on transformational leadership have explained the effectiveness of transformational leadership from the perspective of the gender of the leader, studies have ignored the gender of the subordinate [ 38 , 39 ]. We further argue a boundary condition of transformational leadership that is based on a subordinate gender perspective and propose that such a mediation relationship should be more significant for male employees. According to studies on gender difference, men are more achievement oriented than women at work, and they tend to pay more attention to challenges and development opportunities at work [ 40 , 41 ]. We contend that transformational leadership will have a more substantial effect on the employee relations climate perceived by male subordinates. Finally, we proposed and examined a moderated mediation model that incorporates the employee relations climate and gender difference into the discussion.

This study contains several contributions. First, we offer a new account to explain how transformational leadership affects employee job satisfaction from the perspective of the relationship between personal perception and the organization. It suggests that organizations can choose leaders when recruiting and can equip them with transformational leadership traits. It also reminds organizations of the importance of creating a positive employee relations climate to improve employee job satisfaction. Second, we identify how the effectiveness of transformational leadership is contingent on subordinate gender. It provides a basis for transformational leaders to classify and manage employees of different genders who are on the team. Furthermore, most research has focused on the impact of the employee relations climate at the organizational level [ 42 , 43 ]. Additionally, our study enriches the research on the employee relations climate by examining its individual-level effectiveness.

2. Literature Review

2.1. transformational leadership, employee job satisfaction, and employee relations climate.

In organizations, climate is a measurable set of attributes of the work environment, which are perceived directly or indirectly by those who live and work in that environment [ 44 ]. The climate considers management, employees’ perceptions of how employee relations are handled, and employee interactions with each other [ 45 , 46 ]. The employee relations climate refers to the common perceptions that employees have about certain management practices, including interpersonal relationships, work climate, employee engagement, and performance [ 47 ]. It reflects a highly engaged, employee-centered culture [ 33 , 34 ]. The employee relations climate is an important aspect of organizational effectiveness [ 35 ], and current research confirms that the employee relations climate plays a mediating role between CEO relationship-focused behaviors and firm performance [ 42 ] and a mediating effect between strategy HRM practices and firm performance [ 43 ]. Establishing a positive employee relations climate is very important for an organization’s development [ 35 ]. The role of the employee relations climate between leadership style and employee attitude or behaviors deserves more attention from scholars.

Leaders play a significant role in their company and are not only the key to the company’s growth but are also the source of corporate culture [ 48 ]. Studies have shown that leaders can influence climate formation by holding a set of assumptions themselves and then by communicating them, engaging in symbolism, and inspiring consistent behaviors among their followers [ 49 ]. Additionally, the climate that is formed in the corporate environment is influenced by the leadership style. For example, Nemanich and Keller argued that transformational leaders influence subordinate outcomes through the perceived climate that they create [ 31 , 50 ]. Burns [ 51 ] defined transformational leadership as a behavioral process that stimulates employees to perform better at work by stimulating the spiritual aspects of their subordinates. Li and Shi [ 52 ] further combined transformational leadership with the Chinese context and identified four transformational leadership characteristics. The first characteristic, namely, be moral exemplification, suggests that transformational leaders can lead by example, consistent with their words and deeds, and demonstrate a spirit of dedication. Additionally, their morals and behaviors are recognized by employees. Second, vision motivation refers to leaders who describe the goals and visions for the company to their subordinates, allowing the employees to be more informed about the company’s future development, and the direction that they want to work toward, with the aim of bringing value to the company and to others. Third, personalized care means that leaders tend to care about the personal situations of their employees and care about their families. Finally, transformational leadership includes leadership charisma, whereby leaders have the ability to help and guide their subordinates, encouraging active innovation among their employees. Such leaders have a complete work ethic and a strong sense of professionalism, which is effective in leading employees forward.

The characteristics of transformational leadership, such as care, communication, and motivation, are beneficial in helping employees perceive a positive employee relations climate [ 31 ]. From the perspective of social exchange theory, social exchange and economic exchange in employee-organizational exchanges will have an impact on commitment and employee job satisfaction [ 53 ]. Transformational leaders are the embodiment of the organization; employees personify their organization by ascribing human-like characteristics to it [ 30 ]. Based on this organization’s personification, employees would view the organization’s expression and judge the organization’s attitude based on the leader’s behavior and attitude [ 54 ]. Transformational leaders not only convey the company’s vision and mission to employees, motivating them to work hard, but also encourage employees to innovate and challenge themselves and care about and help employees solve problems [ 55 ], which enables employees to establish a closer connection with the company. In this interactive climate, employees can feel the positive attitude and expression of the organization [ 36 ]. When transformational leaders provide help to employees when they need it, improve their abilities, impart knowledge to them, and treat them equally, employees will perceive organizational care and support. The personal and corporate interests are closely linked, and employees can perceive an employee-centered and highly involved employee relations climate, which will help improve the quality of social exchange between employees and the organization [ 56 ]. In order to fulfill the reciprocal responsibilities to the organization, employees will show more behaviors and attitudes that are beneficial to the organization as a reward for repaying or exchanging awareness [ 57 ]. When employees perceive a high-level employee relations climate, they will have positive behaviors and attitudes toward the company and contribute positive values and results to the organization, which will significantly improve employee job satisfaction. A satisfied workforce exerts more effort and works hard to achieve organizational objectives [ 58 ]. The following hypothesis is thus proposed:

Employees’ perceived employee relations climate mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction.

2.2. The Moderating Role of Subordinate Gender

From a social information processing perspective, the effect that a leader’s behavior has on their subordinates will depend on how the subordinates perceive and process the situational cues that are conveyed by the leader [ 59 ]. Under transformational leadership, subordinates with positive characteristics are more actively engaged in their work because positive subordinates have a strong need for growth [ 60 ]. Transformational leadership develops the potential that employees have to a great extent by influencing and motivating them, thus enabling them to go beyond their interests [ 61 ]. Gender difference studies point out that men and women differ in their expectations and in their attitudes toward competition in the workplace. Generally, men value more the challenge and opportunity to develop at work. They are more willing to show their talents in competition [ 62 ]. Research has found that male subordinates pay more attention to their inner work values than female subordinates, such as being responsible and having opportunities to exert initiative and achievement [ 40 ]. Empirical studies conducted in Korea and China have supported the notion that men are more courageous, risk taking, and achievement oriented [ 63 ]. As such, they are more easily influenced by transformational leadership [ 64 ]. Our study is also rooted in a Chinese context, and we argue that the relationship between transformational leadership and perceived employee relations climate is contingent on the subordinate’s gender.

As males are more achievement oriented and value more challenge and opportunity at work, their work motivation and perceptions are more easily activated by the managerial context [ 65 ]. When transformational leaders describe the company’s future development goals to male subordinates, these male subordinates are more confident that they can bring value to the company and to others, and they feel more closely connected to the organization and are able to perceive a more positive employee relations climate [ 63 ]. However, female subordinates are relatively conservative, prefer to avoid competition, and have relatively lower expectations for developing their careers [ 40 ]. Transformational leadership creates a dilemma between the high-demand reality and the relatively conservative career expectations of female subordinates [ 66 ]. They may be less likely to prefer or embrace the values and visions of their leaders, resulting in a less positive attitude toward the organization and less engagement in their relationship with the organization [ 67 ]. Thus, the positive relationship between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate will be attenuated for female employees. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was formulated:

The relationship between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate perceived by employees is moderated by the subordinate gender in such a way that the above relationship is stronger for male subordinates and weaker for female subordinates.

Integrating the mediating role of Hypothesis 1 and the moderating role of Hypothesis 2, we further proposed an integrated moderated mediation model in which the mediating effect of the perceived employee relations climate is moderated by subordinate’s gender. Transformational leadership emphasizes interaction and connection between leaders and subordinates [ 66 ], which has a direct impact on the employee relations climate [ 46 ], and the employee’s perception of this climate has a positive impact on employee job satisfaction. In addition, the subordinate’s gender can play a moderating role in the positive role that transformational leadership plays in employee job satisfaction through the perceived employee relations climate. Specifically, male subordinates attach importance to development opportunities and job challenges, and they tend to benefit more from transformational leaders who convey their goals and visions of the company to them [ 65 ]. When employees have a stronger perception of an employee-centered climate and support from the organization, they will have more positive perceptions of the relations climate in the organization, resulting in enhanced employee job satisfaction [ 63 ]. Conversely, female subordinates are relatively conservative and more inclined to avoid competition [ 40 ]. They are lower in achievement orientation and may be less sensitive to the values and visions of their leaders, resulting in fewer perceptions about the employee relations climate, resulting in a lower level of employee job satisfaction [ 66 ]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was formulated, and Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework.

The conceptual model of the relationship between transformational leadership, employee relations climate, subordinate gender, and employee job satisfaction.

The indirect relationship between transformational leaders and employee job satisfaction via employees’ perceived employee relations climate is moderated by the subordinate’s gender. Specifically, this indirect relationship is stronger for male subordinates and weaker for female subordinates.

3.1. Participants and Procedure

We use survey data to examine our hypotheses. To ensure the anonymity of the research subjects and to allow them to express their opinions truthfully, data for this study were collected from various industries using an online survey platform called WJX.cn [ 68 ]. The platform is a third-party platform that follows very strict sample collection procedures to ensure valid responses, and it provides services that can be used to collect data from the target population. We recruited participants to answer our questionnaire via this platform. According to the ratio criteria (one item needs five responses), we planned to recruit around 250 participants for the survey. After the survey had been posted for one week, we received a total of 248 responses from frontline employees in China and eliminated 37 due to incomplete answers and missing information. This study is a cross-sectional design study. The final number of usable responses was 211, providing an effective recovery rate of 85.1.

Table 1 shows the characteristics of the respondents. In terms of the sex ratio of the respondents, 40.76% were male and 59.24% were female, which reflected the gender balance of the sample. In terms of age, the average age of the participants was 33.06 years old, and the majority of the respondents were 20–29 years old. From the perspective of educational background, tenure, and company industry, the participants were properly distributed for each aspect.

Characteristics of the respondents.

3.2. Measures

Unless otherwise indicated, the measures used five-point Likert scales ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”.

Transformational leadership (TL): We used the twenty-six-item scale determining transformational leadership that was proposed by Li and Shi [ 52 ]. An example item from this scale is “My leader endures hardship first and enjoys last”. We averaged the twenty-six-item scores to create a total scale score (Cronbach’s α = 0.912, mean = 4.113, SD = 0.373).

Employee relations climate (ERC). We used the eight-item scale to determine the perceived employee relations climate that was developed by Ngo et al. [ 47 ]. An example item from this scale is “I can fully utilize my knowledge and skills in the organization”. We averaged the eight-item scores to create a total scale score (Cronbach’s α = 0.714, mean = 4.118, SD = 0.455).

Employee job satisfaction (EJS). We used the twenty-item scale measuring employee job satisfaction that was created by Weiss [ 69 ]. An example item from this scale is “I have the opportunity to work independently”. We averaged the twenty-item scores to create a total scale score (Cronbach’s α = 0.875, mean = 4.061, SD = 0.369).

Subordinate gender. We controlled for subordinate gender (0 = male, 1 = female).

Control variables. We controlled for age, education background (1 = high school or below, 2 = bachelor’s degree, 3 = master’s degree), company’s industry (0 = manufacturing, 1 = service industry and others), and working years.

3.3. Analysis Strategy

First, we employed Harman monofactor analysis to analyze the common method biases and CFA analysis to assess the measurement validity. Second, we conducted a correlation analysis. Then, we employed ordinary least squares (OLS) analysis in Mplus 7.0 (Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA, USA) to test the hypothesis. We further applied the Monte Carlo approach to examine the indirect effect. Then, we conducted a simple slope test to examine the moderation effect. Finally, we conducted the Monte Carlo approach to test the moderated mediation hypothesis.

4.1. Measurement Validation

As the survey was a self-evaluation for employees, we used the Harman monofactor analysis to analyze the common method biases of the sample data [ 70 ]. The results show that the unrotated monofactor interpretation variable was 25.88%, which did not account for half of the total variance that was explained. Additionally, after the data for each variable were centralized, the tolerance range was 0.90–0.98, and the variance inflation factor was less than 2.0. Therefore, it could be determined that there were no severe multicollinearity problems between the variables.

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the measurement validity. We subjected the three sub-constructs for the TL, ERC, and EJS to one CFA. As TL contains many levels and because EJS contains a large number of items, we used the item-parceling strategy to improve the model fitness [ 71 , 72 ]. We parceled TL according to the four dimensions and EJS according to factor loading. The results showed that the three-factor model fit the data well (χ 2 = 132, df = 88, p < 0.01, RMSEA = 0.0487, CFI = 0.969, TLI = 0.963). This baseline model was significantly better than the other two-factor models. The first two-factor model combined employee relations climate and employee job satisfaction into one factor (χ 2 = 140, df = 89, ∆χ 2 = 8, ∆df = 1, p < 0.01), the second two-factor model combined transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction into one factor (χ 2 = 246, df = 90, ∆χ 2 = 114, ∆df = 2, p < 0.01), and the third two-factor model combined transformational leadership and employee relations climate into one factor (χ 2 = 181, df = 89, ∆χ 2 = 49, ∆df = 1, p < 0.01). Additionally, this baseline model was also significantly better than the single-factor model (χ 2 =246, df = 90, ∆χ 2 =114, ∆df = 2, p < 0.01). Overall, the discriminant validity of the constructs was confirmed.

4.2. Correlation Analyses

Table 2 shows the correlations and reliabilities of each variable. A significant positive correlation was observed between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate and between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. At the same time, there was also a significant positive correlation between the employee relations climate and employee job satisfaction. The relationship between the variables was in line with the expectations of the study.

Correlations and reliabilities.

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 (two tailed). Italic and bold numbers in parentheses represent the variable reliability. TL = transformational leadership; ERC = employee relations climate; EJS = employee job satisfaction.

4.3. Hypothesis Tests

We employed OLS in Mplus 7.0 to test our hypotheses. The regression results are shown in Table 3 . Model 1 regressed the effect of employee job satisfaction (EJS) on transformational leadership (TL). Model 2 regressed the effect of EJS on TL and the employee relations climate (ERC) simultaneously. Model 3 regressed the effect of ERC on TL, gender, and their interaction term. Moreover, Model 4 regressed the effect of EJS on TL, gender, the interaction term of TL and gender, and ERC simultaneously.

Hierarchical multiple regression of employee relations climate and employee job satisfaction.

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. TL = transformational leadership. The results of the standardized regression coefficients.

H1 argued that the employee relations climate mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. Incorporating the results of Model 1 and Model 2, we can observe that the positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction remained significant after adding the employee relations climate into the regression model. However, the coefficient decreased significantly, indicating that the employee relations climate played a partially intermediate role between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. To examine the indirect effects, we applied the Monte Carlo approach to generate the confidence intervals (CIs) [ 73 ]. We constructed bias-corrected 95% CIs for the indirect effects based on 2000 re-samples. Bootstrap analysis showed that the mediating effect of transformational leadership on employee job satisfaction via employee relations climate was significant (indirect effect = 0.392, CI = [0.294, 0.514], not containing 0). Therefore, H1 was further supported.

We tested H2, which considered whether subordinate gender played a moderating role between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate. As shown in Table 3 , the interaction term between transformational leadership and subordinate gender had a significant effect on the employee relations climate in Model 3. To examine the moderating role of subordinate gender more visually, we plotted the moderating role of the employee relations climate in Figure 2 and conducted a simple slope test. Figure 2 suggests that the positive effect of transformational leadership on the employee relations climate was more significant for male subordinates (b = 0.394, p < 0.01). In contrast, the effect of transformational leadership on the employee relations climate was relatively weaker when the subordinate’s gender was female (b = 0.308, p < 0.01), and the difference between the two conditions was significant (b = −0.086, p < 0.05). Therefore, H2 was supported.

The influence of transformational leadership on employee relations climate under different subordinate genders.

We further examined the moderated mediation model in which the subordinate gender should moderate the indirect effect. The results of Model 4 in Table 3 show that the interaction term between transformational leadership and subordinate gender was no longer significant but that the employee relations climate predicted employee job satisfaction. The bootstrap analysis results in Table 4 showed that the mediation effect of transformational leadership on employee job satisfaction via the employee relations climate was significant when the subordinates were male; when the subordinates were female, the above relationship remained significant. Additionally, the difference was significant, and the indirect effect was stronger for male subordinates. Therefore, H3 was supported.

The moderated mediation model test.

Note: Bootstrapping sample size = 2000.

5. Discussion

5.1. theoretical contributions.

This study offers several theoretical contributions. First, our study reveals a new mechanism of transformational leadership. Previous studies have verified the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction from intrinsic motivation and trust in leaders [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Recent studies found that the employee’s job satisfaction will also be affected by the perceived organizational interactions [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. Therefore, we offer a new account from the perspective of employees’ perceived relationship with the organization to discuss the effect of transformational leadership on employee job satisfaction. Specifically, we examined the mediator of perceived employee relations climate. Transformational leadership emphasizes the connection and interaction between leaders and employees. The behavior of transformational leaders affects the formation of the employee relations climate within the company, which will further influence employee job satisfaction after employees perceive a positive employee relations climate. Our empirical conclusions are consistent with those of the previously published literature on employee job satisfaction, which indicates that the organizational climate is positively related to employee job satisfaction [ 27 ].

Second, this study contributes to the literature on the boundary conditions of transformational leadership based on a subordinate gender perspective. Studies of gender differences in transformational leadership focus on leaders’ gender [ 38 , 39 ]. However, studying whether and why transformational leadership produces different effects between male and female subordinates is also examined in the literature [ 74 ]. In previous studies, subordinate gender was generally only used as a control variable [ 63 ]. This study empirically regarded subordinate gender as the moderator variable and found that subordinate gender moderated the relationship between transformational leadership and the employee relations climate as it was perceived by the employees, in turn, affecting employee job satisfaction. Therefore, this study expands the gender theory as it pertains to the effectiveness of transformational leadership. In the future, research on the subordinate gender is worthy of attention in transformational leadership.

Last but not least, our study enriches the research on employee relations climate by examining its individual-level effectiveness. Existing research has focused on the impact of the employee relations climate at the organizational level. For example, research found that the employee relations climate had a positive impact on organizational performance [ 42 , 43 ]. We further empirically found that the employee relations climate mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. In addition, subordinate gender played a moderating role in the mediation of the employee relations climate between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. Our results provide insight into how the employee relations climate has a positive impact on individual outcomes.

5.2. Management Implications

The present research shows how employee job satisfaction can be effectively improved through transformational leadership behavior. The following implications can be drawn from the present research:

First, we suggest that organizations choose supervisors with transformational leadership traits when recruiting. Because transformational leadership can effectively predict employee job satisfaction [ 13 , 14 ], the organization can add relevant questions during the recruitment test and interview to examine the leader’s moral qualities, their level of concern for their employees, and the candidate’s ability to plan goals. For managers who do not have these traits, it is essential to organize training to help these managers acquire transformational leadership skills, such as how to help employees at work and in life, improve their capabilities and leadership charm, and strengthen their interactions with their employees.

Second, organizations should carry out training programs to improve manager awareness and their ability to establish an employee relations climate that is perceived as positive by their employees, as climate mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. Bowen and Ostroff argued that organizational intangible resources, such as organizational climate, create sustainable competitive advantages for the company; therefore, it is important to manage them properly [ 37 ]. This paper reminds organizations to put more effort into creating a positive employee relations climate. Transformational leadership as the incarnation of an organization has an important influence on forming the social climate [ 30 ]. They need to promote the formation of a positive employee relations climate and consciously enhance employees’ perception of the employee relations climate.

Finally, transformational leaders should notice that male employees and female employees perceive the effectiveness of transformational leadership differently. Previous research showed that the impact of transformational leadership on employee job satisfaction varied according to employees’ individual characteristics, such as education background [ 75 ]. Our study finds that subordinate gender also plays a moderating role in the efforts taken by transformational leaders to improve employee job satisfaction through the perceived employee relations climate. Specifically, this relationship is more pronounced for male subordinates. Therefore, the desire to improve employee job satisfaction by establishing a positive employee relations climate is more evident in organizations with more male subordinates.

5.3. Limitations and Further Research

Our study has some limitations, and these should be considered in future research. First, all of the hypotheses were tested using cross-sectional data, which did not allow accurate conclusions about the causal relationships between variables. We encourage future researchers to use a longitudinal design to examine the causal relationships between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. We also recommend that researchers use a mixed method, for example, conduct interviews and use field samples. Second, this article studies the concept of transformational leadership as a whole, but transformational leadership consists of multiple dimensions. Future research should continue to investigate how different dimensions under transformational leadership affect employee job satisfaction. Third, this study examined the role of the employee relations climate as perceived by employees at the individual level. Future research could study the impact of the employee relations climate at the team level.

6. Conclusions

This study provided a theoretical model of transformational leadership, the perceived employee relations climate, subordinate gender, and employee job satisfaction. The results showed that the perceived employee relations climate partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and employee job satisfaction. Subordinate gender moderated the relationship between transformational leadership and the perceived employee relations climate. In addition, the indirect relationship between transformational leaders and employee job satisfaction via perceived employee relations climate was moderated by subordinate gender, and this indirect relationship was stronger for male subordinates. This study offers a new account of the mechanisms of transformational leadership and clarifies a boundary condition for its effectiveness.

Author Contributions

C.C., X.D. and J.L contributed to the conceptualization and research design of the study; X.D. collected data and performed data analysis; C.C. provided funding support; X.D. and C.C. drafted the paper; J.L. made revisions and provided supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.71902023), Shanghai Philosophy and Social Science Foundation (No.2019EGL012), and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No.2232018H-09).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the recommendations of Ethical Guidelines of Glorious Sun School of Business and Management, Donghua University, and approved by Glorious Sun School of Business and Management, Donghua University.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Analysis of a comprehensive wellness program's impact on job satisfaction in the workplace

International Hospitality Review

ISSN : 2516-8142

Article publication date: 8 October 2020

Issue publication date: 24 November 2020

This research study included an examination into the extent that a comprehensive wellness program affects employees' job satisfaction levels. As the leaders of more hospitality organizations implement wellness programs in the workplace, they will want to understand what factors, besides the employees' health, the wellness programs can impact. Survey participants were self-identified employees of the hospitality organization who did or did not participate in the wellness program. Research findings indicated there was a significant difference in extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels between employees who participated and employees who were nonparticipating in the wellness program.

Design/methodology/approach

The population for this study was from a contract foodservice organization that provides facility services to higher education organizations, from their northeast regional location that consisted of approximately 200 employees. The employees of the organization ranged from entry-level positions, up to and including senior-level management. The researcher solicited employees in all departments in the organization to participate in the survey. The company offers a comprehensive wellness program, and all employees in the organization had a choice to participate in the wellness program.

The intent of the study was to determine if participating in a wellness program affected the employee's job satisfaction levels. Securing a hospitality organization to survey was a challenge, possibly because the survey included questions about job satisfaction. The purpose of the study was to identify whether participation in the wellness program affected employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Hospitality organizations continue to allocate resources to implement and improve existing wellness programs in the workplace. Researchers had not specifically focused on the potential impact a wellness program might have on employee job satisfaction levels. Cyboran and Goldsmith (2012) concluded organization leaders should take steps to create an effective workplace. The study showed that even though hospitality organization leaders are dedicating resources to the development and implementation of wellness programs, participating in the wellness program has an effect on increasing or maintaining current employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels throughout the organization.

Originality/value

This is the author’s research that was conducted for a dissertation that has been turned into a research article for publication.

• Comprehensive
• Wellness program
• Job satisfaction
• Participant
• Nonparticipant

Marshall, C. (2020), "Analysis of a comprehensive wellness program's impact on job satisfaction in the workplace", International Hospitality Review , Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 221-241. https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-05-2020-0014

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2020, Craig Marshall

Published in International Hospitality Review . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Over the years, corporations have implemented wellness programs in the workplace that leaders feel can potentially reduce health care costs for the organization and the employees and can impact productivity, which has the potential to increase the organization's bottom line ( Bard, 2011 ). Organizational leaders should determine proactive solutions to offset the employers' increasing cost in providing health care – one solution is providing integrated wellness programs that encourage total health and well-being ( Izlar, 2011 ). Companies starting wellness programs realize there will be issues. Some of the issues include determining ways to encourage employee participation in the wellness program. This issue might be resolved by incentivizing participation and developing other options for the employees to take advantage of the wellness program. A major factor organizational leaders need to keep in the forefront is complying with legal and ethical considerations that are related to implementing a wellness program, some of which are as follows, Employee Retirement Security Act (ERISA), Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) and Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

Carlson and Murphy (2010) reported that 133 million Americans suffer from several types of chronic condition, including arthritis, asthma, depression, heart disease and diabetes, which is becoming one of the top diseases in the United States. The rise in health insurance costs prevented low-income workers from getting coverage, even if their employer offered a health insurance plan ( Blakely, 2010 ). In 2012, employers across the United States were getting ready to implement the ACA at the beginning of 2014 ( Wojcik, 2012 ). The basis of the ACA was to promote access to care and strengthen consumer protections ( Fielding et al. , 2012 ). In 2014, employers decided to assess whether their plans met ACA guidelines. Analysts at the Congressional Budget Office estimated the ACA would provide health insurance to 35 million additional individuals by 2021 ( Berman, 2011 ). The ACA is a historic opportunity to reorient the US health care system with a focus on preventive care instead of a focus on illness and intervention. The ACA supports clinical medicine through employee health prevention that builds and strengthens the groundwork for prevention and wellness ( Fielding et al. , 2012 ).

Part of the implementation of the ACA is to assess penalties to organizations that do not meet several minimum requirements. The penalties are as follows: (1) $3,000 annually per employee for whom coverage does not meet the federally subsidized coverage on state health plans, (2) $2,000 annually for qualified full-time employees if the employer offers no workplace health coverage and (3) $2,000 annually for each qualified full-time employee on the organization's payroll and not in a sponsored health plan, with certain exceptions ( Berman, 2011 ). Many officials in the government and consumers familiar with the ACA question if employers will drop health coverage altogether, as the penalty is less than offering coverage to full-time employees. Madison et al. (2011) addressed three controversies associated with the implementation of the ACA. First, organizational leaders throughout the United States question the effectiveness of incentive programs improving health, regardless of the efforts of the organizations. Second, employees argue it is not appropriate for employers to take such an active stance in trying to improve or influence their personal health. Third, many people look at the financial incentive program as coercive or a potential tool for discrimination ( Madison et al. , 2011 ).

With the escalation of health care costs, leadership's engagement in assessing the health of employees increased. One part of the process involved improving the type of care delivered to the employees. According to Skrepnek et al. (2012) , employers often focused on assessing short- or long-term disability, workers compensation, presenteeism and absenteeism, measurements related to productivity and employee turnover or replacement costs.

Organizational leaders attempt to evaluate the extent to which presenteeism costs contribute to the overall costs associated with health conditions. No standardization exists for an organization to implement an appropriate approach to measure presenteeism ( Skrepnek et al. , 2012 ). Three commonly used measurement strategies organizational leaders can implement are (1) self-initiated reports (e.g. wellness survey tools piggybacked with observed studies), (2) simulations (e.g. for employee productivity forecasting) and (3) a retrospective database (e.g. potential medical health claims with employee productivity data ( Skrepnek et al. , 2012 ).

Organization leaders proactively try to find a solution to the rising health care costs using integrated wellness programs that emphasize employee awareness of their total health and well-being ( Osilla et al. , 2012 ). If firms are to remain competitive in the marketplace, wellness programs will become a best practice offered to employees and when recruiting top talent ( Izlar, 2011 ). The rise in health care costs and wellness programs is going to become a benefit that firm leaders may assess as worthwhile to employees ( Wojcik, 2012 ).

The purpose of this study was to examine a correlation between employees who participate/do not participate in a wellness program and their extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Organizational leaders originally implemented wellness programs as a way to improve employee wellness ( Lee et al. , 2010 ), but realized quickly the wellness programs might serve as a way to improve employee health and job satisfaction ( Ickes and Sharma, 2009 ). An investment in employee health may lead to reduced absenteeism, improved job satisfaction and increased productivity ( Lee et al. , 2010 ).

Literature review

Wellness programs are becoming increasingly popular because researchers have demonstrated to US employers that these programs can potentially reduce health costs and increase productivity, which increases the bottom line of the business sponsoring them ( Bard, 2011 ; Song and Baicker, 2019 ). Hospitality leaders need to focus on proactive solutions to increasing employer costs for health care by providing integrated wellness programs that emphasize total health and well-being ( Izlar, 2011 ). The issues related to starting wellness programs include encouraging employees to participate in the programs by developing incentives and options for them to take advantage of the wellness programs. As organizational leaders implement wellness programs for employees, the leaders will need to keep abreast of the legal and ethical considerations related to implementing a wellness program.

Defining wellness programs

Wellness programs are not new, and it is also not a new strategy organizations are implementing to reduce health care costs. With health care costs continuing to increase on a yearly basis, leadership needs to focus on using wellness programs as an incentive to improve the health of employees and, in some instances, offer discounts on premiums based on participation in the wellness program. The early development of wellness programs and the focus of these early wellness programs included five dimensions and 16 skill areas, including personal responsibility, individual excellence, cultivating personal passion, refining critical thinking skills and lifelong quest to become or stay healthy ( Ardell, 2011 ; Song and Baicker, 2019 ). The list also included humor, play, optimism, extraordinary levels of fitness and more. Ardell (2011) noted wellness is associated with the idea of freedom and democratic values that originated in Greece and was embodied into the US Constitution. In a broad sense, wellness stands for the values of a productive good life for each person ( Ardell, 2011 ).

An active proponent of a spiritually based notion of wellness argued comprehensive wellness programs should serve as an opportunity for employees to improve their health and their total well-being ( Ardell, 2011 ; Mayer, 2016 ). As a supporter of the broadest contraction of comprehensive wellness programs, Ardell (2011) repeatedly criticized the narrow focus of comprehensive programs on disease prevention management. Although most comprehensive wellness programs involve some aspect of health testing, smoking cessation and weight management, real comprehensive wellness programs need to focus on a person's total health and well-being. Some health officials continue to support the original broad-based wellness programs and continue to find a lot to criticize regarding the current manifestation of comprehensive wellness programs that most companies offer ( Moran, 2013 ).

The comprehensive wellness paradigm led managers to consider using biomedical and anatomical metaphors to describe organizations in terms of total health. Organizational leaders continue to offer ways to make employees healthier by focusing on the persistence of negative features derived from outmoded capitalistic models. Analysis shows a split between ideas on how to implement comprehensive programs in organizations and how to keep the chaos of the implementation at bay. Establishing an exercise regimen can provide an opportunity to improve wellness in individuals, and exercise may tacitly create an opportunity to improve the lives of employees outside the workplace. There is a fine line between encouraging employees to exercise and controlling the employees, which could be construed as a reason why employees may choose not to participate in organizations' comprehensive wellness programs. Leadership's goal is to present the comprehensive wellness program in a fashion that employees will see a general culture focus to have fun and improve employees' health ( Ardell, 2011 ; Moran, 2013 ).

Arguments continue against the idea that leaders of large organizations attempt to dictate employee health. With the recent potential rise and uncertainty of health insurance rates, employees may be more open to participating in organization-sponsored comprehensive wellness programs with the hope that participating will lead to healthier lifestyles and reduced health insurance costs. The potential remains that a consensus view may be in danger of becoming an untested myth, as employers continue to place demands on return on investment evaluations of comprehensive wellness programs to prove if such programs are worth the investment ( Moran, 2013 ).

Employees might conclude that the benign reason or motivation behind comprehensive wellness programs is an attempt by organizational leaders to provide a way for employees to improve their health and well-being in which employees would show little opposition to participating in an organization's comprehensive wellness program. Comprehensive wellness programs might face resistance because they could be susceptible to violations of federal laws. The ACA provides guidelines and provisions about what constitutes a comprehensive wellness program. For example, leaders must adhere to HIPAA. The aim of HIPAA is to ensure patient confidentiality, which encompasses being forbidden to ask about hereditary conditions as a basis of discrimination. The motivation for seeking hereditary information on diseases such as cancer or Alzheimer's could be construed as an attempt to avoid extra health care costs associated with the risks of insulating individual employees ( Ardell, 2011 ; Song and Baicker, 2019 ).

Comprehensive wellness programs include some type of interview process on employees' current health behaviors and history, and Ardell (2011) worried that employers might influence trusting employees to reveal too much information about their hereditary health traits that might lead to leaders not hiring or (dismissing) an employee. Concerns exist regarding offering cash incentives to participate in comprehensive wellness programs, as incentives might lead employees into divulging incriminating hereditary information. Because of confidentiality laws, managers are discouraged from guiding at-risk employees to needed diabetes, cardiac and respiratory prevention programs ( Ardell, 2011 ).

Comprehensive wellness programs

Comprehensive wellness programs entail a preventative approach to disease management as opposed to a treatment approach. Originators of the movement for comprehensive wellness programs favor a broad design measurement of total wellness such that it is difficult to measure one aspect of a total comprehensive wellness program to determine potential impact ( Clower, 2010 ; Harris, 2010 ; Slutzky, 2010 ; William and Tacker, 2010 ; Song and Baicker, 2019 ). According to Mayer (2016) , wellness programs are evolving into comprehensive spiritual packages, no longer looking solely at behaviors, but analyzing the overall health. As part of the continuation of building the wellness programs, organizations are also including financial wellness. Money is a leading cause of stress which, in turn, impacts overall health. Adding financial wellness to the existing comprehensive wellness program provides the employee with a sense of tackling something, which can have a huge impact on their overall mental state ( Mayer, 2016 ).

Comprehensive wellness strategies range from changing on-site cafeteria menus, removing vending machines or offering healthier vending machine choices and reduced pricing with the on-site cafeteria to promote healthy eating. For example, on-site cafés might include healthier food choices at reduced prices to encourage employees to choose the healthier option. Another avenue to promote wellness in the workplace is to encourage employees to participate in Weight Watchers through meetings located at either the workplace or locations around the community. Organizational leaders may even offer to subsidize the cost to join Weight Watchers to increase enrollment and provide another tool to make a wellness impact ( William and Tacker, 2010 ). Another area in which corporate leaders attempt to increase wellness opportunities is replacing coffee breaks with wellness activities, such as yoga or other low-impact exercise programs ( Bard, 2011 ). As comprehensive wellness programs continue to become popular, the leaders of more organizations are implementing health-risk assessments to measure participation in the corporate-sponsored wellness program; assessing health risk also provides an opportunity to measure results. Some organizations have in-house clinics or nurse practitioners to provide quick health assessments instead of going to the doctor's office just to get blood pressure tests ( Grant, 2012 ).

Another aspect of a comprehensive wellness program is the use of health risk assessments (HRAs). HRAs are used by the organization to develop relevant and targeted employee health interventions. Conducting HRAs on employees provides the organization with a snapshot of the employees' overall health. By gathering these data, the leaders of the organization can determine which wellness programs might be better suited for the employee population in an attempt to improving employees' overall health. HRAs also provide employees with a picture in time of their overall health which can be tracked year over year ( Howarth et al. , 2017 )

Corporations may, at times, have a focus that is too narrow to offer a comprehensive wellness program, which can be problematic. If the focus of a corporation becomes too narrow regarding what problems the program is trying to attempt to influence, the corporation leaders run the risk of failing to implement a successful comprehensive wellness program. Comprehensive wellness programs originally began as an effort by organizational leadership to help workers to be more satisfied in the workplace, to increase pressure to find ways to reduce health care costs and to cause organizational leaders to implement programs in a manner that might bring a return on investment. Organizational leaders are implementing comprehensive wellness programs to reduce the health care premiums they pay to provide health insurance benefits to employees ( Grant, 2012 ).

Examples of comprehensive wellness programs

Most of the literature reviewed indicated comprehensive wellness programs show the potential to reduce health care costs, absenteeism and other indirect costs associated with employee turnover ( Grant, 2012 ). An evaluation of the literature revealed this fact was true only when comprehensive wellness programs are well designed. Results favor programs that are more comprehensive, using the broadest spectrum associated with wellness to target the needs of individual employees, and realizing not one program fits all needs ( Grant, 2012 ).

The following studies evaluated comprehensive wellness programs used by organizations. The first survey was conducted by Kaiser Family Foundation (2014) researchers. The study took place in 2013 in partnership with Health Research and Education Trust (HRET), which is a private, nonprofit organization involved in research, education and demonstration programs that address health management and policy issues. Kaiser Family Foundation is the leader in health journalism, communication and health policy analysis. The KFF/HRET survey contained information from 1999 through 2013, with specific results from 2013. The study was conducted via telephone and involved surveying 2,067 randomly selected public and private employers with three or more workers. The focus of the KFF/HRET survey was to study the impact of having a wellness program in the organization. The survey did not ask or seek to determine if the wellness program affected the extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels of the employees participating in the wellness program ( Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014 ).

PepsiCo leaders funded the next study, and researchers at the Rand Corporation conducted the study in 2014; during the survey, PepsiCo employed 67,000 individuals. The primary result for the study was the potential for a wellness program to lower health care costs for workers with chronic diseases, along with components of the wellness program to encourage employees to adopt healthier lifestyles. The study provided data over a seven-year period, but no data in the study provided information about whether having a wellness program affected employee job satisfaction. ( Rand Corporation, 2014 ).

Leaders of a Chicago organization developed a workplace wellness program in 2008 and used professional nurses to oversee the program and to evaluate the results of the program by conducting a personal wellness profile for each employee ( Carlson and Murphy, 2010 ). The researchers administered an HRA profile to the participants. The profile is a comprehensive HRA, which included an assessment of vital signs, some laboratory data and a health assessment. After all employees completed the HRA, the next step was to implement programs where employees could participate to determine if they could improve their personal health. After employees participated in the wellness programs for a specified length of time, they again completed the personal wellness profile. The nurses analyzed the data to see if employees were able to improve their personal health. The employees who participated in the wellness programs experienced personal health improvement by reducing their risk of heart disease, reducing their cholesterol and improving their fitness ( Carlson and Murphy, 2010 ).

Jones et al. (2019) designed and implemented a comprehensive wellness program at a workplace in Illinois. The comprehensive wellness program was called iThrive; to help attract employees to participate, the program was incentivized. The program looked at average medical spending, gym visits, employee absenteeism, productivity, health behaviors, job satisfaction and self-reported health. This study concluded that participating in the wellness program did not have an impact on employee job satisfaction, but the study did not look at intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction. The study only asked if the employees were satisfied with their job, happy at work, show an interest in presenteeism, feel productive at work or received a promotion. It asked the employees prior to enrolling in the program (pre-test) and after being in the program for 2 years (post-test). The outcome of this study showed only two statistically significant effects from the 42 outcomes the study examined. First, the study showed an increase in the number of employees that received a health screening. Second, there was an increase in the number of employees who felt management places a priority of health and safety ( Jones et al. , 2019 ). Only one year of iThrive results were examined which did not show significant effects for the outcomes examined. Jones et al. (2019) discussed the possibility that longer run effects may emerge in later years. Jones et al. (2019) reported wellness programs can vary by organizations, and other designs that include different employee populations to participate, by including biometric screenings, may provide different results from what was found with this study.

Comprehensive wellness programs in the workplace will only be successful in reducing employer and employee health insurance costs if leaders increase or encourage participation in the programs. Participation in comprehensive wellness programs is a concern for any organization whose leaders are attempting to offer a comprehensive wellness program. Any attempt for organizational leadership to maximize participation will be difficult, as each organization will have different circumstances that factor into encouraging participation ( Wojcik, 2012 ).

Wellness programs are becoming a key strategy in combating health risk factors and staying competitive, profitable and successfully attracting and retaining top talent ( Wojcik, 2012 ). The question of whether comprehensive programs are beneficial requires further investigation regarding whether a financial benefit occurs for the parties involved in the comprehensive wellness programs ( Wojcik, 2012 ). McLellan et al. (2009) showed a 23% participation rate within organizations across the United States. Robroek et al. (2009) showed a similar participation rate ranging from ten to 64%, but recorded an average rate of 33%. Implementation of a comprehensive wellness program requires more financial and management resources.

Health and safety

The overall health of the population has slowly deteriorated, mainly because the US population embraced a culture that is less active and a diet that consists of mostly convenient unhealthy foods ( Barkin et al. , 2010 ). Researchers at the US Department of Health and Human Services (2011) estimated that approximately two-thirds of the US population is either obese or overweight, and 17.5% of children aged 11–18 are obese or overweight ( US Department of Health, 2011 ). Klein and Simmers (2009) compared the fight against childhood obesity to the fight against smoking, and indicated it will become a social movement similar in proportion with a premise that people should consider obesity a threat much like smoking. A social and media war raged against the dangers of smoking, especially within the juvenile population. The war waged on smoking helped bring about social awareness and reduced smoking rates. An effort of similar magnitude may be essential to increasing the collective concern regarding the obesity pandemic ( Klein and Simmers, 2009 ).

Gabel et al. (2009) showed that 77% of employees indicated they were somewhat concerned and 26% were particularly concerned about weight management. They also showed that 80% of the employees surveyed agreed that programs addressing weight management and promoting healthier lifestyle choices belong in the workplace. Organizational leadership who examine their employees and their employees' lifestyle choices based on health can be surprised at the results ( Gabel et al. , 2009 ). Obesity, which can lead to other serious health problems such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease, has significant financial implications. The nonprofit, nonpartisan group Trust for America's Health, whose primary goal is to improve health across the United States, reported that an average investment of $10 per employee for obesity prevention could save the organization an estimated $1 million over 5 years ( Klein and Simmers, 2009 ). Researchers at the US Department of Health and Human Services (2011) gathered some data regarding obesity. Although most people believe that an individual becomes overweight by overeating, other variables also play a significant role in becoming obese. The variables include a person's genetic makeup, environmental influences and individual factors. Klein and Simmers (2009) posited there is no single cause for obesity, which means there is no one-size-fits-all solution to the current obesity problem in the United States. Treatment options vary, depending on the person and the situation, and range from something very straightforward such as dieting to a more drastic option such as surgery. One underlying theme common to all the treatment options is behavior modification. Most comprehensive wellness programs include behavior modification by teaching participants the importance of making healthier dietary choices or the effect of increasing daily exercise. Obesity is associated to health concerns such as stroke, hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes and cancer variations ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2011 ).

The overall health of the country and employees has a financial impact on everyone. For example, 75% of annual health care costs in the United States originate from health conditions that are preventable ( Loeppke et al. , 2010 ). They concluded that by decreasing the absenteeism rate for each employee by just one day per year, organizations would realize $18.8 million in potential savings. If an organization's leadership wanted to achieve a similar financial benefit, they would need to increase sales by over $76 million. Loeppke et al. (2010) discussed health risks and indicated many health risks among employees can be addressed quickly through comprehensive wellness programs. For example, people who are at higher risk for becoming diabetic, as indicated by high blood pressure, high blood sugar while fasting and high level of stress, can significantly reduce their risk for diabetes in 1 year by adopting healthier eating habits ( Loeppke et al. , 2010 ).

Job satisfaction and wellness programs

Like most other programs within organizations, job satisfaction motivates a comprehensive wellness program. Although leaders might have a genuine concern about their employees, they implement comprehensive wellness programs to curtail the rising health care costs placed on employers and employees. Organizational leaders believe there is a potential to lower their health care premiums by addressing the causes for premature death and diseases among the employee population. As the overall health of the United States continues to decline, costs associated to health care continue to rise; the ACA is an attempt by the US government to curtail rising health care costs. The costs associated with health care are becoming a considerable burden on businesses, as well as on job satisfaction rates ( Yen et al. , 2010 ).

Intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction is “a positive emotional state, which reflects a certain response to a job situation” ( Wright, 2010 , p. 28). As employees participate in wellness programs and experience potential physical changes, they develop a connection to self-esteem and enthusiasm ( Wojcik, 2012 ). Evaluation of job satisfaction in the organization by offering a wellness program can be examined to see if the wellness program improves job satisfaction. A review of a wellness program from the standpoint of job satisfaction may demonstrate a clear relationship between wellness programs and job satisfaction ( Wojcik, 2012 ).

In the corporate organizational setting, some research exists on job satisfaction and wellness programs, but there is little understanding about a correlation between wellness programs and job satisfaction ( Wright, 2010 ; Jones et al. , 2019 ). Job satisfaction is an area of interest for organizations offering wellness programs, which may provide leadership with another tool to enhance job satisfaction for their employees. Louden (2013) found a connection with job satisfaction and age such that older, more experienced employees typically express less job dissatisfaction. One reason for seasoned employees to feel less job dissatisfaction is an increased opportunity to embrace a wellness program fully and offer suggestions to leadership on how to improve the wellness program over time ( Louden, 2013 ).

Wojcik (2012) and Louden (2013) indicated that a significant relationship existed between improved job satisfaction among employees who participated in a wellness program and employees who did not participate in a wellness program. Although the effect of improved job satisfaction is not the only contributor to participation in a wellness program, employees who exercised regularly on their own achieved a higher level of job satisfaction compared to those who did not exercise on their own. Access to an exercise facility helped create a supportive environment that may enhance employee health and therefore increase job satisfaction ( Wright, 2010 ).

According to Wojcik (2012) , the leaders of an organization called Event Network, Inc., focused on understanding employees and making sure employees felt satisfied in the workplace. Event Network leaders provided all new employees a gym bag with an exercise ball, a reusable culinary set and a water bottle. Event Network leaders recognized that happy employees are more productive employees. Leaders encouraged employees to get up from their cubical and move around during the day, as creativity increases when individuals change environments ( Wojcik, 2012 ). Louden (2013) indicated that organizational leaders believe the impact generated by wellness programs contributed toward employees experiencing increased job satisfaction and lower turnover rates and absenteeism.

Organizational leaders often overlook public image when determining if they should implement a comprehensive wellness program, even though such a program could potentially impact job satisfaction. Such an organization will become an employer where others will want to work, which adds influence on the organization, although this is difficult to measure ( Zwetsloot et al. , 2010 ). With organization leadership providing benefits such as a fitness center, employees are more likely to inform friends about the benefit, which also aids in increasing job satisfaction. The leaders of such organizations can spend less money on recruiting new employees, as the reputation of the organizations in the community is desirable, and potential employees come to them ( Zwetsloot et al. , 2010 ).

According to Fielding et al. (2012) , the US Preventive Service Task Force on Immunization recommends all insurance policies and group plans cover effective clinical prevention services at no cost to patients. Community health centers and the National Health Service Corps developed a partnership to strengthen the public health care infrastructure, and the ACA authorized this investment along with a host of other programs. The National Prevention Health Promotion and Public Health Council created by the ACA established a formula for a National Prevention Strategy. Finally, the Prevention and Public Health Fund, also enacted by the ACA, provided $16 billion in new financing for expanding and sustaining the necessary infrastructure to detect early onset disease and prevent disease the next 10 years in cooperation with other provisions contained in the ACA to minimize health conditions before they become severe ( Fielding et al. , 2010 ).

The ACA offers support to decrease obesity in many ways. Leaders at the US Food and Drug Administration implemented new federal regulations on nutrition labeling for foods sold at certain retail food outlets and franchise restaurants ( Fielding et al. , 2010 ). Heart-related risks and obesity are becoming an enormous problem in the corporate workplace, and leaders in corporations are taking a reactive approach to this problem ( Arena et al. , 2013 ). In 2010, the leaders of an organization offered health care benefits totaling $3.7 billion to provide nearly 900,000 retirees, employees and their family members with affordable high-quality coverage ( Izlar, 2011 ).

To gauge the success of a wellness program, organizational leaders attempt to measure the potential increase in job satisfaction, which is a critical component of a wellness program. Beginning in 2014, the ACA will allow the use of 30% of health insurance premiums for outcome-based wellness incentives ( Arena et al. , 2013 ). Business leaders will need to become proactive in providing a solution to the rising health care costs by using comprehensive wellness programs that emphasize employees becoming aware of their total health and well-being. If leaders wish their organizations to remain competitive in the marketplace, they will need to offer this practice to retain employees and to recruit top talent ( Arena et al. , 2013 ).

Offering a wellness program in a corporation will benefit the employees who volunteer for the program, and there is an opportunity for the organization to increase job satisfaction, which should increase revenue and profitability. The issue of starting a comprehensive wellness program is showing the employees the benefits of becoming healthier. Leaders of an organization may need to develop incentive options to help drive the wellness programs that they develop. Another issue that organization leaders should keep in mind when developing a wellness program is the legal requirements that they need to address and follow ( Arena et al. , 2013 ).

As US organizations continue to move from a manufacturing workforce to a service workforce, the imbalance between output (physical activity) and energy intake (nutrition) has led to an increase of obesity and correlating diseases among employees ( van Dongen et al. , 2011 ). In addition to the toll that obesity takes on the health and well-being of employees, the other is decrease in job satisfaction in terms of lost productivity and health care costs among an organization's employee workforce. Research noted obesity-related medical payments account for approximately 6% of health insurance costs among US organizations with employer-provided health care insurance. With employee population becoming overweight and obese, the organization bears the monetary consequences for reduced job satisfaction. Employees who are overweight or obese collect paychecks and, in most circumstances, receive employer-based health insurance ( van Dongen et al. , 2011 ).

The empirical framework for this study was to determine if there was any impact on job satisfaction when offering a comprehensive wellness program. According to Lee et al. (2010) , investing in employee health may lead to reduced absenteeism, improved job satisfaction, and increased productivity. The literature review for this quantitative research study addressed many aspects of wellness programs in organizations. While examining the relationship of a wellness program in an organization, little evidence emerged to show wellness programs influencing extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels of employees who participate in a wellness program. Literature gaps and a lack of scholarly research revealed no primary data on extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels for employees participating in wellness program.

According to Ghauri and Gronhaug (2010) , secondary data are not comparable to primary data, as primary data avoid interpretation through the eyes of another interested party. This study involved examining primary data from respondents in an organization that has a wellness program. The research attempted to provide insight that adds to the current body of knowledge on wellness programs and the impact on the organization.

Avia (2010) conducted a survey for a health insurance company located in the United Kingdom in July 2011 with 2,000 employees across a wide range of businesses. The survey results indicated that business leaders were starting to realize that the health of their employees could potentially affect organizations' bottom line through a loss of productivity, with 42% of the employers surveyed recognizing the direct relationship between employees' health and organizational productivity ( Avia, 2010 ). The percentage of employers who believed a healthy employee is more productive increased by 10% from the previous year's survey, with 63% believing this is true. In addition, 61% of the employees in the survey indicated that when an employer invests in their health and well-being, they will work harder for the employer, resulting in increased productivity ( Avia, 2010 ).

Methodology

Instrument/measures.

According to Dhammika et al. (2012) , the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is a valuable tool researchers have used over many years and in many contexts for research on job satisfaction. Buitendach and Rothmann (2009) used the MSQ to study job satisfaction in an organization between two groups of employees. By using the MSQ, the authors were able to obtain necessary data to compare job satisfaction levels. According to Martins and Procenca (2012) , the MSQ is widely used in research and is stable over time. The instrument yields excellent data for analysis purposes when used in conjunction with job satisfaction ( Martins and Procenca, 2012 ).

Weiss et al. (1967) created the MSQ as an instrument to evaluate job satisfaction among employees. The researcher obtained written permission from a representative at the Vocational Psychology Research Department at the University of Minnesota. The current research study included employees who participated and employees who did not participate in the wellness program to determine if participating in the wellness program affects intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. The MSQ is a two-part survey. The first part provided intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction information, and the second part provided demographic information and a question asking the employee if they participated in the wellness program. Because the MSQ provides questions pertaining to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, this is the primary reason this survey instrument was utilized ( Martins and Procenca, 2012 ).

The MSQ instrument has 20 psychology-based questions seeking job satisfaction levels. This research used the 1967 MSQ format which has a five-point scale. The questionnaire has a Likert-type scale that ranges from (1) very dissatisfied to (5) very satisfied. A Likert-type scale ensured adequate sensitivity to measure the variability of the employees' responses. Administration of the survey in this questionnaire format provided the data needed to calculate the sample's characteristics, such as means, confidence intervals, standard deviations and averages. The demographic information gathered on the participants who took the survey was gender, age and tenure. See Figures 1–3 for demographic information.

The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) was considered as another instrument that could be used for this research. The JSS contains 36 items, with a nine-facet scale to assess employee attitudes and their job and aspects of the job. Each of the nine facts is assessed with four items, and a total score is computed from all items. The survey uses a summative rating scale, asking the participant to choose from one of the six choices, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The nine facts cover the following areas: pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards (performance-based rewards), operating procedures (required rules and procedures), coworkers, nature of work and communication ( Spector, 1985 ).

Even though the JSS looks at job satisfaction, the researcher felt the MSQ was a better fit because it specifically has the questions broken down between intrinsic and extrinsic values, which was the basis for this research. According to Spector (1985) , the JSS was also developed to cover major aspects of job satisfaction, which could help with future research as it pertains to job satisfaction and wellness program participation. Again, the primary purpose of using the MSQ was for its specific reference to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction levels of employees.

Data collection

The population for this study was from a contract foodservice organization that provides facility services to higher education organizations, from their northeast regional location that consisted of approximately 200 employees. The employees of the organization ranged from entry-level positions, up to and including senior-level management. The researcher solicited employees in all departments in the organization to participate in the survey. One additional follow-up email was sent three weeks after the initial email invite to participate in the survey. The company offers a comprehensive wellness program, and all employees in the organization had a choice to participate in the wellness program.

According to Faul et al. (2007) , with four predictors (age, gender, tenure and participation in the wellness program), a medium effect size ( f 2  = 0.15) and an alpha of 0.05, the sample size needed to achieve sufficient power (0.80) was 85. The basis of the sample frame for this study was a January 2014 study conducted by researchers at the Rand Corporation, which released the results of a study on PepsiCo, in which they surveyed all 67,000 employees. The company is a smaller organization, and all employees received a request to participate in the study. The entire population of the company had an opportunity to participate in the study. The researcher did not know how many employees did or did not participate in the wellness program. Segmenting the employees for solicitation did not matter, as the human resources personnel emailed all employees the link to a Survey Monkey questionnaire.

This nonexperimental quantitative study examined primary data derived from responses from the MSQ questionnaire between job satisfaction and participating in a comprehensive wellness program. The results may provide a better understanding about wellness programs affecting job satisfaction. The research design will test the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction levels of nonparticipating employees and participating employees of a wellness program, thus providing organizations with evidence showing employees who participate in a wellness program have a higher level of job satisfaction.

The research consisted of descriptive analysis utilizing the Mann–Whitney U Test. This analysis is used to test the differences between two independent groups that are on a continuous measure. The two independent groups for this study are survey subjects that participate in the wellness program and survey subjects that do not participate in the wellness program. The Mann–Whitney U test is the nonparametric alternative to the t -test for independent samples. Instead of comparing the means of the two groups, the Mann–Whitney U test compares the median of the two groups. The Mann-Whitney U test was selected because of the different group size; it compares the median of the two groups. The test converts the scores on a continuous variable to rank across the two groups, even though the two groups were a different size, because one group participated in the wellness program and the other group did not participate in the wellness program. The test then evaluates whether the ranks for the two groups differ significantly ( Mann and Whitney, 1947 ).

Data analysis

The research examined comprehensive wellness programs and the impact of the programs on extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. A Mann–Whitney U analysis provided the basis to analyze and determine if a significant difference existed in the job satisfaction levels between participants and nonparticipants in the wellness program offered by the organization. The identified dependent variables were extrinsic job satisfaction and intrinsic job satisfaction and the independent variables were participation and nonparticipation in the wellness program.

The participating group mean ranged from 1.56 to 2.69, standard deviation ranged from 0.672 to 1.167, median ranged from 1.00 to 3.00. The nonparticipating group mean ranged from 3.43 to 4.70, standard deviation ranged from 0.703 to 1.201, median range was from 4.00 to 5.00. The total mean for participating/nonparticipating ranged from 2.67 to 3.15, standard deviation ranged from 1.12 to 1.71 and medial ranged from 2.00 to 3.00. The participating group (group 1) was N  = 23, nonparticipating group (group 2) was N  = 32, total subjects for both groups was Total N  = 55. See Table 3 .

The sample size for the study was larger than 30, which resulted in the Mann–Whitney U analysis providing the value for a z approximation, which includes a correction for ties in the data. The extrinsic independent variable z value range was −4.874 to −6.455 and the significant value of p  < 0.001 on the following extrinsic questions: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17 and 20. There is a statistical significant difference in extrinsic job satisfaction between the participating and nonparticipating groups in a wellness program; see Table 1 .

The intrinsic independent variable z value range was −1.838 to −5.571 and the significant value of p  < 0.001 on the intrinsic questions: 5, 6, 12, 14, 18 and 19. Only one question was slightly over the alpha level of 0.05. Intrinsic question 13 had a significant value of p 0.066. There is a statistically significant difference in intrinsic job satisfaction between the participating and nonparticipating groups in a wellness program; see Table 2 .

The statistical significance of this research shows that participating in a wellness program increases employees’ extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Research has shown employees with a higher level of job satisfaction are more productive and less likely to seek out other employment opportunities. Organizations can use the wellness program as a recruiting tool in order to attract top talent.

The intent of the study was to determine if participating in a wellness program affected the employee's job satisfaction levels. Securing a hospitality organization to survey was a challenge, possibly because the survey included questions about job satisfaction. The purpose of the study was to identify if participation in the wellness program affected employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Hospitality organizations continue to allocate resources to implement and improve existing wellness programs in the workplace. Researchers had not specifically focused on the potential impact a wellness program might have on employee job satisfaction levels. Cyboran and Goldsmith (2012) concluded organization leaders should take steps to create an effective workplace. The study showed that even though hospitality organization leaders are dedicating resources to the development and implementation of wellness programs, participating in the wellness program has an effect on increasing or maintaining current employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels throughout the organization.

When thinking about overall job satisfaction in the workplace, extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction combined is what overall job satisfaction is in the workplace. Intrinsic job satisfaction is the actual work you do on daily basis. Extrinsic job satisfaction is what an employee considers about their working conditions, such as pay, coworkers, the environment in the office building and their managers. Research shows staying healthy increases a person's overall mindset which plays a factor in employees overall job satisfaction. Having a wellness program is going to impact the employee's thoughts about the working conditions and the office environment, since many wellness programs provide some type of access to a fitness center. The research specifically looked at extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels and shows participating in a wellness program impacts an employee's extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels.

Theoretical implication

The analysis showed that offering a wellness program and having employees participate in the wellness program influence extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Leaders should be actively looking for ways to improve employee satisfaction. There are two principal reasons leaders strive to improve employee satisfaction. First, as unemployment rates continue to fall, employees have the advantage in the workplace because employees are in demand. When unemployment is high, employers have more choices when considering employees for their open positions. High employee satisfaction shows potential and current employees that the organization is a pleasing place to work, which will aid in attracting top talent and can contribute to the organization's continued success. Based on the finding in this research, offering a wellness program is another way leaders in an organization can impact employee job satisfaction.

The workforce is becoming older and more dynamic. As the workforce ages, the demand for health care increases. In addition, the number of millennials and Gen Z comprising the workforce is increasing. The millennials want a more flexible workplace and want to experience a higher level of job satisfaction based on the work they perform. Whereas Gen Z are being categorized as being more like baby boomers looking to secure quality benefits along with workplace flexibility ( Rolles, 2018 ). The results of this research provide evidence that participating in a wellness program will increase an employee's extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. Organizational leaders should not only use a wellness program as a tool to improve employee health but also as a tool to improve employee job satisfaction levels.

Managerial implication

The specific problem that hospitality organizations face is the rising cost of health insurance and at the same time trying to improve job satisfaction in the workplace to maintain and attract top talent. This study involved quantitatively examining the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels and participating in a wellness program to analyze the following research question: To what extent does a wellness program affect extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction?

As discussed, the analysis concluded that participating in a wellness program significantly improves an employee's extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels. This study shows that organizational leaders should continue to dedicate resources to their current wellness programs. Those organizations that do not offer a wellness program may want to think about ways to implement a wellness program or enhance the program that is in existence if leaders feel it is not robust enough. Specific action an organization could take is conduct a survey of their employees to determine what aspects of a wellness program they would like to see implemented. Reach out to similar-sized organizations and review their wellness program to see what they are providing. If the organization does not offer any type of wellness program, first action would be to survey employees to gauge their interest, reach out to their health insurance provider to see what they can offer in assistance in starting a wellness program and reach out to consultants that assist organizations in creating and implementing wellness programs in the workplace.

As organizations continue to offer or enhance their wellness programs, attention should be paid to incentives to encourage employee participation. Having a highly engaged workforce participating in the wellness can impact the employees’ overall health costs but also improve their overall job satisfaction working for the organization. As discussed previously, if employees can improve their overall health by losing weight, this can contribute to improving unhealthy elements such as diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol. This study has shown participating in the organization's wellness program can improve employee job satisfaction overall.

Use of the MSQ did indicate participating in a wellness program has an influence on extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction. The data collected from the survey respondents showed a statistically significant difference when comparing the extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels of employees who did and did not participate in the wellness program; see Table 3 . Prior and current research findings supported other benefits for the implementation of a wellness program. The research and results show offering and implementing a wellness program not only can improve an employee's health, it can also inadvertently influence employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels within the organization.

The leaders of the organization in this study offered a wellness program for employees, but the amount of emphasis leaders placed on participating in the wellness program remained unknown. Analysis of the research showed many organizational leaders are implementing wellness programs to improve employees' health, and not primarily to influence employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction. As the status of health care coverage continues to be a volatile topic in the USA, organizations will continue to look for ways to enhance or improve existing employee health benefits. The study provided new information to organizational leaders on how to implement a wellness program successfully and how to encourage employees to participate in the organization's wellness programs. The findings of this research support the concept of implementing or enhancing a wellness program in the workplace, and as a side effect, it provides the organization with a means to enhance employees extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction levels.

Limitations

This study was limited to a hospitality organization that had a wellness program, and the study was not based on the specific type of hospitality organization or industry. The organization offered a wellness program, but it was not known how much emphasis was placed on participating in the organization's wellness program. Other organizations that had a known emphasis on participating in the wellness program were considered, but leaders of the organizations did not provide permission to conduct the survey.

Conducting the survey in a hospitality organization whose leaders emphasize the wellness program and surveying more participants may provide better insight on how much a wellness program influences employees' extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction. Organizations have different levels of wellness programs. Some organizations have a program focused only on weight loss, whereas other organizations have a wellness program focused on the overall health of the employees, including their financial and emotional health.

Gender of survey respondents

Respondents’ age range

Respondents’ tenure with the company

Extrinsic questions participating and nonparticipating group

Intrinsic questions participating and nonparticipating group

Extrinsic and intrinsic participating/nonparticipating group

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Job satisfaction among hospital nurses: A literature review

Affiliations.

• 1 Peking University School of Nursing, #38 Xueyuan Road, Hai Dian District, Beijing 100191, PR China. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Peking University School of Nursing, #38 Xueyuan Road, Hai Dian District, Beijing 100191, PR China. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 3 King's College London, Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing, Midwifery and Palliative Care, James Clerk Maxwell Building, 57 Waterloo Road, London SE1 8WA, United Kingdom. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 30928718
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.01.011

Background: Globally there are mounting concerns about nurses' job satisfaction because of its pivotal role in nurse turnover and the quality of care of patients.

Objectives: To identify a more comprehensive and extensive knowledge of the job satisfaction of qualified general nurses working in acute care hospitals and its associated factors drawing upon empirical literature published in the last five years.

Design: Literature review.

Data sources: A comprehensive electronic database search was conducted in PubMed (2012-2017), Web of Science (2012-2017), CINAHL (2012-2017), Embase (2012-2017), PsycINFO (2012-2017) and the Applied Social Sciences Index (2012-2017), CNKI (2012-2017), WanFang (2012-2017), SinoMed (2012-2017) and VIP (2012-2017) to retrieve relevant articles published in both English and Chinese between January 2012 and October 2017.

Review methods: Key terms and phrases associated with job satisfaction, occupational stress, professional commitment, role conflict and role ambiguity were utilized in the subject search in combination with nurses following guidelines for searching the OVID interface. The abstracts or full texts of research papers were reviewed prior to their inclusion in the review according to inclusion criteria and quality assessment using the Strobe guidelines.

Results: A total of 59 papers were included in this review. The impact of job satisfaction upon sickness absence, turnover intention, as well as the influencing factors of job satisfaction such as working shift and leadership, job performance, organizational commitment, effort and reward style has been identified in a number of research studies yielding equivocal findings. Job satisfaction of hospital nurses is closely related to work environment, structural empowerment, organizational commitment, professional commitment, job stress, patient satisfaction, patient-nurse ratios, social capital, evidence-based practice and ethnic background. Various mediating or moderating pathways have been identified with nurses' job satisfaction being mediated by various factors.

Conclusions: It is vital to increase nurses' job satisfaction because this has the potential both to improve patients' perceptions of care quality and ensure an adequate nursing workforce. The indirect relationships and predictors of job satisfaction contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex phenomenon of job satisfaction, which in turn may aid the development of effective strategies to address the nursing shortage and increase the quality of patient care.

Keywords: Influencing factor; Job satisfaction; Mediator; Nurses; Predictor; Related factor.

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publication types

• Job Satisfaction*
• Nursing Staff, Hospital / psychology*
• Personnel Turnover
• Quality of Health Care

• No results found

A COMPREHENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW ON EMPLOYEE JOB SATISFACTION

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Academic year: 2022

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Ms. Misha Mehta

, ms. ankita popli, , prof. (dr.) manish madan, assistant professor, school of business studies, vivekenanda institute of professional studies affiliated to guru gobind singh indraprastha university, delhi (india), assistant professor,, professor , department of management, rukmini devi institute of advanced studies,, affiliated to guru gobind singh indraprastha university, delhi (india).

I. INTRODUCTION

Job satisfaction is crucial not just for the employee but for employers as well. A satisfied employee is an asset to the organization. However the word „satisfied‟ is subjective and can mean different meanings to different individuals. For instance job satisfaction has been defined as the degree to which employees have a positive affective orientation towards employment by the organization (Price, 1997). Another definition which supports affective component is one which defines it as an affective (emotional) reaction to a job that results from the incumbents comparison of actual outcomes with those that are desired (Cranny, Smith, Stone, 1992).

In a survey conducted by career builder India it was found that though employees were satisfied with their current job but still they would actively look for the current openings. Thus the survey concluded that job satisfaction may not necessarily result in job loyalty.

Employee job satisfaction is associated with how people perceive, think, and feel their jobs (Spector, 1997).

The investigators have defined job satisfaction as the general behavior and employee‟s attitudes towards his job (Robbins et al.,2010).

Job satisfaction is enjoyable emotional state ensuing from appraisal of one‟s job and job experience (Locke, 1976).Ellickson and Logsdon (2002) support this view by defining job satisfaction as the extent to which employees like their work. Reilly(1991) defined job satisfaction as the feeling that a worker has about his job or a general attitude towards work or a job and it is influenced by the perception of one‟s job. Wanous and Lawler (1972) refers job satisfaction is the sum of job facet satisfaction across all facets of a job.

Hawthorne study (1924-1933) is truly a prologue to the study of job satisfaction. The study was conducted by Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School who solicited to find the effects of different conditions on the workers productivity. The study was a series of four experiments which ultimately showed that changes in work conditions temporarily effects productivity. Later it was observed that the increase in productivity was from the fact that they were being observed. This was a strong evidence that workers work for reasons other than pay as well and that those reasons are equally important.

Another theory that has contributed to the understanding job satisfaction is the motivation-hygiene theory of the American psychologist Frederick Herzberg (1923 to 2000). The results of he theory were based on the interviews conducted in the late 1950s with accountants and engineers. The respondents were asked to explain

the times when they felt good or bad about their jobs. Through these interviews Herzberg identified two dimensions to job satisfaction: motivation and hygiene. The motivation factors included recognition, achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth. The hygiene issues, such as company policies, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations and working environment, are considered as the conditions to be met in order to prevent dissatisfaction.

Herzberg's theory did not take into account the individual needs and differences and was criticized on the same grounds. This further led the researchers Richard Hackman, from Harvard University, and Greg Oldham, from the University of Illinois, to create a job characteristics model in 1976.Hackman & Oldham‟s Job characteristics Model is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact on job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The model talks of five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) which impact three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results), in turn influencing work outcomes (job satisfaction, absenteeism, work motivation, etc.). The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and behaviors.

II. OBJECTIVE

To review the literature pertaining to job satisfaction of employees.

2.1 Literature Review

Morge (1953) in his study on the Job satisfaction of the employees of white collar jobs found that fifty five male teachers were satisfied with their job with oppose to thirty five percent female employees who were not satisfied with their job. This study highlighted the relationship between gender and job satisfaction and concluded that satisfaction is affected by gender.

Gardon (1955) in his research on the Job satisfaction of the workers of industrial concern and human needs industries found that if person„s individual needs are satisfied then their job satisfaction increases; thereby reflecting a positive relation with the job satisfaction.

Bidwel and Charles (1956) studied on the Job satisfaction and school management and concluded that effective education is necessary to develop good image of the school and that teachers„Job satisfaction increased by perfect management.

Sinha and Singh (1961) studied the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism. A random sample was selected from various departments of Tisco, Jamshedpur. The sample consisted of high and low absentee workers. Respondents consisted of 50 each from both the categories. Job satisfaction questionnaire consisted of items of four components of job satisfaction namely nature of work, wages and security, supervisors and supervision and company„s overall personnel policy. It was found that low absentees were significantly more satisfied with their job than high absentees.

Sinha and Sharma (1962),conducted a research on attitude and job satisfaction with the help of randomly selected 100 workers which were from a light engineering factory around Culcutta. It was found that job

satisfaction was inversely related to favorable attitude towards the union. This implies, greater the job satisfaction, the less favorable was the attitude towards the union.

Prasad (1964) studied the personality and the relative elements of Job satisfaction namely age and experience.

In his study he concluded that the age of professionals had no effect on job satisfaction, while job satisfaction increase with the frequencies of experience thereby showing significant relation with the Job satisfaction.

Rajgopal (1965) in his study explored the relationship between satisfaction and productivity of textile mills workers belonging to high and low productive mills. Six mills, three high and three low (Productivity was indexed in terms of operative hours per unit of Production four the past three years) were chosen for the study.

75 workers each from high Productive and low Productive mills were chosen for the study. They were asked to indicate their degree of satisfaction/dissatisfaction on a 5-point scale ranging from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction on thirty items representing seven aspect of work (i.e., salary, job, management, working condition, welfare facilities , coworkers, and union management relations). The results highlighted that high productive mill workers were significantly more satisfied with five of the seven aspect excluding job and coworkers.

Lodahl&Kejner (1965) found in a study that Job satisfaction is affected by meaningfulness of work and adequacy of supervision.

Kapoor and Rao (1969) had examined the age and attitude towards officers in understanding the Job satisfaction of 146 female employees. His research highlighted that female employee and married female employee having more than twenty five years of age always oppose against injustice and struggle against management too.

Jawa (1971) collected data on 70 semi-skilled workers in his study on anxiety and job satisfaction. On the basis of the anxiety scale filled by the respondents and their scores, anxiety was divided into three groups of high, average and low anxiety. In addition to this a satisfaction questionnaire was also filled by the respondents. The results indicate a trend of increasing satisfaction with decreasing anxiety level

Smith, Scott and Hulin (1977) selected 4000 managers of the 145 company for the sample of the study on Job satisfaction of professional employees of the company. It was found out through this research that satisfaction increase with the age. Thus, indicating a positive relation of Job satisfaction with the age.

Richmond, Mccroskey and Davis (1982), stated that “moderately satisfied employees may be more productive than dissatisfied employee; extremely satisfied employees may form the type of work group known as the

“happiness for lunch bunch” (McCroskey, Larson & Knapp, 1971) and be more of a social group than a work group, hence lowering productivity.

Bhatt (1987) studied the personality determinations of Job satisfaction of college teachers of Saurashtra University and all college teachers were included in the sample of the study. It was found that female teachers were more satisfied than male teachers, also no significant difference was found in the mean scores of married and unmarried teachers. It was also found that Job satisfaction had no significant relation with the age, area of the work, educational qualification and experience.

Sharma(1987) examined the effects of work culture on employee satisfaction, sense of participation, role stress and alienation in private sector and public sector and found that the private sector and the public sector varied

significantly on the dominant culture variables and there was significant correlation between the work culture variable and role stress variables.

Rajendran (1987) in a public sector industry highlighted a significant correlation between work culture and employee satisfaction.

Rain et al., (1991) stated that job satisfaction has a correlation with life satisfaction. People who are satisfied with life will tend to be satisfied with the job and vice versa

Cardona (1996) in a survey of members of the Association for Investment Management and Research found that 81% of the managers were satisfied or very satisfied with their job. Most managers named professional achievement, personal or professional growth, the work itself and their degree of responsibility more important than compensation as the factors that create positive feelings about their job. Factors like company policies, administration, relationships with supervisors, compensation and the negative impact of work on their personal lives were viewed as those which create negative feelings about the job.

National Center for Education Statistics, (1997) in a report on job satisfaction among American teachers identified that more administrative support and leadership, good student behavior, a positive school atmosphere, and teacher autonomy as working conditions associated with higher job satisfaction. A weak relationship was found between faculty satisfaction and salary and benefits. Research also shows that demographic variable such as age and gender have little or no significant impact on job satisfaction

Yankelovich Partners (1998) in their study surveyed 10,339 workers across 10 European countries, Russia, Japan, and the United States. Researchers consistently identified the same top five key attributes in a job: ability to balance work and personal life, work that is truly enjoyable, security for the future, good pay or salary and enjoyable co-workers. Across the four major geographic regions studied, importance of potential advancement and the opportunity to build skills as a way to maintain employability and job security was emphasized by the workers.

Karl & Sutton (1998) found that from an employee point of view, job satisfaction is a desirable outcome in itself. While from a managerial or organizational effectiveness point, job satisfaction is important due to its impact on absenteeism (1) turnover, (2) and pro-social “citizenship” behaviors such as helping coworkers, helping customers, and being more cooperative. Thus it becomes important for the managers to understand what employees value in order to redesign jobs, reward systems, and human resource management policies that will result in optimum job satisfaction and productivity.

Gohil(1999) studied on the motivation vis-à-vis job satisfaction and organizational perception of bank employees in Saurashtra region and was confined to the officer and clerical staff of the public sector commercial banks of the Saurashtra region. The study was conducted on 780 employees and a significant difference was found in the average scores of job satisfaction of managerial cadre and clerical. A significant difference was also observed between (a) academic qualification and means scores of job satisfaction, (b) family tension and means scores of job satisfaction, (c) family environment and means scores of job satisfaction. The study also highlighted correlation in length of service and mean scores of job satisfaction.

Ali and Akhtar (1999) studied and explored the effect which work culture has on employee satisfaction and found that those who scored high on work culture also differed significantly on satisfaction scale.

Wiggins & Bowman (2000)studied the relationship among career experience, life satisfaction, and organizational factors for managers. The study was conducted in healthcare organizations. Nine domains of important job skills, knowledge, and abilities necessary for success as healthcare managers were identified in a two stage Delphi analysis of American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE) members. Cost/finance, leadership, professional staff interactions, healthcare delivery concepts, accessibility, ethics, quality/risk management, technology, and marketing were the nine domains.

Resheske (2001) examined job satisfaction among full time faculty of the College of Human Development at Wisconsin University. Thirty-six full time faculty members were included in the study. The results indicated that overall the faculty of the College of Human Development at UW-Stout was satisfied with their current employment and that group cohesion does play a role in overall job satisfaction.The study also determined that job autonomy, working with the students and fellow colleagues and supervisors were the top three best reasons for working here. It was also concluded that pay, having more time and assistance with meeting deadlines and having equal workloads between colleagues were the three top priorities for improving the work environment.

Harter (2002),selected 7,939 business units in 36 organizations for the sample of the study on job satisfaction sentiments and employee engagement. The study examined aggregated employee job satisfaction sentiments and employee engagement.

Schneider (2003)studied the relationships between several facets of employee satisfaction and organizational financial (return on assets; ROA) and market performance (earnings per share; EPS). The study included 35 organizations over a period of eight years. Significant positive relationships were found between attitudes concerning satisfaction with security, satisfaction with pay, and overall job satisfaction with financial (ROA) and market performance (EPS).

Niranjana and Pattanayak(2005) tried to explore the dynamics of organizational citizenship behavior, learned optimism, and organizational ethos represented by OCTAPACE in service and manufacturing organizations in India. The manufacturing sector was found to have a better work culture whereas service sector had high organizational citizenship behavior and learned optimism.

Singh (2009) revealed a significant difference between high and low work culture groups which is related to their satisfaction with management. The possible reason for it being the obligation towards others produced a sense of responsibility within individuals which made them more satisfied in comparison to low scorers on this dimension.

Vagh (2010) highlighted that most of the employees of Municipal Corporation of Saurashtra Region were not satisfied. Employees of the Municipal Corporations have many questions and there is a strong need to give the attention on solution of employees questions as and when it arises.

Adeniji (2011) in his study on Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction among Academic Staff in Some Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria. The study was based on the responses received from 293 respondents of five private Universities in the South-West Zone of Nigeria. The results showed a positive relationship between organizational climate and job satisfaction. Herzberg„s Two-Factor theory was used as a framework for this study

Dev (2012) in his study on Public and Private Sector Banks found that clients of private sector banks are more satisfied than those of public sector banks in most of the dimensions except Interest rates and other Charges and

Accessibility whereas the clients of public sector banks are more satisfied than the clients of private sector. One area where both types of Banks are lacking the most is Customer orientation. Performance norms have also suffered in all types of banks. It was also observed that banks in India, especially the public sector banks need to equip themselves with the latest technology.

Gurusamy&Mahendran (2013), in their study found that Salary occupy the First Rank for determining job satisfaction compared with other major determinants. The study was conducted on 300 respondents and was limited to the automobile industries of India.

Rashid Saeed et al., (2014),in his study found promotion, pay, fairness and working condition to be the key factors that contribute to employee job satisfaction. The study was conducted on 200 telecom sector employees of Pakistan. It was concluded that money and compensation play an important role in the job satisfaction of the telecom employees of Pakistan.

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Effects of Workplace Conditions, Background Characteristics, and Teacher Compensation.”

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[21]. Price, J. L. (1997). Handbook of organizational measurement. International Journal of Manpower, 18, 303-558.

[22]. Rain, J. S., Lane, I. M., and Steiner, D. D. (1991). A Current Look at the Job Satisfaction/Life Satisfaction Relationship: Review and Future Considerations. Human Relations, 44, 287– 307.

[23]. Rajendran, S. (1987). Job satisfaction, job involvement and perceived Organizational Climate among the assistants and lower managerial personnel of government organization. Indian Journal of Applied Psychology, 24(2), 58-64.

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[34]. Wiggins, C., and Bowman, S. Y. (2000). Career Success and Life Satisfaction for Female and Male Healthcare Managers. Hospital Topics, 78(3), 23 - 34.

[35]. Virginia P. R., James C. M., and Leonard, M. D. (1982). Individual differences among employees, Management Communication style, and Employee satisfaction: Replication and extension”, West Virginia University Human Communication Research 8(2), 170-188.

[36]. Yankelovich, P (1998). Workers around the world share similar attitudes toward jobs. Houston Business Journal, 29, 39-43.

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The interplay of religious values, servant leadership and teacher job satisfaction in Bangladeshi education institutions

• Open access
• Published: 14 May 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  27 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Mohammed Zaber Hossain 1 ,
• Md Shamimul Islam 2 ,
• Isahaque Ali 3 , 4 ,
• Rajendra Baikady 5 , 6 ,
• Azlinda Azman 3 &
• Muhammed Kabir Uddin 7  

The interplay of principals’ religious values and servant leadership can play a prominent role in promoting job satisfaction among teachers in Bangladeshi schools and colleges. This study aimed to examine the mediating role of servant leadership style in the relationship between the principals’ religious values and the job satisfaction of teachers in Bangladesh. The study surveyed 335 participants from schools and colleges using a self-administered questionnaire and analyzed the data using Partial Least Square Structural Equations Modeling (PLS-SEM) via Smart PLS 4 software. The findings showed that principals’ religious values and servant leadership style have a positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction, with servant leadership serving as a mediator in the relationship. The research expands upon the servant leadership theory in an educational setting where religious values play a significant role. It offers valuable insight into the impact of principals’ religious values and servant leadership style on teachers’ job satisfaction. The study has practical implications, in a setting where Islam as a dominating religion, for educational administrators, as it sheds light on how principals’ religious values and servant leadership impact teachers’ job satisfaction in schools and colleges in Bangladesh.

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1 Introduction

The field of education is vital in shaping the future of individuals and society as a whole. Teachers play a critical role in this process, and their job satisfaction is of utmost importance in ensuring their effectiveness and longevity in the profession [ 1 ]. The interplay of religious values, servant leadership and teachers’ job satisfaction in education is imperative to highlight the guiding role that religious values and servant leadership can play in promoting job satisfaction among teachers of schools and colleges in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bangladesh's education system is diverse and complex, reflecting the country's cultural, economic and social needs [ 49 ]. Students have various educational paths to choose from, including general, madrasah, technical and vocational education [ 50 , 51 ].

Students who pursue technical or vocational education can earn their higher secondary education certificate after two more years at a technical/polytechnical institute, or they can enter one of many private or state-funded universities for five years of undergraduate study [ 50 , 51 ]. This diversity in education prepares students for a wide range of careers and contributes to the development of the country's economy and society [ 49 ]. In a top-down educational administration in Bangladeshi schools and colleges, existing bureaucracy has striped the teachers and principals of their leadership. A kind of organizational hierarchy mostly authoritarian has developed in education fueled by a power distant society like Bangladesh. Consequently, a bottom-up leadership culture among the teachers and principals could not grow as expected in educational administration in Bangladesh which is proportional to the academic performance of an educational institution. Still, a recent study on principals of schools and colleges in Bangladesh discovered existence of transformational leadership [ 66 ]. This narrow presence of transformational leadership which is follower-centric [ 67 , 68 ] has paved the way to conduct the present study.

Investigating the mediating relationship between college principals' religious values and teachers' job satisfaction in Bangladeshi schools and colleges can help identify ways to improve the education system and enhance the quality of education provided to students [ 37 ]. The practices of servant leadership are crucial for enhancing the job satisfaction of teachers, as supported by various studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The leadership style of a principal plays a major role in differentiating top-performing schools from others [ 4 , 5 ]. Among various leadership styles such as transformational, authentic and spiritual leadership, servant leadership is considered the most humane [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This approach is driven by a genuine desire to help others, as highlighted by [ 9 , 10 ]

In a servant leadership culture, leaders prioritize the well-being and satisfaction of their subordinates by fostering an environment that encourages their involvement in decision-making and policy-making processes. This approach, which includes compassionate treatment of employees, can lead to more positive interactions with customers, as stated by [ 11 ]. Additionally, [ 12 ] found that servant leadership is a practical and useful theory that can benefit individuals, organizations and stakeholders, ultimately leading to improved team performance and satisfaction.

Teachers' motivation and work satisfaction are crucial for excellent teaching and student performance [ 13 ]. Due to job satisfaction and motivation, people gain freedom and empowerment [ 14 ], which, in turn, promotes healthy and meaningful interactions among colleagues. According to [ 15 ], there is a link between teachers' job satisfaction and the leadership style used by head teachers. In addition, [ 16 ] found that servant leadership significantly and positively impacts team members’ and stakeholders' overall performance.

The Muslim population comprises 90.4% of Bangladesh's total population, influencing the country's education system [ 52 ]. Islam exhibits both individualistic and collectivist qualities [ 17 ]. Muslims in Bangladesh seek to uphold the values outlined in the Quran (The Holy Book of Muslims) and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), despite discrepancies between beliefs and actions [ 18 ]. Those who embody these principles serve as models for servant leadership, as they stand for qualities, such as humility, selflessness and compassion [ 19 ]. This highlights the need to incorporate Islamic cultural values into the theory of servant leadership. As such, this study aims to explore the mediating role of servant leadership between the religious values of the principal and teachers’ job satisfaction.

It has been determined that the Servant Leadership Scale created by [ 20 ] is reliable [ 21 ]. Their study revealed that although servant leadership is not widely practiced in Bangladesh, the concept is applicable across cultural lines. Yet, the incorporation of religious beliefs into the concept has not been explored in earlier research on servant leadership [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ].

This study explores the relationships between religious values, leadership style (specifically, servant leadership), and job satisfaction among teachers in Bangladesh. In addition, it aims to investigate the mediating role of servant leadership style in the relationship between the religious values of school principals and the job satisfaction of teachers in Bangladeshi schools and colleges.

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 presents the literature review and hypothesis development, Sect. 3 details the methodology, followed by the results and discussion in Sect. 4 The paper concludes in Sect. 5.

2 Literature review and hypothesis development

The following sections present the theoretical justifications for the model and the hypothesis development process.

2.1 Religious values and servant leadership

Religion is a powerful social institution that shapes individuals' views, beliefs and behaviors [ 26 , 27 , 28 ] explored the relationship between employee religiosity and servant leadership as performance indicators in the educational sector and found that religiosity positively impacts servant leadership. In a global survey, 82% of people who held leadership positions in organizations reported that their religious and spiritual views influenced their actions [ 29 ]. Religion provides a spiritual belief system that influences the development of behavior, attitudes, values and work ethics [ 30 , 31 ]. Religious ideals play a significant role in shaping one's leadership style in a religious culture [ 32 ].

The author [ 28 ] conducted a research to determine servant leadership and employee religiosity as a performance measure in the educational sector. The regression analysis findings indicate that servant leadership is a proactive predictor of employee performance, and that the relationship is strengthened when religion gets involved. To resolve a personal and professional setback in educational leadership, mutual responsibility between staff and faculty is always required (Yariv & Kass, 2019). Religion establishes a spiritual belief system that has a direct impact on the development of behavior, attitudes, values, and work ethics [ 30 ]. Given the profound impact of Islam on Bangladeshi culture and society, this study offers the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis (H1): Islamic religious values have a positive impact on the principal’s servant leadership.

2.2 Religious values and job satisfaction

There is a growing body of research suggesting that religious values can have a positive impact on job satisfaction. A study conducted by [ 33 ] found a significant positive correlation between religious values and job satisfaction among Iranian employees. Similarly, [ 34 ] discovered that employees who place a high value on religion tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction. This could be because religious values often emphasize the importance of finding meaning and purpose in one's work, which can lead to greater job satisfaction [ 35 ].

Studies have shown that a school principal's religious values can have a significant impact on teachers' job satisfaction. According to [ 36 ], principals who incorporate religious values into their leadership style were perceived by teachers as more ethical and trustworthy, which leads to higher levels of job satisfaction. Similarly, a study by [ 37 ] found that principals who prioritize religious values in their decision-making were more likely to create a positive and supportive work environment for teachers, which also increases job satisfaction. These findings suggest that the religious values of a school and college principal can have a significant impact on the job satisfaction of teachers in their organization.

The author [ 70 ] used a sample of 120 employees from 10 MSME businesses in Indonesia to examine the impact of religiosity and service quality on job satisfaction among MSME sector workers. A questionnaire was utilised as the data gathering tool. The analytical technique makes use of Smart PLS v3.0 for Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Religiosity has a favourable and substantial impact on service quality, according to the findings. In addition to service quality having a good and large impact on employee work satisfaction, religiosity also has a favourable and significant impact. The findings of the study may be utilised to improve and sustain employee work satisfaction in MSME sectors by raising staff levels of religiosity and customer service.

The author [ 71 ] examined the place of Islamic spirituality in the workplace. This research looked at how work ethics and Islamic faith affect organisational commitment and job happiness. A Likert-scaled online questionnaire survey of 1000 Muslim workers from diverse economic sectors in Indonesia was used to collect the data, which was then evaluated using structural equation modelling (SEM). The results show that work ethics serve as a mediator between Islamic spirituality's favourable effects on job satisfaction and organisational commitment, two elements of work attitudes. There is evidence that organisational commitment is favourably influenced by job satisfaction, although that effect is unaffected by work ethics. This study's contribution might be regarded as its conclusions on the role of work ethics in mediating the impact of Islamic spirituality on job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

Hypothesis (H2): The Islamic religious values of the principal have a positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction.

2.3 Principals’ servant leadership and teachers’ job satisfaction

In embracing servant leadership, one can adopt a number of actions, all of which centered on the idea of "caring for others", as stated by Greenleaf [ 9 , 38 ]. The majority of the literature on servant leadership that is made available to the public is grounded on altruism and humanism. Servant leadership emphasizes selfless and humanistic acts rather than control and manipulation [ 38 ]. The idea presented by [ 39 ] has been used as the theoretical foundation for this study. The characteristics forming the conceptualizations of servant leadership in the models described by [ 1 , 9 , 23 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ], can be viewed as being consistent with the seven scales developed by [ 39 ], conceptualizing, emotional healing, putting followers first, helping followers grow and succeed, being ethical, and empowering. In a study on servant leadership in higher education using data from a non-Western culture, [ 43 ] discovered that job satisfaction had a favorable and mediating effect on the link between servant leadership and emotional commitment. In addition, [ 44 ] examined the impact of servant leadership on job satisfaction at a private institution in Atlanta, Georgia, and discovered a positive correlation between servant leadership and job satisfaction among the institution’s academic and non-faculty employees. The seven scales of servant leadership can significantly enhance the effectiveness of educational leaders by fostering a positive, empowering, and growth-oriented environment that prioritizes the well-being and development of both students and staff [ 72 , 73 ]. Drawing from these studies, we form the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis (H3): Principal’s servant leadership has a positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction.

2.4 The mediating role of servant leadership

Previous research has shown that a principal's religious values can have a significant impact on teachers' job satisfaction [ 45 , 46 ]. However, the mechanisms through which this relationship operates have not been fully explored. The author [ 74 ] studied the alignment of a principal's religious values with servant leadership principles in a school and college environment that promotes collaboration, trust, and a sense of community, resulting in the positive impact of teacher job satisfaction. One potential mechanism is the principal's leadership style. Servant leadership is a style of leadership that prioritize the needs of others while also fostering the growth and development of subordinates [ 9 ]. This style has been associated with higher levels of job satisfaction among employees in various industries [ 39 , 47 ]. Given that servant leadership is consistent with many religious values, a principal's religious values may lead them to adopt a servant leadership style. Many religious traditions, for example, emphasize the importance of service to others and humility [ 48 ]. Thus, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the principal's religious values may influence their decision to embrace a servant leadership style, which in turn may lead to higher levels of job satisfaction among teachers.

Hypothesis (H4): Servant leadership mediates the relationship between the Islamic religious values of the principal and teachers’ job satisfaction.

3 Material and methods

3.1 research design.

This study followed a quantitative approach where a social survey method was used to gather data from a representative sample of a wider population. This approach deals with figures and proves relationships between independent, mediating and dependent variables [ 53 ]. It collects and analyzes quantitative data to gain a better understanding of the research problem [ 54 ]. In Bangladeshi schools and colleges, the religious values of the principals significantly shape the educational environment and contributes to a greater sense of job satisfaction among teachers in the academic setting.

3.2 Population and sampling

This section provides information about the sampling technique used and the reasons for selecting specific educational institutions. According to [ 55 ], purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is commonly used in selecting participants who meet specific criteria relevant to the research study. Accordingly, this study conducted in the year between 2021 and 2023 employed the purposive sampling technique to select eight schools and colleges from Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, based on their top performance in the past 5 years. These institutions were selected because they are among the best in the country, and therefore, their teachers' perceptions of leadership may have significant implications for the overall education system.

To address self-response bias, we used an anonymous response technique in our study. This ensured participant confidentiality, promoting honest and unbiased feedback. By prioritizing anonymity, we aimed to minimize self-response bias, enhancing the reliability of our findings. Prior to initiating our survey, we diligently sought and obtained approval from the Ethics Review Committee, ensuring that our research adheres to ethical standards and guidelines. Moreover, we prioritized participant consent by securing informed consent before distributing the questionnaire to respondents. Only after receiving affirmative responses we proceed to deliver the questionnaire, respecting the principles of ethical research conduct. These measures underscore our commitment to conducting the study with integrity, transparency, and due consideration for ethical considerations, safeguarding the welfare of our participants throughout the research process. After obtaining informed consent, a total of 626 teachers were approached to participate in the study, and 345 of them agreed to participate. However, after careful screening, only 335 responses were found usable. The minimum sample size for running the research model was calculated using the G*power software [ 56 ]. The software recommended 104 samples as the minimum sample size based on the following input parameters: effect size (medium) = 0.15, alpha = 0.05, power = 0.96, and the number of predictors = 2. However, the study collected 335 samples, which confirms that the sample size is sufficient for testing the model.

In short, the study employed a purposive sampling technique to select eight educational institutions based on their top performance in the past five years. The sample size of 335 teachers in the study was sufficient for testing the research model. The use of appropriate sampling techniques and sample sizes is essential in ensuring the validity and reliability of research findings.

3.3 Measurement of variables

The study was conducted with the principal’s religious values, teachers’ job satisfaction and principal’s servant leadership as the independent, dependent and mediating variables, respectively. Table 1 lists the variables and related items used to measure each variable. The instrument comprises seven items for Principal’s Servant Leadership adapted from [ 43 ] six items for Teachers’ Job Satisfaction adapted from [ 57 ] and seven items for Religious Values adapted from [ 45 ]. On a five-point (5) scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), respondents were asked to identify their agreement or disagreement with a number of items. The items for each variable are listed below:

3.4 The research model

The model shows that principals’ religious values have a direct positive impact on job satisfaction and servant leadership. Servant leadership refers to the leadership style of the principal, which not only positively influences the job satisfaction of teachers but also mediates the relationship between principals’ religious values and the teachers’ job satisfaction. Religious values, especially Islamic values, are dominating factors in Bangladeshi society [ 58 ] and have similar traits to servant leadership. A principal who has absorbed Islamic religious concepts is more likely to serve as a servant leader in Bangladeshi schools and colleges (Fig. 1 ).

The research model

3.5 Data analysis

This study is based on a quantitative approach. SPSS and Smart PLS 3.3 software were used to analyze the survey data. SPSS was used to develop the descriptive statistics, while Smart PLS 3.3 of [ 59 ] was used to test the research model. The PLS-SEM statistical method was employed to examine the structural relationships among exogenous and endogenous variables. PLS-SEM was selected since it is considered as second-generation statistical method and it can explore relationship in structural model with one go [ 60 ]. The measurement model was developed first, followed by the examination of the structural model as suggested by [ 60 ]. For testing the mediation (indirect effect), this study followed the bootstrapping approach recommended by [ 61 ], and for testing moderation, a two-stage analytical approach was followed.

In this study, we have integrated age, education level, gender, and experience as control variables. A control variable s a variable that is held constant in an experimental or observational study to assess the relationship between the independent and dependent variables more accurately. It helps isolate and understand the specific effects of our independent variable on the dependent variable by minimizing the influence of other factors. This strategic approach aligns with established research practices, strengthening the internal validity of our study and providing a reliable foundation for meaningful conclusions.

4 Results and discussions

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the respondents’ biographical information. Descriptive statistics of the respondents’ bio describe the respondents based on their educational background, designation, years of teaching experience, gender and marital status variables. The result showed that the majority of the respondents were male (69.6%, n = 233), married (91%, n = 305), had a postgraduate degree (93.4%, n = 313), were designated as lecturers (41.5%, n = 139) and had 5–10 years of experience (of respondents, n = 93). In addition, all the respondents have worked with their current leader for at least more than one year.

As indicated in Table  3 , the average exogenous, endogenous and mediating variable scores were high. This implies that principals’ religious values have a significant positive relationship with principals’ servant leadership and teachers’ job satisfaction. It also indicates that principals’ servant leadership has a significant positive association with teachers’ job satisfaction.

4.1 Measurement model analysis

To evaluate the measurement model, both convergent and discriminant forms of validity were examined. Table 4 presents the results of convergent validity. Except for a few, most of the loadings were higher than the recommended thresholds (0.708); however, they were all retained, since the AVE of the construct was more than 0.50. The composite reliability (CR), Cronbach’s Alpha and the rho A were all higher than the recommended threshold. As such, the items of the latent variable constructs provided sufficient evidence of internal consistency. Therefore, the proposed model has established the convergent validity of the measurement model.

Table 5 presents the output of the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT). According to [ 62 ], this ratio measures the similarity between latent variable constructs, and if the value is less than 0.90, it sufficiently establishes the discriminant validity. The result of the HTMT ratio of this model showed that all the values were below the suggested threshold. Hence, this model also demonstrates adequate discriminant validity. In other words, the latent variable constructs of this model have sufficient discrimination among themselves.

4.2 Structural model analysis

Table 6 presents the results of a structural model analysis that examined the relationships between a principal's servant leadership (PSL), teachers' job satisfaction (TJS) and religious values (PRV). Specifically, the analysis tests five hypotheses:

H1: The direct effect of religious values on principal's servant leadership (PRV—> PSL)—This hypothesis was supported (beta value = 0.753, p < 0.001, t value = 19.146), indicating a strong positive relationship between religious values and principal's servant leadership.

H2: The direct effect of principal's servant leadership on teachers' job satisfaction (PSL—> TJS)—This hypothesis was also supported (beta value = 0.312, p < 0.001, t value = 3.193), indicating a positive relationship between principals' servant leadership and teachers' job satisfaction.

H3: The direct effect of religious values on teachers' job satisfaction (PRV—> TJS)—This hypothesis was also validated (beta value = 0.42, p < 0.001, t value = 4.584), implying a positive relationship between religious values and teachers' job satisfaction.

H4: The mediation effect of religious values on the relationship between principal's servant leadership and teachers' job satisfaction (PRV—> PSL—> TJS)—This hypothesis was confirmed (beta value = 0.235, p < 0.05, t value = 2.938), indicating that religious values significantly mediate the relationship between principal's servant leadership and teachers' job satisfaction.

Overall, the results suggest that religious values play a significant role in shaping a principal's servant leadership and its effect on teachers' job satisfaction in a setting where Islam is the dominant religion.

Regarding the quality of the model, the R square value was 0.492 and 0.566 for teachers’ job satisfaction and principals’ servant leadership, respectively, indicating that the latent variables explain around 50 percent of the variance in the endogenous constructs [ 63 ]. Effect size, as assessed through the f2 metric, provides valuable insights into the impact of an exogenous construct on endogenous variables within a structural model. In addition to scrutinizing R2 values for all endogenous constructs, evaluating the change in R2 when a specific exogenous construct is omitted allows us to gauge the substantive impact of the omitted variable on the endogenous constructs. Cohen's classification [ 64 ], with values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 denoting small, medium, and large effects, respectively, helps contextualize the magnitude of the exogenous latent variable's influence. The f2 effect size facilitates a nuanced examination of how much an exogenous construct contributes to the R2 value of a target construct. By estimating R2 values with and without a specific predecessor construct, we derive the f2 effect size, with results of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 indicating small, medium, and large effects, respectively. Utilizing the f2 metric enhances our ability to assess the relevance of constructs in elucidating selected endogenous latent variables within the structural model. Based on these criteria, we can conclude that the predictors, namely perceived religious value on servant leadership, have a large effect size, as the f square value was greater than 0.35. However, the rest of the predictors have a small effect size (f square value < 0.15).

The variance inflation factor (VIF) is a measure of multicollinearity, which refers to the extent to which the predictor variables in a model are highly correlated with one another [ 63 ]. The VIF of a predictor variable is calculated as the ratio of the variance of the predicted values for that variable to the variance of the residuals of the regression equation. A high VIF value indicates that the predictor variable is highly correlated with other predictor variables in the model, which may affect the results of the regression analysis. A VIF value greater than 5 generally indicates high multicollinearity [ 64 ]. All the VIF values in the table were less than the threshold. Thus, multicollinearity is not an issue in this study. Besides f square and R square, it is also recommended to assess the predictive relevance of the model [ 63 ].

PLS-Predict is a useful tool that can help identify the predictive relevance of a model. Table 7 presents the result of the PLS-predict. For the majority of the manifest variables (MV), the PLS-SEM model showed lower values for both root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) compared to the PLS-LM model. This suggests that the PLS-SEM model has better predictive power in these cases. For example, in datasets PSL1, PSL2, PSL3, PSL5, TJS6, TJS2, TJS3, TJS4 and TJS5, the PLS-SEM’s RMSE and MAE values were lower than the corresponding PLS-LM values [ 63 ].

However, there are some cases where the PLS-LM model has better predictive power, as indicated by lower RMSE and MAE values. For instance, in datasets PSL4 and TJS7, the PLS-LM model had lower RMSE and MAE values compared to the PLS-SEM model [ 63 ].

Table 6 and Fig.  2 provide strong support for all hypotheses tested in this study. The first hypothesis, which examined the direct relationship between the religious values of principals and their servant leadership style, was supported by the data. The results demonstrate a significant positive relationship between these two variables, highlighting the importance of principals' religious values in shaping their leadership style. Moreover, the study found that the principal's servant leadership style is a powerful predictor of teacher job satisfaction in Bangladeshi schools and colleges.

The structural model showing the results of beta and t values

The second hypothesis, which examined the direct relationship between principals' servant leadership style and teacher job satisfaction, was also validated by the data. These findings are consistent with previous research on the subject [ 2 , 3 , 42 ], challenging the claim made by [ 21 ] that servant leadership is not commonly practiced in Bangladesh's private commercial banks.

In addition, the third hypothesis, which examined the direct relationship between principals' religious values and teacher job satisfaction, was also supported by the data. Specifically, the study found that Islamic values in Bangladeshi schools and colleges have a direct and positive impact on teacher job satisfaction, which is consistent with the findings of [ 29 ] in the context of Pakistan's higher education field. Further, the data also supported the fourth hypothesis, which tested the mediating role of servant leadership between principals' religious values and teacher job satisfaction. This mediation is partial since the direct relationship was found to be significant. Thus, the model developed in this study, which incorporates religious values, particularly Islamic values, in Bangladeshi schools and colleges, provides a unique contribution to the literature on servant leadership.

The empirical evidence underscores the validity and reliability of the model. Through assessments of explanatory power utilizing R-square values, effect size, and predictive relevance, the model consistently demonstrates its validity and reliability in forecasting job satisfaction. Specifically, the Principal's Islamic religious practices contribute to the enhancement of servant leadership style, both of them jointly fostering job satisfaction among their subordinates, namely teachers. Moreover, the Principal's Islamic religious teachings emerge as a robust predictor in significantly influencing teachers' job satisfaction.

5 Policy recommendations

Based on the results of the structural model analysis, it can be concluded that religious values have a positive direct effect on teachers' job satisfaction and a positive indirect effect on teachers' job satisfaction through servant leadership, further corroborating the works of [ 29 , 32 , 36 , 43 ]. This implies that incorporating religious values into a leader's servant leadership style can enhance teachers' job satisfaction in Bangladeshi educational institutions. Additionally, the direct effect of the principal's servant leadership on teachers' job satisfaction was supported, indicating that servant leadership practices can contribute to teachers' job satisfaction.

Theoretically, these results extend the servant leadership theory by considering the role of religious values in mediating the relationship between servant leadership and teachers' job satisfaction. It also highlights the importance of incorporating cultural and religious values into leadership styles, particularly in contexts where such values are prevalent, in order to better understand the impact of leadership practices on outcomes such as job satisfaction. Furthermore, the findings contribute to the growing body of literature on the role of religiosity in organizational behavior and leadership in Bangladesh.

This study has several implications for educational administrators in Bangladesh. First, the integration of religious values in the servant leadership model can have a positive impact on the principal's leadership style and teachers' job satisfaction. Therefore, educational administrators should consider incorporating religious values into their leadership style to improve job satisfaction among teachers. Second, the results suggest that servant leadership has a mediating effect on job satisfaction, implying that, while important, it is not the only factor affecting job satisfaction. Educators should consider a holistic approach to improving teachers' job satisfaction. Furthermore, the findings emphasize the importance of understanding cultural and religious contexts when examining the impact of leadership on employee outcomes. Thus, for improved employee outcomes, educators in Bangladesh should consider the cultural and religious context of their school or organization when implementing leadership practices.

Finally, these results have important implications for educators in Bangladesh, as well as for those researching the interplay of leadership, religion and culture. Educators in Bangladesh should strive to integrate religious values into their servant leadership practices, as doing so has the potential to enhance teachers' job satisfaction and contribute to a positive educational environment.

6 Conclusion and future study

This study contributes to the growing body of research on educational leadership by examining the impact of the principal's servant leadership style and religious values on teacher job satisfaction in Bangladeshi schools and colleges. The use of a PLS-SEM statistical approach allowed for a robust analysis of the data collected from 335 teachers across eight schools and colleges in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The study was carried out in the context of Bangladeshi schools and colleges where religious values, especially Islamic values has a great impact on the society. It has not been studied in the context of schools and colleges in any other society. The findings of this study suggest that both the principals' servant leadership style and their Islamic religious values significantly influence teachers’ job satisfaction. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that principals' servant leadership style plays a critical mediating role in the relationship between their Islamic religious values and teacher job satisfaction.

This study extends the conventional model of servant leadership by incorporating the role of religious values, providing new insights into the significance of religious values in educational leadership theory and practice. However, this study is not without limitations. As the research was conducted in only several colleges in Bangladesh, caution is necessary when generalizing the findings to other educational contexts. Future research could build on this study by exploring the role of other cultural values and leadership styles in influencing teachers’ job satisfaction across different educational institutions and countries. In summary, this study provides educational leaders and policymakers with valuable information on how to enhance teachers’ job satisfaction by promoting a servant leadership style and acknowledging the influence of religious values in Bangladeshi educational institutions. Ultimately, these efforts could lead to a more effective and efficient education system, contributing to the country’s overall development.

Data availability

Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request.

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Hossain, M.Z., Islam, M.S., Ali, I. et al. The interplay of religious values, servant leadership and teacher job satisfaction in Bangladeshi education institutions. Discov glob soc 2 , 27 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-024-00042-y

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