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The New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation : a study of Revelation 21-22 in the light of its background in Jewish tradition

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The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Narrative

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32 Narrative Technique in the Book of Revelation

David L. Barr is Emeritus Professor of Religion and former chair of the Departments of Religion, Philosophy, and Classics at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio. His primary research areas include Jewish and Christian apocalypticism, the book of Revelation, and stories as told in the New Testament writings. He is author of Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (2012) and New Testament Story: An Introduction (2009), and editor of Reading the Book of Revelation: A Resource for Students (2003) and The Reality of Apocalypse: Rhetoric and Politics in the Book of Revelation (2006).

Published: 07 April 2015
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The book of Revelation is neither a guide to the end of the world nor a handbook of theology. It is a narrative in which John recounts what happened to him on Patmos, describes what he saw and heard when he ascended into the sky/heaven, and recounts the cosmic conflict between the forces of good and evil—an ultimate Holy War. It is thus a complicated narrative, recounting both John’s actions (what happened to him) and the actions he recounts in the stories he tells (what he saw and heard). He functions as both the narrator and as a character in the story. This article explores various techniques used to tell the story, including its genre, structure and plot, temporal and spatial distortions, narrative performance and characterizations, and narrative rhetoric.

Too often, the book of Revelation has been read as an allegory wherein various elements of the story are taken to refer to other, external events, especially events of the interpreter’s time. Most often these interpreters claim to be taking the story of Revelation literally, but that is clearly not the case. The story itself says nothing about the modern world, America, the second coming, or the end of the world. It is, rather, a narrative of what happened to John—what he saw and heard—a story, not a puzzle or an essay on the end times. Even scholars have tended to interpret Revelation as an allegory of ideas rather than as a narrative, and so they speak of John’s ecclesiology or his eschatology ( Wainwright 1993 , 125–158). But the book of Revelation is neither a guide to the end of the world nor a handbook of theology. It is a narrative.

In this narrative John recounts what happened to him on Patmos, describes what he saw and heard when he ascended into the sky/heaven, and recounts the cosmic conflict between the forces of good and evil—a definitive Holy War. It is thus a complicated narrative, recounting both John’s actions (what happened to him) and the actions he recounts in the stories he tells (what he saw and heard). He functions as both the narrator and as a character in the story. This chapter explores the various techniques used to tell the story, focusing on its genre, structure and plot, temporal and spatial distortions, performance, and rhetorical effect.

Narrative Genre

The book of Revelation belongs to a genre modern scholars have named apocalypses , minimally described as autobiographical narratives recounting the reception of revelations. These represent a subset of a larger category we can label vision reports . The genre includes a diverse literary corpus, exhibiting different ideologies, addressing different social situations, and employing different narrative strategies. The modern effort to define the genre began in the nineteenth century ( Lücke 1852 ), and was carried forward in significant ways by Russell (1964) , Hanson (1979) , and Hellholm (1989) . Their insights have been analyzed, refined, and advanced in the work of the Society of Biblical Literature’s Genre Project, especially as articulated in the writings of John Collins (1979) . What is now the standard definition runs as follows:

“Apocalypse” is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world. ( Collins 1979 , 9)

In the first instance, every apocalypse is an account of an experience (real or imagined) of some prophetic figure (real or imagined). They typically begin with such statements as “after this I saw another dream and I will show it all to you” (1 Enoch 85:1); “the fourth vision which I saw, brethren, 20 days after the former vision … I was going into the country on the via Campania” ( Shepherd of Hermas 1:1); and “I saw in my sleep what I now show to you with the tongue of flesh and with my breath” (1 Enoch 14:2). John, too, begins autobiographically: he is telling what he heard and saw in the spirit when he was on the island called Patmos (Rev. 1: 9–12).

In this way, an apocalypse is a narrative re-presentation of a revelation experience so that the audience can imaginatively share that experience ( Aune 1986 ). These narratives recount the experience of the seer in another (sacred) time or another (sacred) place. While all apocalypses concern both sacred space and sacred time, an individual apocalypse will focus on one or the other. Those that focus on sacred space usually include an otherworldly journey in which the seer visits the heavens (and later, also the underworld). Those that focus on sacred time usually include the device of historical review, also called ex eventu prophecy, a symbolic portrayal of historical events up to the time of the audience ( Barr 2013 ).

Both types intend to interpret the present situation of the audience. Indeed, those who enter into these stories will find the present situation changed by the experience. Now, this is not something magical or even religious. It is what stories do.

A story on the page is like a printed circuit For our lives to flow through, A story told invokes our dim capacity To be alive in bodies not our own. ( Doctorow 2000 , 181)

In the same way, John pronounces a blessing on those who hear and retain his story (Rev. 1:3). The effectiveness of an apocalypse does not depend on whether it corresponds to history or successfully predicts the future. It depends on whether the story captures the audience. Again, this is what stories do.

“There is nothing better than imagining other worlds,” he said, “to forget the painful one we live in. At least I thought so then. I hadn’t yet realized that, imagining other worlds, you end up changing this one.” ( Eco 2002 , 99)

Stories can change the world, because one of the primary ways we understand the world is by telling stories about it. In John’s world the dominant story was that of Rome and Caesar: the Pax Romana. Caesar had slain the monster of chaos with its civil wars and economic turmoil. John retells the story from the opposite perspective: the chaos monster is the Caesar ( Wengst 1987 ; van Henten 2006 ). And this is not just some general story about a primordial time or a faraway place, for John includes himself and his audience in the story. It is the audience that must keep its hands unsullied and its forehead unmarked by the beast (Rev. 13:16–17; 20:4).

It is the experience of the story of the Apocalypse, with its reconfiguration of the world in which they lived, that allowed the audience to achieve a new understanding of life ( Schüssler Fiorenza 1998a , 181–203). The Apocalypse is both a story and a performance in which the story is orally presented to the audience. John was not so much predicting the coming of a new age as making it a reality in the lives of his audience when they experienced the story of his revelation—“happy are those who hear” (Rev. 1:3; Barr 2006 ).

In this story the hero is Jesus. In fact, the story announces itself as “the Revelation of Jesus Christ” (1:1). But we should not let our familiarity with the gospel versions of that story control our reading of John’s narrative. The story is not told in chronological order, does not follow a consistent action from beginning to end, and contains a high degree of repetition.

Narrative Order

There is no agreement on the proper outline or structure of the book of Revelation. It is often said that there are as many outlines as there are interpreters ( Smith 1994 ). There are several reasons for this diversity. While some of the material is consciously numbered into a series of seven items (churches, seals, trumpets, and bowls), it is not clear how the rest of the material relates to the numbered sequences. There are also interruptions within the numbered sequences—the series of seals is interrupted after seal six with the story of the sealing of God’s servants; the series of trumpets is interrupted after trumpet six with several small stories. The complexity of the traditions recounted is an additional factor; these traditions seem to come from basically different spheres and to be about different things. Some take this as evidence of different sources being combined together. In addition, certain elements of the narrative are repeated again and again. Finally, some of the material seems to be wildly out of place chronologically (for example, the beast is introduced in chapter 13 but has appeared already in the story in chapter 11 ).

The difficulty in finding an outline for Revelation stems in part from asking the wrong question—the question of how to divide the material. We should rather be asking how the author took such diverse material and wove it into a narrative unity ( Thompson 1989 ). If we take the implied setting seriously, that it was composed for an oral performance before an audience (1:3), our attention shifts to how this diverse material is unified ( Barr 1986 ). The author’s hand can be traced in the themes, characterizations, and story plot.

All interpreters agree that chapters 1 through 3 form a discrete unit, the theme of which is a written communication from an otherworldly being. In this unit Jesus is presented as a magnificent heavenly, humanlike figure. The only action of this unit is the instruction to John to write specific letters to the messengers of specific churches. Having completed this task, John is whisked away to heaven, where he witnesses the eternal liturgy of all creation gathered around the throne of God. In this scene Jesus is presented as the slain but living lamb who is worthy to share the throne of God. The action of this unit centers on a scroll which the Lamb opens, moving from the chaos of war, famine, and death (6:1-8) to the declaration that the kingdoms of this world have become the kingdom of God (11:15). After this, John peers into the heavenly Temple and sees astrological and mythological signs of the final battle between good and evil. In this unit Jesus is (or should be) presented as the ultimate heavenly warrior (19:11–16), but in large measure the characterization of the second unit (the slain but living lamb) persists. Still, the theme of holy war permeates all the action of the section, culminating one thousand years of peace, the creation of a new heaven and a new earth, and the manifestation of a new city of God.

We have, then, three broad thematic units having to do with letter writing (1–3), heavenly worship (4–11), and holy war (12–22). Each of these contains some dissimilar materials, and none of them makes conscious reference to the others. John forces the audience to make sense of them by placing them in a common narrative framework of his experience.

John appears in each of the thematic units just described, but with different functions. In the first unit he is a secretary for the heavenly figure; in the second unit he is a heavenly traveler; and in the third unit he is a prophetic seer.

Narrative Space

While John’s actions include the ordinary space of the audience—real places like Ephesus, Smyrna, and Pergamum—the action occurs in other places. The first action occurs on Patmos, an island off the coast of Asia Minor. It is a real and easily imagined place but as an island is not contiguous with ordinary space. It is in some ways Other. Having secured the readers’ imagination of this other place, John now sees a door in the sky and ascends though it into the throne room in heaven—a sacred space radically distinct from ordinary space—and yet, connected to the audience by the portrayal of a worship service, almost certainly analogous to theirs. As the worship service culminates John sees into the heavenly Temple and experiences a further vision. The narrative complexity here is marvelous: the audience sees John on Patmos, having a vision of himself in which he ascends into heaven, where he has a vision of himself having a further vision of the dragon’s coming attack.

Spatial location of this third section is not easy to determine. John sees a vision of omens in the sky (12:1), which would imply that he is back on earth, looking up. This would seem to be confirmed by the account of the war in heaven, at the end of which Satan is cast down to earth (12:12). And the Lamb gathers his army on Mount Zion, an earthly place projecting into the sky above (14:1). Mt. Zion is also a symbolic way of referring to Jerusalem, a place that is both historic and mythic; another battle has the armies gathering at Armageddon—an entirely mythic place not found on any map, despite the ingenuity of many interpreters. And one can hardly imagine where John is standing when he sees the creation of a new heaven and a new earth—the old having fled the scene (21:1).

Still, there is a logic and symmetry to John’s use of space. The story begins and ends with the author on stage as a character in the drama, directly addressing the audience (1:9; 22:8). The opening action occurs on an island in the midst of the sea, and the action ends in a world in which there is no more sea (21:1). And the central action pivots around the throne of God. Thus, the actions reported in these three units occur in identifiable, if ever more remote, locations: on Patmos, in the heavenly throne room, and in the space of conflict located between heaven and earth. Yet the temporal sequence of the action is anything but straightforward.

Narrative Time

The narrative strategy of the book of Revelation distorts the audience’s sense of time in several ways: telling events out of order, describing some actions in great detail while passing quickly over others, and by frequent repetitions with variations. There is little agreement on the meaning of these distortions. At a minimum, we can conclude that there is not one unfolding story in the Apocalypse. At a minimum, we must conclude that events are not told in a chronological order.

The birth of the Messiah is narrated in highly symbolic form in chapter 12 ; but he has already appeared in the story as the slaughtered, yet living, lamb whose conquest has made him worthy to open the scroll in chapter 5 . Chapter 11 culminates in the announcement that the kingdom of God has come and taken control of the kingdoms of this world; yet chapters 13 narrates the emergence of two world beasts whose rule is antithetical to that of God’s. The primeval battle between Michael and Satan, which results in Satan’s expulsion from heaven, is narrated as if it occurs after the death of Jesus (12:7–12). In addition, there are several story fragments inserted into otherwise connected narratives, breaking up the flow. For example, presentation of the seven seals is broken off after the sixth seal by the lengthy recounting of the sealing of the elect for their protection. The series of seven trumpets is broken off after trumpet six with the recounting of three short stories, unconnected to the trumpets. In both instances the story shifts abruptly back to the seventh item in the series. The order in which events are narrated in John’s story is not necessarily related to the order in which he understood them to happen in that story.

All narratives radically compress the time of the story, but within this compression we can recognize three different temporal shifts: summary (when events are narrated briefly), scenic (when events are narrated in detail), and slow motion (when the events narrated are elaborated by descriptions, explanations, or other nonnarrative material). Good examples of the latter include the elaborate description of Jesus in chapter 1 , the detailing of the heavenly throne room chapter 4 , and the descriptions of Babylon as prostitute and of the new Jerusalem as bride in chapters 17 and 21 . In each case, the progress of the narrative is brought to a virtual standstill while the audience contemplates the meaning of the setting.

At the other extreme, some material is passed over in such rapid summary as to be almost invisible. For example, battle scenes are never actually portrayed; the narrative passes directly from the announcement of battle to announcement of its completion (see 19:19–20). Instead of focusing on the battle, the narrative focuses on the one who wins the battle, with an elaborate slow-motion description (19:11–16). By manipulating the duration of his narration, John directs the audience’s attention to the aspects of the story he deems important.

Numerous elements of John story are repeated, usually with variation. It is not always clear whether he is narrating the same event in different words or different events in similar words. Some instances seem to be simple repetitions. There are two scenes of the twenty-four elders worshiping before the heavenly throne (4:10; 11:6), two portrayals of the censer full of the prayers of the faithful (5:8; 8:3), two openings of the heavenly temple (11:19; 15:5), two instances of John offering worship to the heavenly messenger (19:10; 22:8), and several joltings of the great earthquake (6:12; 8:5; 11:13; 11:19).

More important are the repetitions with variation. For example, the seven bowls of judgment echo almost exactly the seven trumpets (compare 8:7–11:15 with 16:2–17). And while it is common to speak of the final battle in the book of Revelation, there are in fact five such battles (16:14; 17:14; 19:11, 19:19; 20:8). In a similar way, the fall of Babylon—that great enemy of God—is noted six times: as burned (14:8–11), destroyed by an earthquake (16:18–21), as consumed by the kings of the earth (17:16–18), as abandoned (18:2–4), as burned (18:8–20), and as being thrown into the sea (18:21–24). It seems impossible to take these as any kind of a chronological sequence.

John’s narrative technique thus involves deliberate temporal distortions of order, duration, and frequency. It operates under different time schemes in different parts. And even the characters that persist throughout the narrative (John and Jesus) are characterized differently in different actions. Is it possible, then, to speak of the plot of John’s narrative?

Narrative Plot

Some see the work as a continuously unfolding plot (a linear sequence; Resseguie 2009 , 44–47); others see it as is lacking a plot altogether—preferring to speak of its “dramatic structure” ( Bowman 1955 ) or mythic unity ( Thompson 1969 ). Still others see it as a collection of stories within an overarching narrative structure (more circular or spiral than straight line; Barr 2003 ).

These different perspectives derive in part from different understandings of plot. Some regard plot as the arrangement of the incidents of the story so that they achieve a particular impression on the reader. Such critics usually look for broad categories of action, such as the setting, the problem, the crisis, the resolution, and the new setting (for example, Jang 2003 ). At this very broad level of generalization one can argue that chapters 1–3 provide the setting of the story, a story that begins in heavenly unity (4–5) but then descends into chaos with the emergence of the Dragon into beasts (12–13); this chaos is overcome in the war between the Lamb and the Dragon (14–19), resulting in a new state of ideal unity (20–22). This might rightly be called a comic plot and is a useful way to view the story of the Apocalypse ( Resseguie 2009 ).

Others, going back to Aristotle, define plot not as the incidents of the story but as the relationship between the incidents, the causality, the logic of the arrangement of the incidents—the probability or necessity that one thing should follow another ( Aristotle 1953 , 1450a, 51). This is what Aristotle meant when he said every story should have a beginning, middle, and end; the initial incident starts the ball rolling; middle incidents receive their impetus from the preceding incidents and pass it on to the next; the final incident brings the movement to a stop. Of course, Aristotle was talking about the relatively tightly plotted genre of Greek tragedy. Actual plots vary over a broad continuum from the very tightly plotted (such as a tragedy) to the very loosely plotted (such as an epic).

Using this definition, it is impossible to draw a straight line through the apocalypse wherein each incident is related to that which goes before and after. There are just too many incidents, too many different kinds of incidents, too many loose ends. A prime example is the opening section in which John is directed to write letters to the seven churches; the audience sees the dictation of the letters, but they are never delivered. We never get to see what Jezebel says when she reads what John says of her! In fact the letters are never referred to again. Instead, John plays on the reference to the heavenly throne in the seventh letter and then proceeds to describe a vision of the throne of God with all creation gathered round—an entirely new action.

The throne scene centers on opening another scroll, one sealed with seven seals. Its opening culminates in silence, the blowing of seven trumpets, and the announcement that God’s kingdom has come: “the kingdom of this world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah and he shall reign forever and ever” (11:15). Heavenly worship resumes. On one level, this represents the end of the story. What could possibly happen after this?

But instead of stopping, the story continues with an essentially new cast of characters: a heavenly woman crowned with the sun and a great red dragon, who now initiates a war on God’s people. The Dragon conjures two other new characters: the primordial beasts from land and sea. Then something surprising happens. In characterizing the forces that will oppose this evil triumvirate, John reaches back to the throne scene, transforming the 144,000 marked for protection into the holy Army led, not by a new hero, but by the slaughtered-standing lamb. By (re)using these characters, John ties this new action to the previous one even though there is no logical connection to the action.

There are, then, three separate thematic and dramatic units in the narrative that John has constructed: a heavenly figure commands John to write letters to the seven churches, dictating the messages. John journeys in the spirit to the heavenly throne room, where he witnesses the heavenly liturgy. John peers into the heavenly Temple and witnesses the holy war between good and evil. Nevertheless, John has used these three stories to create a unified narrative.

The narrative strategy of the book of Revelation entails incorporating these three separate stories within a common narrative framework of John’s revelatory experience. He begins his narrative with the declaration, “I John was on the island called Patmos … and I heard … and turned to see …” (1:9–12) And after telling us his stories he reasserts, “I John am the one who heard and saw these things” (22:8). This corresponds exactly to what the opening narrator declares “the revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place; he made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, who testified to the word of God and to the testimony of Jesus Christ, even to all that he saw” (1:1–2). And the scene of the angel presenting the revelation to John is dramatized near the midpoint of the narrative (10:1–10).

The motif that holds all this together is the need to conquer evil ( Bauckham 1988 ). In the letters, each of the seven churches is promised a reward to the one who conquers (2:7, 11, 17, 26–28; 3:5, 12, 21), and each promise is eventually fulfilled in the final scenes of the story (see the chart in Barr 2012 , 92–93). And the means of this conquest are revealed in the second story, where the only one worthy to open the divine scroll is the slaughtered Lamb “who has conquered” (5:1–10). While other early writers explained Jesus’s conquest in historical terms (the Gospels), John has chosen a thoroughly mythic form. The third scene portrays the actual conquest of the Lamb over the Dragon, using the metaphor of holy war. This war is not something that happens after the heavenly liturgy, not some future struggle; it is something that happens in the liturgy and in the prior events, showing how the Lamb conquered.

Narrative Closure

Stories should come to a satisfying conclusion, a final scene or narrator’s summary in which the conflict is resolved and there is no need for any further action—an end: closure. Sometimes this closure is complete, all the loose ends wrapped up, but most often the closure is only partial. But whether partial or complete, the ending of the story enables the audience to understand story in a new way. We now know how it comes out. Looking back, we can now see what was important and what was not. The ending offers the audience the final clue to the story’s meaning; now the audience must exercise its imagination.

The end of John’s story has been a long time coming ( Barr 2001 ). And when it does come it is not what we expect. It can be read in at least three ways, considering the story of the narrator, of the characters in the story, and of the implied audience.

From the viewpoint of the narrator, nothing has changed. Our circling plot eventually comes back to where it began, with John directly addressing the audience in his own voice, “I, John, am the one who heard and saw these things” (22:8; cf. 1:9). In this way, nothing has changed. The anticipated time is still near (22:10; cf. 1:3), and Jesus is still coming soon (22:12; cf. 1:1). The dogs are still outside (22:15).

But from the viewpoint of the characters in the story, everything has changed. The city of God has descended from heaven, bringing the tree of life to all (22:2), and “there shall be no curse anymore” (22:3). The failure of Eden has been undone by the one who conquers. The world has changed. To the degree that the audience identifies with these characters, their world, too, may be changed. For closure is not complete; there is more, more to the story, for at the very end of the story something is happening. The audience is invited to come and drink of the water of life; and Jesus promises to come to them. Some further action is contemplated. We do not know what it is, for it happens outside the story—we do not even know if those gathered to hear the story (the narratee) will come. But we do know there is more to the story. The end is not necessarily the end.

Narrative Rhetoric

Things heard, things seen, things told. The overarching story of Revelation is the narrative of how John experienced three increasingly fantastic stories, located in increasingly fantastic places. What John sees and hears in these places is meant to persuade those in his community to live appropriately in their present political and social situation. Just what that situation was is not entirely clear. What is clear is that we must not mistake the narrative setting for the actual setting. Narratives present the world as the author wishes us to see it, not simply the world as it is ( Krieger 1964 ; Petersen 1978 ).

The narrative world of the Apocalypse is a dangerous place, full of beasts and dragons. For a long time interpreters assumed that this was also true of John’s historical world, assumed that John lived in a time of Roman persecution of Christians. But careful historical research has shown that this is not likely. Late first-century Roman Asia minor was a time and place of increasing prosperity ( Thompson 1990 ).

On the other hand, for rhetoric to be effective, the audience must discern some true connection between elements of the story and their own life experience. The experience must be such that the story is seen as a “fitting response” to their world ( Schüssler Fiorenza 1986 , 1987 , 1998b ). Disentangling the narrative world, the rhetorical world, and the actual historical world is an exceedingly complicated task.

For example, in John’s narrative world there is a notorious woman prophet named Jezebel living at Thyatira (2:20), and there is a “synagogue of Satan” at Smyrna (2:9)—neither of these existed in the actual historical world. Yet there must have been some prophet whose opposition to John was well enough known that the audience could say “you know who he is talking about, don’t you?” And there must have been a synagogue of some sort whose vision of the world was so opposite of John’s that he regarded it as Satanic. The point is, John refracts the life world of the audience in such a way as to persuade his audience that they ought to live in a certain way ( Barr 2011 ).

Serious analysis of the narrative rhetoric of John’s Apocalypse has only just begun ( DeSilva 2009 ). John was determined to persuade his audience that Rome was evil, including its manifestations in culture and commerce. They would not have needed such persuasion if Rome had been actively persecuting them; it would have been obvious. The problem seems to be the opposite: Roman culture was all too attractive to John’s audience. The rhetoric of John’s narrative demonstrates the folly of such thinking.

The book of Revelation is not an allegory of supposed future events, nor is it a symbolic portrayal of theological ideas. It is, instead, an autobiographical narrative of John’s experience of a revelation while “in the Spirit” on the island Patmos. As he tells the tale, he encounters Jesus as a majestic human figure with messages to the seven assemblies of Asia Minor, then as a slaughtered, standing lamb worthy to open a sealed scroll, and, finally, as a heavenly warrior victorious over the forces of evil.

It is a tale artfully told in the genre of a vision report, distorting the audiences’ sense of time and place, engaging them in both the oral presentation of the story and in some subsequent ritual action. By sharing John’s story, the audience shares his revelation. They become those happy folk who hear and keep John’s words (1:3).

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BibleProject Guides

Book of Revelation

Key Information and Helpful Resources

In the opening paragraph, the author identifies himself as John, which could refer to the author of the Gospel and letters of John, or it could be another leader in the early Church. Whichever John it was, he makes it clear in the opening paragraph that this book is a “revelation.” The Greek word used here is apokalypsis , which refers to a type of literature found in the Hebrew Scriptures and in other popular Jewish texts. Jewish apocalypses recounted a prophet’s symbolic visions that revealed God’s heavenly perspective on history so that the present could be viewed in light of history’s final outcome. These texts use symbolic imagery and numbers not to confuse but to communicate. Almost all the imagery is drawn from the Old Testament, and John expects his readers to interpret by looking up the texts to which he alludes.

Revelation 1-11

11:49 • New Testament Overviews

Who Wrote the Book of Revelation?

Though most Christian traditions hold that Revelation (or The Revelation of Jesus to John) was written by the disciple John, his identity is not explicitly mentioned.

The events described in Revelation take place in Asia-minor to seven specific church communities. Revelation was likely composed between 94 and 96 C.E.

Literary Styles

The book of Revelation is a compilation of apocalyptic literature and prose discourse.

The hope of Jesus’ final return
Faithfulness to Jesus throughout one's life
The comfort of Jesus in suffering and persecution

Revelation can be divided into seven parts. Chapters 1-3 introduces John’s vision. Chapters 4-5, 6-8a, 8b-11, 12-16, and 17-20 focus on various visions of John. And chapters 21-22 are a concluding vision of the new heavens and new Earth.

Revelation 1-3: Jesus’ Words to Seven Churches in Asia Minor

John says that this apocalypse is a prophecy. A prophecy is a word from God spoken through a prophet to comfort or challenge God’s people. This apocalyptic prophecy was sent to real people that John knew. The book opens and closes as a circular letter, which was sent to seven churches in the ancient Roman province of Asia. The fact that The Revelation is a letter means that John was specifically addressing these first century churches. While this book has a lot to say to Christians of later generations, its meaning must first be anchored in the historical context of John’s time and place.

John says he was exiled on the island of Patmos, where he saw a vision of the risen Jesus standing among seven burning lights. The image, adapted from Zechariah 4, is a symbol of seven local churches in Asia Minor. Jesus addressed the specific problems facing each church. Some were apathetic due to wealth and affluence, while others were morally compromised. But there were others who remained faithful to Jesus and were suffering harassment and persecution. Jesus warned them that a “tribulation” was upon the churches that would force them to choose between compromise or faithfulness.

By John’s day, the murder of Christians by the Roman emperor Nero had passed, and the persecution by emperor Domitian was likely underway. Jesus calls the churches to faithfulness, by which they will “conquer” and receive a reward in the final marriage of Heaven and Earth. The opening section sets up the main plot tension throughout the book. Will Jesus’ people conquer and inherit the new world that God has in store? And why is faithfulness to Jesus described as “conquering?”

Revelation 4-5: Vision of the Heavenly Throne Room and First Judgment

John’s next vision is of God’s heavenly throne room, described with images from many Old Testament prophetic books. Around God are creatures and elders, representing all creation and human nations, who are giving honor and allegiance to the one true God. In God’s hand is a scroll with seven wax seals, symbolizing the scrolls of the Old Testament prophets and Daniel’s visions. Their message was about how God’s Kingdom would come on Earth as in Heaven.

However, no one is qualified to open the scroll until John finally hears of the one who can. It’s “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” and the “Root of David” (Gen. 49:9; Isa. 11:1). These are classic Old Testament descriptions of the messianic King who would bring God’s Kingdom through military conquest. That’s what John hears, but what he sees is not a lion-king but a sacrificed, bloody lamb who is alive again, standing ready to open the scroll.

This symbol of Jesus as the slain lamb is crucially important for understanding the book. John is saying that the Old Testament promise of God’s future Kingdom was inaugurated through the crucified Messiah. Jesus died for his enemies as the true Passover lamb so that others could be redeemed. His death on the cross was his enthronement and his “conquering” of evil. The vision concludes with the lamb alongside the one on the throne, and together they are worshiped as the one, true Creator and redeemer. The slain lamb then begins to open the scroll, a symbol of his divine authority to guide history to its conclusion.

This brings us into the next section of the book with three cycles of sevens: seven seals, seven trumpets, and seven bowls. Each cycle depicts God’s Kingdom and justice coming on Earth as in Heaven. Some people think these three sets of seven divine judgments represent a literal, linear sequence of events that happened in the past or present, or will happen when Jesus returns. Notice, however, that John wove them together. The seven bowls come out of the seventh trumpet and the seventh seal, and the seven trumpets emerge from the seventh seal. They’re like nesting dolls, each seventh containing the next seven. And each series culminates in the final judgment, all with matching conclusions. Because of this, it’s more likely that John is using each set of seven to depict three distinct perspectives of the same period of time after Jesus’ resurrection.

Day of the Lord

Intro to Spiritual Beings

The Messiah

Sacrifice and Atonement

“Why Did Jesus Have To Die?” (A Question Worth Unpacking)

Day of the Lord Q+R

The Blood Cries Out

The Significance of Seven

Revelation 6-8a: Vision of the Lord’s Slain Servants

As the lamb opens the scroll’s first four seals, John sees four symbolic horsemen (an image from Zechariah 1) who symbolize times of war, conquest, famine, and death. The fifth seal depicts the murdered Christian martyrs before God’s heavenly throne. The cry of their innocent blood rises up before God, and they’re told to rest because, sadly, more Christians are going to die. The sixth seal is God’s ultimate response to their cry. He brings the great Day of the Lord described in Isaiah 2 and Joel 2. The people of the earth cry out, “Who is able to stand?!”

At this point, John pauses the action to answer that question. He sees an angel with a signet ring coming to place a mark of protection on God’s servants enduring all this hardship. He then hears the number of those sealed: 144,000. It’s a military census of twelve thousand from each of the twelve tribes of Israel (Numbers 1). Now, the number of this army is what John heard, just like he heard about the conquering lion of Judah. In both cases, what he turned and saw was the surprising fulfillment through Jesus, the slain lamb. John is seeing the messianic army of God’s Kingdom. It’s made up of people from all over the world, fulfilling God’s ancient promise to Abraham. This multiethnic army of the lamb can stand before God because they’ve all been redeemed by his blood. They are called forth to conquer not by killing their enemies but by suffering and bearing witness like the lamb. With this, the seventh and final seal is broken. But before the scroll is opened, the seven warning trumpets emerge, and only then does the Day of the Lord come to bring final justice once and for all.

Blessing and Curse

Martus / Witness

Revelation 8b-11: Visions of Judgment, the Temple, and Two Witnesses

When we come to the seven trumpets, John backs up and retells the story once again, this time with images from the Exodus story. The first five trumpet blasts replay the plagues sent upon Egypt, while the sixth trumpet releases the four horsemen from the first four seals. John then tells us that, despite these plagues, “the nations did not repent,” just like Pharaoh. God’s judgment alone does not bring people to humble themselves before him.

John then pauses the action again. An angel brings John the unsealed scroll that was opened by the lamb. John is now told to eat the scroll and proclaim its message to the nations. Finally, the lamb’s scroll is open, and we discover how God’s Kingdom will ultimately come.

The scroll’s content is spelled out in two symbolic visions. First, John sees God’s temple and the martyrs within it, and he is told to measure and set it apart (it’s an image of protection drawn from Zech. 2:1-5). The outer courts and city, however, are excluded and trampled by the nations. Some think that this refers literally to a destruction of Jerusalem in the past or the future. But it’s more likely that John is using the new temple as a symbol for God’s new covenant people, just like the other apostles did (1 Cor. 3:16; Heb. 3:6; 1 Pet. 2:4-5). The vision shows that while Jesus’ followers may suffer persecution, this external defeat cannot cancel their victory through the lamb.

This idea is elaborated in the scroll’s second vision. God appoints two witnesses as prophetic representatives to the nations. Some think that this refers literally to two prophets who will appear one day. However, John calls these characters “lampstands,” one of his clear symbols for the churches (Rev. 1:20). It’s likely that this vision is about the prophetic role of Jesus’ followers, who like Moses and Elijah, are to call idolatrous nations and rulers to turn to God. Then a horrible beast appears, who conquers the witnesses and kills them (remember Daniel 7). But God brings the witnesses back to life and vindicates them before their persecutors. This results in many among the nations repenting and giving honor to the creator God.

Let’s pause and think about the story so far. God’s warning judgments through the seals and the trumpets did not generate repentance among the nations. Now the lamb’s scroll reveals the strange mission of his army. God’s Kingdom is revealed when the nations see the Church imitating the sacrifice of the lamb and loving their enemies instead of killing them. It’s God’s mercy, shown through the Church, that will move the nations to repentance. After this, the last trumpet sounds, and the nations are shaken as God’s Kingdom comes on Earth as in Heaven.

The message of the scroll is finished, but who was that terrible beast who declared war against God’s people? John turns to this question in the second half of The Revelation.

The Way of the Exile

Angels and Cherubim

Heaven and Earth

Revelation 12-16: Visions of the Dragon, Beasts, 666, and More

After exploring the surprising message of the lamb’s opened scroll, John offers a series of seven visions that he calls “signs” (Rev. 12-15). That word means “symbol,” and these chapters are full of them. The purpose of these visions is to expand further on the message of the lamb’s scroll.

The first sign reveals the cosmic, spiritual battle behind the Roman empire’s persecution of Christians, the ancient conflict that started in Genesis 3:15. The serpent in the garden of Eden, the source of all spiritual evil, is depicted here as a dragon. It attacks a woman and her seed, who represent the Messiah and his people. But the Messiah defeats the dragon through his death and resurrection, casting him to Earth. There, the dragon may inspire hatred and persecution of the Messiah’s people, but God’s people will conquer him by resisting his influence, even if it kills them. John is showing the seven churches that neither Rome nor any other nation or human is the real enemy. There are dark spiritual powers at work that can be conquered only when Jesus’ followers remain faithful and love their enemies.

John’s next vision replays the same conflict, this time with the symbolism of Daniel’s animal visions (Dan. 7-12). John sees two beasts, one representing national military power that conquers through violence. The other beast symbolizes the economic propaganda machine that exalts this power as divine and demands full allegiance from all nations. This is symbolized by taking the mark of the beast and his number 666 on the forehead or hand.

The meaning of this image is found in the Old Testament. The mark is the “anti-Shema.” The Shema is an ancient Jewish prayer of allegiance to God found in Deuteronomy 6:4-8. It was to be written on the Israelites’ foreheads and hands as a symbol of devoting all your thoughts and actions to the one true God. But now the rebellious nations demand their own god-like allegiance.

The number of the beast is also a symbol. John was fluent in both Hebrew and Greek, and his readers knew that Hebrew letters also function as numbers. If you spell the Greek words “Nero Caesar” or “beast” in Hebrew, both amount to 666. John isn’t saying that Nero was the precise fulfillment of this vision; rather, he’s a recent example of the pattern explored in Daniel. Human rulers become beasts when they assign divinity to their power and economic security and demand total allegiance to it. Babylon was the beast of Daniel’s day, followed by Persia, then Greece, and now Rome in John’s day. The pattern stands for any later nation who acts the same.

Standing opposed to the dragon’s beastly nations is another king, the slain lamb and his army, who have given their lives to follow him. From the new Jerusalem, their song goes out to the nations as “the eternal Gospel” (Rev. 14:6). All people are called to repent, worship God, and come out of Babylon. Then John sees a vision of final justice, symbolized by two harvests. One is a good grain harvest where King Jesus gathers up his faithful people. The other is a harvest of wine grapes, representing humanity’s intoxication with evil, which are taken to the wine press and trampled. With these “sign” visions, John places a choice before the seven churches. Will they resist Babylon and follow the Lamb, or will they follow the beast and suffer its defeat?

John then replays a final cycle of seven divine judgments, symbolized as seven bowls. Similar to the Exodus plagues, the bowls do not bring about repentance but the opposite. The people resist and curse God just like Pharaoh. With the sixth bowl, the dragon and beasts gather the nations together to make war against God’s people in a place called Armageddon. This refers to a plain in northern Israel where many battles had been fought against invading nations (Jud. 5:19; 2 Kgs. 23:29). Some think that this image refers literally to a future battle, while others think it’s a metaphor for final judgment. Either way, John has taken these images from Ezekiel 38-39, where God battles Gog, who is of rebellious humanity. And so in the seventh bowl, evil is defeated among the nations once and for all.

Revelation 12-22

The Satan and Demons

Video Series

The Shema Series

Ancient Jewish Meditation Literature

Does God Punish Innocent People?

Revelation 17-20: The Final Battle of Armageddon

Now that John has fully unpacked the message of the lamb’s unsealed scroll, he expands upon three key themes introduced earlier: the fall of Babylon, the final battle to defeat evil, and the arrival of the new Jerusalem. Each one explores the final coming of God’s Kingdom from a different angle.

John is shown a stunning woman who is dressed like a queen but drunk with the blood of the martyrs and all innocent people. She is riding the dragon from the sign visions and is called Babylon the prostitute. All the detailed symbols of this vision were clear to John’s first readers because he was depicting the military and economic power of the Roman empire. But there’s more to it. The vision quotes language and imagery from every Old Testament passage about the downfall of Babylon, Tyre, and Edom (Isa. 13, 23, 34, 47; Jer. 50-51; Ezek. 26-27). He’s showing that Rome is simply the newest version of that old archetype of humanity in rebellion against God. Nations that exalt their own economic and military security to divine status aren’t limited to the past or the future. Babylons will come and go, leading up to the day when Jesus returns to replace them all with his Kingdom.

Up to this point in the book, the Day of the Lord has been depicted as a day of fire, earthquake, or harvest. Here at the conclusion of the book, it is described as a final battle (Rev. 19:11-21, 20:7-15) that results in the vindication of the martyrs (Rev. 20:1-6). John takes us back to the sixth bowl as the nations gather to oppose God. Jesus appears as the great hero, riding a white horse and ready to “conquer” the world’s evil. Notice, however, that he’s covered with blood before the battle even begins (Rev. 19:13). It’s his own. And his only weapon is “the sword of his mouth,” an image adapted from Isaiah 11:4 and 49:2.

John is trying to tell us that Armageddon is not a bloodbath. The same Jesus who shed his blood for his enemies comes proclaiming justice, holding accountable those who refuse to repent of the ruin they’ve caused in God’s good world. The destructive hellfire that they have caused in the world justly becomes their God-appointed destiny.

After this, John sees a vision of Jesus’ followers who have been murdered by Babylon. They are brought to life to reign with the Messiah for one thousand years. After this, the dragon once again rallies the nations of the world to rebel against God, but they are all brought before God’s throne of justice and face the consequences of eternal defeat. The forces of spiritual evil and all those who do not want to participate in God’s Kingdom are destroyed. They are given what they want, which is to exist by themselves and for themselves. The dragon, Babylon, and all those who choose them are eternally quarantined, unable to spoil God’s new creation ever again.

There’s a lot of debate about the relationship between the one thousand years that comes in between these two battle scenes. Some think that it refers to a literal, chronological sequence of Jesus’ return, followed by his one thousand year Kingdom on earth and final judgment. Others think the one thousand years are a symbol of Jesus and the martyr’s present victory over spiritual evil, while the two battles depict Jesus’ future return from two different angles. Whichever view you take, the point is that John promises the return of King Jesus to deal with evil forever and vindicate those who have been faithful to him.

The book concludes with a vision of the marriage of Heaven and Earth (Rev. 21:1-22:9). An angel shows John a stunning bride, symbolizing the new creation that comes to forever join God and his covenant people. God announces that he has come to live together with humanity forever and make all things new (Rev. 21:5).

Revelation and Jesus in Modern Politics

Heaven and Earth Q+R

The Evil Behind Babylon

The Biggest, Baddest City in the Bible

Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and Earth

This vision is a kaleidoscope of Old Testament promises. It depicts a new Heaven and Earth (Isa. 65:17), a restored creation that’s been healed of the pain and evil of human history. It’s also a new garden of Eden (Gen. 2) and paradise of eternal life with God. However, it’s not simply a return to the garden; it’s also a step forward into the new Jerusalem (Isa. 2). It’s a great city where human cultures in all their diversity work together in harmony. But in the most surprising twist, there is no temple. The presence of God and the lamb, once limited to the temple, now permeates every inch of this new world. This is when the new humanity will fulfill the calling that was placed on them back on page one of the Bible (Gen. 1:26-28), to rule as God’s image and partner with God in taking his creation into new, uncharted territory.

So ends both John’s apocalypse and the epic story of the Bible. John did not write this book as a secret code for deciphering the timetable of Jesus’ return. It is a symbolic vision that brought challenge and hope to the seven first-century churches and every generation since. It reveals history’s pattern and God’s promise, showing how every human kingdom eventually becomes Babylon and must be resisted. But the Messiah, Jesus, who loved and died for our world, will not let Babylon go unchecked. He will return one day to remove evil from his good world and make all things new. This promise should motivate faithfulness in every generation of God’s people until the King finally returns.

Heaven & Earth

The New Heaven and New Earth as Depicted in Revelation 21-22

The Surprise of the City

The Heavenly City

Reading Plan

Reading Revelation Wisely

Every human kingdom, like Babylon, eventually becomes corrupt and oppressive. We should resist evil kingdoms by loving people and trusting that Jesus will not let evil go unchecked. He will return to remove evil from the world and make all things new.

Downloads and Resources

Revelation Overview Poster

Volume 29 - Issue 1

STUDIES IN THE BOOK OF REVELATION

Most readers of the Book of Revelation that I know, admit that they could do with some help in interpreting it! So the bottom line here is whether the present volume of essays constitutes a helpful read. The answer has to be an unambiguous ‘yes.’ However, this verdict needs immediate qualification. These essays are not an easy read; the complex interpretative issues covered mean that the PhD student will probably derive more benefit from their content than the undergraduate. Any budding exegete or theologian who reads this book can therefore expect to be stretched.

The editor, Steve Moyise, unites his efforts with those of eleven other scholars; some are well-known to students specialising in the Book of Revelation and related areas; others whilst serving in ministry in their respective Churches are billed as working ‘at the cutting edge of research’. It falls to Christopher Rowland, belonging in the former category, to whet the reader’s appetite in a foreword which faces up to a paradox: The Book of Revelation is enjoying a new lease of life in recent scholarship, as the present volume itself bears witness, yet contemporary theology still functions as though the Apocalypse were not mainstream but marginal—as if Western culture did not owe this text an immense literary, artistic and theological debt. The collected essays mount a sort of cumulative case to protest that today’s Christian theologian needs to take on board what current scholarship is saying about the Book of Revelation. So each essay, to some degree, attempts to make the sceptical theologian sit up take notice.

To give a flavour of the twelve contributions, we sample just three which this reviewer had cause to read again while writing a paper on Revelation for a forthcoming interdisciplinary symposium on Religion and Violence. Three scholars choose to grapple with the difficulty of interpreting some of Revelation’s more violent imagery. In one essay, the problem of what we are make of Babylon the Great (Rev. 17) is helpfully spotlighted by a history of the metaphor’s varied effects upon diverse readers. In another, the question of what sort of Lamb can behave like a lion leads to consideration of how one might interpret apocalyptic violence in an ethically responsible way. A third, more demanding discussion, strives to see how the Apocalypse can be ‘authoritative’ today and to do so, examines the text’s stance over against the prevailing world-view and its rhetoric of persuasion for impacting the reader. All three efforts tackle and overcome some interpretative obstacles en route to suggesting positive ways in which Revelation may have contemporary relevance as a document of faith. Each writer is saying ‘there are problems, but they aren’t insurmountable’ and this approach characterises the whole volume.

For a collection assembled at scholarship’s cutting edge, there is at least one gaping whole in this book’s coverage of Revelation: Virtual omission of any treatment of the Apocalypse against a Jewish background. That being said, the editor is committed to multidimensional approaches to this text and has found space for feminist, political or millennialist readings of Revelation as well as for literary concerns such as inter-textuality and imagery or for theological categories like Christology. For the student, teacher or researcher who wants to think constructively about Revelation and the challenges it poses, this volume sustains interest. Our shelves need more like it!

Gordon Campbell

Other articles in this issue, the price is right, living in a world where life is cheap: the relevance of the book of deuteronomy and the sixth commandment for the debate on the sanctity of human life., on barth’s denial of universalism, the last and next christendom: implications for interpreting the bible, a free lunch at the end of the universe sacrifice, substitution and penal liability, other reviews in this issue.

SCIENTISM: SCIENCE, ETHICS AND RELIGION

SEX AND LOVE IN THE HOME

PASTORAL THEOLOGY IN THE CLASSICAL TRADITION

THE LAST THINGS: BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ESCHATOLOGY

THE ONE IN THE MANY: A CONTEMPORARY RECONSTRUCTION OF THE GOD-WORLD RELATIONSHIP

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Book of Revelation NIV

Chapters for revelation, summary of the book of revelation.

This summary of the book of Revelation provides information about the title, author(s), date of writing, chronology, theme, theology, outline, a brief overview, and the chapters of the Book of Revelation.

Four times the author identifies himself as John ( 1:1,4,9 ; 22:8 ). From as early as Justin Martyr in the second century a.d. it has been held that this John was the apostle, the son of Zebedee (see Mt 10:2 ). The book itself reveals that the author was a Jew, well versed in Scripture, a church leader who was well known to the seven churches of Asia Minor, and a deeply religious person fully convinced that the Christian faith would soon triumph over the demonic forces at work in the world.

In the third century, however, an African bishop named Dionysius compared the language, style and thought of the Apocalypse (Revelation) with that of the other writings of John and decided that the book could not have been written by the apostle John. He suggested that the author was a certain John the Presbyter, whose name appears elsewhere in ancient writings. Although many today follow Dionysius in his view of authorship, the external evidence seems overwhelmingly supportive of the traditional view.

Revelation was written when Christians were entering a time of persecution. The two periods most often mentioned are the latter part of Nero's reign (a.d. 54-68) and the latter part of Domitian's reign (81-96). Most interpreters date the book c. 95. (A few suggest a date during the reign of Vespasian: 69-79.)

Since Roman authorities at this time were beginning to enforce emperor worship, Christians -- who held that Christ, not Caesar, was Lord -- were facing increasing hostility. The believers at Smyrna are warned against coming opposition ( 2:10 ), and the church at Philadelphia is told of an hour of trial coming on the world ( 3:10 ). Antipas has already given his life ( 2:13 ) along with others ( 6:9 ). John has been exiled to the island of Patmos (probably the site of a Roman penal colony) for his activities as a Christian missionary ( 1:9 ). Some within the church are advocating a policy of compromise ( 2:14-15,20 ), which has to be corrected before its subtle influence can undermine the determination of believers to stand fast in the perilous days that lie ahead.

John writes to encourage the faithful to resist staunchly the demands of emperor worship. He informs his readers that the final showdown between God and Satan is imminent. Satan will increase his persecution of believers, but they must stand fast, even to death. They are sealed against any spiritual harm and will soon be vindicated when Christ returns, when the wicked are forever destroyed, and when God's people enter an eternity of glory and blessedness.

Literary Form

For an adequate understanding of Revelation, the reader must recognize that it is a distinct kind of literature. Revelation is apocalyptic, a kind of writing that is highly symbolic. Although its visions often seem bizarre to the Western reader, fortunately the book provides a number of clues for its own interpretation (e.g., stars are angels, lampstands are churches, 1:20 ; "the great prostitute," 17:1 , is "Babylon" [Rome?], 17:5,18 ; and the heavenly Jerusalem is the wife of the Lamb, 21:9-10 ).

Distinctive Feature

A distinctive feature is the frequent use of the number seven (52 times). There are seven beatitudes (see note on 1:3 ), seven churches ( 1:4,11 ), seven spirits ( 1:4 ), seven golden lampstands ( 1:12 ), seven stars ( 1:16 ), seven seals ( 5:1 ), seven horns and seven eyes ( 5:6 ), seven trumpets ( 8:2 ), seven thunders ( 10:3 ), seven signs ( 12:1,3 ; 13:13-14 ; 15:1 ; 16:14 ; 19:20 ), seven crowns ( 12:3 ), seven plagues ( 15:6 ), seven golden bowls ( 15:7 ), seven hills ( 17:9 ) and seven kings ( 17:10 ), as well as other sevens. Symbolically, the number seven stands for completeness.

Interpretation

Interpreters of Revelation normally fall into four groups:

Preterists understand the book exclusively in terms of its first-century setting, claiming that most of its events have already taken place.
Historicists take it as describing the long chain of events from Patmos to the end of history.
Futurists place the book primarily in the end times.
Idealists view it as symbolic pictures of such timeless truths as the victory of good over evil.

Fortunately, the fundamental truths of Revelation do not depend on adopting a particular point of view. They are available to anyone who will read the book for its overall message and resist the temptation to become overly enamored with the details.

Prologue ( 1:1-3 )
Greetings and Doxology ( 1:4-8 )
Jesus among the Seven Churches ( 1:9-20 )
Ephesus ( 2:1-7 )
Smyrna ( 2:8-11 )
Pergamum ( 2:12-17 )
Thyatira ( 2:18-29 )
Sardis ( 3:1-6 )
Philadelphia ( 3:7-13 )
Laodicea ( 3:14-22 )
The Throne in Heaven ( ch. 4 )
The Seven-Sealed Scroll ( 5:1-5 )
The Lamb Slain ( 5:6-14 )
First Seal: The White Horse ( 6:1-2 )
Second Seal: The Red Horse ( 6:3-4 )
Third Seal: The Black Horse ( 6:5-6 )
Fourth Seal: The Pale Horse ( 6:7-8 )
Fifth Seal: The Souls under the Altar ( 6:9-11 )
Sixth Seal: The Great Earthquake ( 6:12-17 )
The Sealing of the 144,000 ( 7:1-8 )
The Great Multitude ( 7:9-17 )
Seventh Seal: Silence in Heaven ( 8:1 )
Introduction ( 8:2-5 )
First Trumpet: Hail and Fire Mixed with Blood ( 8:6-7 )
Second Trumpet: A Mountain Thrown into the Sea ( 8:8-9 )
Third Trumpet: The Star Wormwood ( 8:10-11 )
Fourth Trumpet: A Third of the Sun, Moon and Stars Struck ( 8:12-13 )
Fifth Trumpet: The Plague of Locusts ( 9:1-12 )
Sixth Trumpet: Release of the Four Angels ( 9:13-21 )
The Angel and the Little Scroll ( ch. 10 )
The Two Witnesses ( 11:1-14 )
Seventh Trumpet: Judgments and Rewards ( 11:15-19 )
The Woman and the Dragon ( ch. 12 )
The Two Beasts ( ch. 13 )
The Lamb and the 144,000 ( 14:1-5 )
The Harvest of the Earth ( 14:6-20 )
Introduction: The Song of Moses and the Seven Angels with the Seven Plagues ( ch. 15 )
First Bowl: Ugly and Painful Sores ( 16:1-2 )
Second Bowl: Sea Turns to Blood ( 16:3 )
Third Bowl: Rivers and Springs of Water Become Blood ( 16:4-7 )
Fourth Bowl: Sun Scorches People with Fire ( 16:8-9 )
Fifth Bowl: Darkness ( 16:10-11 )
Sixth Bowl: Euphrates River Dries Up ( 16:12-16 )
Seventh Bowl: Tremendous Earthquake ( 16:17-21 )
Babylon Described ( ch. 17 )
The Fall of Babylon ( ch. 18 )
Praise for Babylon's Fall ( 19:1-5 )
Praise for the Wedding of the Lamb ( 19:6-10 )
The Return of Christ ( 19:11-21 )
The Thousand Years ( 20:1-6 )
Satan's Doom ( 20:7-10 )
Great White Throne Judgment ( 20:11-15 )
New Heaven, New Earth, New Jerusalem ( 21:1 ; 22:5 )
Conclusion and Benediction ( 22:6-21 )

Revelation Videos

What's the Book of Revelation All About?

8 Holy Week Prayers: Easter Sunday

What's the Significance of the "144,000" in Revelation 14?

When Was the Book of Revelation Written?

What Does "the Dragon" in Revelation 12 Represent?

How Does the Book of Revelation Apply to the Modern-Day Church?

What's the Significance of the Tree of Life in Revelation 22:2?

Should We Approach Revelation as a Resource to Predict the End Times?

What Is the Book of Revelation All About?

How Is "the Beast" in Revelation 17-19 Connected to "the Beast" in Chapter 13?

What Do the "Two Beasts" Represent in Revelation 13?

Why is Imagery Important When Reading the Book of Revelation?

The Four Interpretive Approaches to the Book of Revelation

The book of Revelation can be confusing and the narrative difficult to follow. The timeline is not always clear, the symbolic language can be difficult to interpret, and much of the imagery is foreign. Throughout the centuries, biblical scholars have posited four broad approaches for interpreting the book of Revelation.

The four approaches to interpreting the book of Revelation are: preterist approach, historicist approach, idealist approach, and futurist approach. Understanding each approach will assist the reader in interpreting the book of Revelation and help the reader interpret books written about Revelation.

1. Preterist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

The preterist approach interprets the book of Revelation with respect to the past . This is the interpretive approach held by most biblical scholars in the academic world today. The preterist believes that the book of Revelation was written to address the situations faced by the church in the first or second century, depending on when one dates the book. As such, the book of Revelation does not speak about future events, but about events in the first or second century in Asia Minor. Because preterists understand the book of Revelation to be about the time when the author wrote it, those who hold this view put special emphasis on the historical background (the geographical-political-social-religious background of the first century ancient Mediterranean world) in an attempt to align the contents of Revelation with the geographical-political-social-religious situations of first or second century ancient Mediterranean world.

Preterists fall into one of two groups. The first, and largest group, are those who believe Revelation focuses on the Roman Empire, specifically its persecution of the church and its idolatrous influence upon the church. Within this view, Babylon the prostitute represents Rome or various aspects of Rome and the Sea Beast represents the Emperor of Rome (usually Nero or Domitian). The fall of Babylon in Revelation 18 is not a prophecy of the fall of a future city, but a hopeful prediction of the fall of Rome in AD 476.

The second preterist group are those who believe Revelation focuses on Jerusalem, specifically how it turned away from God, became idolatrous, and persecuted God’s true people—the church. Within this view, Babylon the prostitute represents the first-century Jerusalem and the Sea and Land Beasts represent its corrupt religious leadership. The fall of Babylon in Revelation 18 is not a prophecy of the fall of a future city, but details the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.

Pros and Cons: The preterist approach reminds its readers that the book of Revelation must be relevant for its original readers—John the apostle and the seven churches mentioned in chapters 2–3. However, the preterist approach relegates too much to the past. According to the preterist approach, the book of Revelation is irrelevant for modern Christians or the modern church because it is only about the first or second century church.

Three good commentaries that approach Revelation from the Preterist perspective are:

David Aune. Revelation . Word Biblical Commentary, vols. 52a, b, c. Dallas: Word, 1997–99. Aune believes Revelation addresses the fall of Rome.
Caird, G. B. A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine . London: Adam & Charles Black, 1966. This was the Preterist commentary prior to Aune’s.
J. Massyngberde Ford, Revelation: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary . The Anchor Bible. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975. Ford takes the less prominent position that Revelation is a critique against first-century Jerusalem.

2. Historicist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

The historicist approach relates the book of Revelation to specific events throughout history culminating in the present. Thus, those interpreting Revelation from this approach attempt to demonstrate how Revelation predicts events from the first century up to the interpreter’s own time. For example, Edward Bishop Elliott, in his 1847 book entitled Horae Apocalypticae , aligned the trumpet judgments of Revelation 8:6–9:21 with world events starting in AD 395 with the Goth attacks on the Western Roman Empire and concluding in AD 1453 with the fall of the Eastern empire to the Turks.

Historicists always attempt to show how most of the prophecies in the book of Revelation have already been fulfilled, resulting in their own time period being the time when the final prophecies will be fulfilled and Jesus will return. In short, historicists attempt to demonstrate that Jesus will return in their own day. A popular modern-day historicist is Hal Lindsey who predicted the return of Jesus in his own day multiple times. As of this writing, he is 93 and Jesus has still not returned.

Pros and Cons: The historicist approach reminds its readers that God is working out his plans of judgment and salvation throughout history. The historicist approach also encourages its readers to look for God’s work in their own generation. The biggest downside to this approach, however, is that literally every person who has ever taken this interpretive approach has been wrong because Jesus has not yet returned. This has led many to disregard view this approach and to view those holding it as crazy. In the end, there will only be one generation of historicists that are correct and that is the generation alive when Jesus returns. Another downside to this approach is that it downplays the cataclysmic and unprecedented worldwide events that Revelation predicts as localized events. The book of Revelation predicts worldwide cataclysmic and unprecedented events preceding the return of Jesus, but historicists see many of these as already fulfilled.

Because this approach isn’t adopted by many in the academic world, the list of academic sources are few. Two good commentaries that approach Revelation from the Historicist perspective are:

Edward Bishop Elliott, Horæ Apocalypticæ, or A Commentary on the Apocalypse, Critical and Historical , 3 rd ed. London: Seeley, Burnside, and Seeley, 1847.
Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Book of Revelation . New York: Harper and Brothers, 1859.
Seventh-Day Adventists take the historicist approach. So, their literature is a good place to learn about this approach.

3. Idealist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

Whereas the preterist, historicist, and futurist approaches to interpreting Revelation focus heavily on time and when events in the book occurred (or will occur), the idealist approach focuses on the theology of the book that is applicable to all Christians from Jesus’ ascension to his return. The idealist approach is unconcerned about what the book of Revelation has to say about future events. For example, idealists focus on theological truths such as God’s authority over all creation, Jesus’ victory over Satan and evil, and the need to remain faithful to Jesus regardless of one’s circumstances. Idealists also like to identify principles in the book of Revelation that help Christians live faithful lives in the present.

Pros and Cons: The idealist approach reminds its readers that the book of Revelation must be relevant for Christians of every generation, not just the original recipients. The idealist also helpfully focuses on the Christian life and worldview, two areas which are frequently neglected in the other approaches. Unfortunately, the idealist approach wrongfully (in my opinion) interprets much of Revelation as allegory, not seeing it as a prophecy of current or future events.

Three good commentaries that approach Revelation from the Idealist perspective are:

William Milligan, The Revelation of St. John . London: Macmillan, 1886. The modern emergence of idealism is attributed to Milligan.
R. C. H. Lenski. The Interpretation of St. John’s Revelation . Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1963.
Michael Wilcock. I Saw Heaven Opened: The Message of Revelation . The Bible Speaks Today. Downers Grove: IVP, 1975.

4. Futurist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

The futurist approach interprets the book of Revelation with respect to the future . The futurist approach relegates most of the events in Revelation to the distant future, just before the return of Jesus. For example, the seal, trumpet, and bowl judgments, as well as the fall of Babylon are frequently seen as events that happen just prior to Jesus’ return in the distant future. The futurist approach is the approach held by most Christians. Unbeknownst to many Christians, however, is that futurists disagree over which aspects of Revelation refer to the past, the present, and the future. For example, some futurists believe the war in heaven where Satan is cast out of heaven (Rev 12:7–9) happened before Adam and Eve were created, others believe it happened at the ascension of Jesus, and others believe it will happen just prior to Jesus’ return. This disagreement over which aspects are future and which are not has separated futurists into three primary groups: dispensational premillennialists, historic premillennialists, and amillennialists (there are more, but these are the main ones).

A. Dispensational Premillennialism

Dispensational premillennialism was made famous by Cyrus Scofield and his Scofield Study Bible, published at the beginning of the 20 th Century (1909 and revised in 1917). Dispensational premillennialism theology was made more popular in academic circles by Charles Ryrie and in cultural America by Tim LaHaye. Dispensational premillennialism has a number of key characteristics in interpreting Revelation:

A more literalistic interpretation of Revelation (less symbolism).
There are two peoples of God: The Jews and the Christians (the church).
Revelation 1–3 is about the Church; Revelation 4–20 is about the Jews; Revelation 21–22 is about both Jews and the Church.
Jesus returns twice. Jesus will first return and “rapture” all the Christians to heaven before the seal, trumpet, and bowl judgments begin. Jesus will then return a second time to set up his millennial (1000 year) reign where the Jews will reign with Jesus for 1000 years. When the New Jerusalem comes after the millennium, then Christians will return to earth and live with Jesus.
The millennium is a literal 1000 years that begins after Jesus’ return.

Pros and Cons: Dispensational premillennialism takes the worldwide cataclysmic events in Revelation seriously, resulting in a futurist approach. Unfortunately, it takes many aspects of Revelation too literally, resulting in the errant theological position that there are two peoples of God, when the Bible (OT & NT) is clear there is only one people of God. Further, the dispensational premillennialism approach errantly reads passages outside of Revelation into the book resulting in two future returns of Jesus when Revelation and the New Testament clearly states Jesus will return only once.

Two good commentaries that approach Revelation from the dispensational premillennialism perspective are:

John Walvoord, Revelation . Revised and Edited by Philip E. Rawley and Mark Hitchcock. The John Walvoord Prophecy Commentaries. Chicago: Moody, 2011. This is the classic treatment of this view.
Robert Thomas, Revelation: An Exegetical Commentary , 2 vols. Chicago: Moody, 1992 & 1995. This is the best academic treatment of this view.

B. Historic Premillennialism

Historic premillennialism was made famous by George Eldon Ladd, who claimed this position was held by the early church. Historic premillennialism has a number of key characteristics in interpreting Revelation:

A more symbolic interpretation of much of Revelation than dispensationalists.
Tends to see more of Revelation as about the present ‘church age’ than dispensationalists. For example, the seal judgments are in effect from Jesus’ ascension to his return. The Sea Beast (the antichrist) is active from Jesus’ ascension to his return.
Jesus returns only once after the seal, trumpet, and bowl judgments.
Jesus’ sole return sets up the millennial reign, which may or may not be a literal 1000 years (1000 is symbolic for a very long time).
There is only one people of God—those who believe in Jesus.
This is the view that I hold 🤗

Pros and Cons: The historic premillennialism approach views a decent amount of events in Revelation as occurring between Jesus’ ascension and return, allowing the book to have meaning and significance for the first-century church, the modern church, and every church of every generation. Historic premillennialism also seeks an interpretation that is consistent with Jesus’ sayings about the end times and the New Testament’s claims about the end times. Since this is the approach to which I adhere, I don’t see anything inherently wrong with it, which is why I have adopted this approach. Check out my other articles about Revelation to see what I mean!

Two good commentaries that approach Revelation from the historic premillennialism perspective are:

George Eldon Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972. This is classic treatment of this view.
Paul Hoskins, The Book of Revelation: A Theological and Exegetical Commentary . Charleston: Christodoulos, 2017. This is the most recent commentary from this perspective.

C. Amillennialism

The most prominent Amillennialist today is Greg K. Beale. This approach is frequently adopted by confessional scholars. There is one key distinction between amillennialism and historic premillennialism: the millennium is symbolic for the ‘church age,’ the time period between Jesus’ ascension and return. Thus, Jesus returns after the millennial period.

Pros and Cons: Amillennialism has many of the same positives as historic premillennialism. The biggest negative is its view that the millennium is the ‘church age.’ This position is untenable because in Revelation Satan is bound and unable to deceive the nations for the millennium (Rev 20:1–3). However, both the book of Revelation and a look out your own window are clear that Satan is still deceiving and will continue deceiving the nations until Jesus returns.

Two good commentaries that approach Revelation from the amillennialism perspective are:

G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation . The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.
G. K. Beale, Revelation: A Shorter Commentary . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. This is a much shorter commentary than is lengthier one above.

Summary and Concluding Thoughts

Many scholars, such as Grant Osborne (BECNT) claim to take a multifaceted approach, employing elements from all perspectives. This is certainly possible to a degree, but ultimately, every scholar and person falls into one of the four major interpretive approaches listed above. My encouragement to you is to first read the book of Revelation and become very familiar with its contents, then begin to research the various approaches to see which one is the most faithful to the biblical text.

Adam Robinson

I am a Sessional Lecturer in New Testament and Academic Tutor at Malyon Theological College in Brisbane, Australia. I received my PhD in New Testament from Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary.

“The Book of Revelation”: The Revelation of Jesus Christ Essay

Introduction.

The Book of Revelation is the final part of the New Testament and the only one presenting apocalyptic descriptions. The author describes himself as “John,” but he fails to offer more details. That is why experts typically believe that John the Apostle is the author, but no conclusive evidence is present to claim it. The Book describes the struggle between the forces of good and evil that will occur when the present age comes to an end. When the battle reaches its climax, God will intervene by sending the Messiah, Jesus Christ, to destroy the evil forces and establish righteousness in the world. The following slides will present the summary of the Book structure and its interpretations.

The Revelation of Jesus Christ

The Revelation begins with the description of how John received the revelation of Jesus Christ ( New International Version, Rev. 1:1-9). Someone who was like a son of a man instructed John to write to seven churches about what he saw and heard (Rev 1:10-13). In addition to that, Christ appeared with seven stars and seven golden lampstands. He explained to John that the stars represented the angles, while the lampstands stood for the churches (Rev 1:20). This information serves as the beginning of the Book and guides the further description.

Letters to Seven Churches

John writes letters to seven churches, including Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. While addressing each of them, John highlights the importance of leading righteous lives because this approach will provide them with various benefits. For example, an opportunity to eat from the tree of life is given to those from the church in Ephesus who will manage to overcome evil forces till the end (Rev. 2:7). The letter to Smyrna indicates that faithful people will not be hurt by the second death (Rev. 2:11). In summary, all the letters demonstrate that people will obtain versatile benefits from being good.

The Scroll and Seven Seals

John is given the vision of the Throne in Heaven and meets the scroll with seven seals. The Lamb is the only creature that is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll (Rev. 5:7-9). These seals stand for disasters that bring much evil to the Earth. For example, when the fourth seal was opened, Death on a pale horse appeared (Rev. 6:7-8). Simultaneously, the sixth seal brought a powerful earthquake that made the moon turn red and the sky fall to the Earth (Rev. 6:12-13). The seventh seal introduces angels that are given seven trumpets.

Seven Trumpets

The seven trumpets are sounded, and they bring much fire and destruction to the Earth. The fifth trumpet is the fallen star, and it represents the First Woe (Rev. 9:1-12). The Second Woe is promoted by the sixth trumpet and occurs when two hundred million horsemen are released and kill the third part of humanity (Rev. 9:13-21). As for the seventh trumpet causing the Third Woe, the Seven Spiritual Figures lead to it. In turn, the Third Woe will further result in the seven bowls bringing more pain and disasters to humanity.

The Seven Spiritual Figures and the Seven Bowls

The Seven Spiritual Figures were those creatures that marked the coming of the Third Woe. A Woman with the sun on her back, who was pregnant with a boy, was the first of them (Rev. 12:1-2). Others were a Dragon and beasts, while the Beast out of the Earth was notable because it made people bear its number – 666 (Rev. 13:17-18). Consequently, the Third Woe happened because the Seven Bowls were poured onto the Earth. They brought blood, darkness, and pain, and the forces of good and evil entered the final battle at Armageddon (Rev. 16:1-21). This event was the culmination point of the entire Book.

Consequences

After the battle, New Babylon was destroyed, and all people mourned its disappearance while John saw it because the angel with seven bowls displayed this vision (Rev. 18:1-19). All the people also praised God for beating evil forces (Rev. 19:1-5). Simultaneously, the wedding supper of the Lamb occurs to celebrate the victory (Rev. 19: 7-9). In addition to that, God destroys beaten enemies and casts the Beast, the False Prophet, the wicked, Death, and Hades into the Lake of Fire (Rev. 20:11-15). This description reveals that good forces managed to overcome evil ones, which allowed for establishing peace and harmony in the entire world.

A New Heaven, a New Earth, and the New Jerusalem

New Heaven and New Earth replace the old ones, bringing many benefits. Thus, there is no more death and pain in the world (Rev. 21:4). God also resides in the New Jerusalem with people, which brings more harmony to them (Rev. 21:3). In addition to that, the river of life and the tree of life became available for people, providing them with numerous benefits and depriving them of the curse (Rev. 22:1-3). In conclusion, the Book ends with Christ’s words stating that he will come soon (Rev. 22:20). This statement provides people with hope that evil forces will soon disappear and a better life will come.

Differing Interpretations

There are different approaches to interpreting the Book of Revelation and its contents. Firstly, historicist and preterist interpretations believe that the stipulated events are real. The difference between them is that historicists consider the Book a generalized overview of history. However, preterists think that the events occurred during the Apostolic Age or when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century. Secondly, futurists stipulate that the Book presents the events that will occur in the future. Finally, the symbolic approach indicates that the Book offers a general overview of the struggle between good and evil sources. Each of these viewpoints is worth considering because it is impossible to state that one of them is the most convincing.

The Book of Revelation can have practical meaning and be used to impact the intended “audience.” The Book depicts the struggle between good and evil sources, demonstrating that the present world is full of pain, suffering, and death. However, individuals should choose the good side and consider Jesus Christ their savior. When the final battle occurs, people should demonstrate that they are against evil forces to enter the New Earth. In addition to that, the Book demonstrates that people should live faithful and righteous lives to overcome evil forces and reckon on spiritual benefits in the future.

New International Version. Biblica, Web.

Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda. (2023, April 15). “The Book of Revelation”: The Revelation of Jesus Christ. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-book-of-revelation-the-revelation-of-jesus-christ/

"“The Book of Revelation”: The Revelation of Jesus Christ." IvyPanda , 15 Apr. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/the-book-of-revelation-the-revelation-of-jesus-christ/.

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1. IvyPanda . "“The Book of Revelation”: The Revelation of Jesus Christ." April 15, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-book-of-revelation-the-revelation-of-jesus-christ/.

Bibliography

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Revelation by Chapter

This section examines the Book of the Revelation chapter-by-chapter and is intended for individual or small group Bible study. In each chapter, we identify the events that will take place in the Last Days and the order in which they will occur. A great way to use this section is to read a chapter from the Revelation and then read the corresponding chapter from the Study Guide . Be sure to read the Introduction , first, as it explains the Last Days , themselves, and how to determine the timing of the events that will take place during this period.

Introduction Revelation Chapter 1 Revelation Chapter 2 Revelation Chapter 3 Revelation Chapter 4 Revelation Chapter 5 Revelation Chapter 6 Revelation Chapter 7 Revelation Chapter 8 Revelation Chapter 9 Revelation Chapter 10 Revelation Chapter 11 Revelation Chapter 12 Revelation Chapter 13 Revelation Chapter 14 Revelation Chapter 15 Revelation Chapter 16 Revelation Chapter 17 Revelation Chapter 18 Revelation Chapter 19 Revelation Chapter 20 Revelation Chapter 21 Revelation Chapter 22

19 Therefore write down the things you have seen, and the things that are, and the things that will happen after this. 20 This is the mystery of the seven stars you saw in My right hand and of the seven golden lampstands: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches.

29 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

14 And the four living creatures said, “Amen,” and the elders fell down and worshiped. c

15 Then the kings of the earth, the nobles, the commanders, the rich, the mighty, and every slave and free man hid in the caves and among the rocks of the mountains. 16 And they said to the mountains and the rocks, “Fall on us and hide us b from the face of the One seated on the throne, and from the wrath of the Lamb. 17 For the great day of Their c wrath has come, and who is able to withstand it?”

and ‘God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.’ d ”

20 Now the rest of mankind who were not killed by these plagues still did not repent of the works of their hands. They did not stop worshiping demons and idols of gold, silver, bronze, stone, and wood, which cannot see or hear or walk. 21 Furthermore, they did not repent of their murder, sorcery, sexual immorality, and theft.

11 And they told me, “You must prophesy again about many peoples and nations and tongues and kings.”

19 Then the temple of God in heaven was opened, and the ark of His covenant appeared in His temple. And there were flashes of lightning, and rumblings, and peals of thunder, and an earthquake, and a great hailstorm.

And the dragon stood on the shore of the sea. b

18 Here is a call for wisdom: Let the one who has insight calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man, and that number is 666. d

19 So the angel swung his sickle over the earth and gathered the grapes of the earth, and he threw them into the great winepress of God’s wrath. 20 And the winepress was trodden outside the city, and the blood that flowed from it rose as high as the bridles of the horses for a distance of 1,600 stadia. d

7 Then one of the four living creatures gave the seven angels seven golden bowls full of the wrath of God, who lives forever and ever. 8 And the temple was filled with smoke from the glory of God and from His power; and no one could enter the temple until the seven plagues of the seven angels were completed.

20 Then every island fled, and no mountain could be found. 21 And great hailstones weighing almost a hundred pounds each a rained down on them from above. And men cursed God for the plague of hail, because it was so horrendous.

24 And there was found in her the blood of prophets and saints, and of all who had been slain on the earth.

And all the birds gorged themselves on their flesh.

14 Then Death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This is the second death—the lake of fire. 15 And if anyone was found whose name was not written in the Book of Life, he was thrown into the lake of fire.

26 And into the city will be brought the glory and honor of the nations. 27 But nothing unclean will ever enter it, nor anyone who practices an abomination or a lie, but only those whose names are written in the Lamb’s Book of Life.

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Revelation has always presented major challenges for study, interpretation and application. Over the last twenty years there have been some significant developments in a number of areas, including greater understanding of Revelation's first-century setting, some settling of debate about the nature of its language, engagement with questions of the complexity of its structure, and a growing ...
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that G.K. Beale is the most qualified evangelical to comment on Revelation in this gen eration. Appearing since 1980, including his published Cambridge dissertation on the use of Daniel in Revelation (University Press of America, 1984), has been the program matic publication of over 20 of Beale's articles, entries, books, or significant reviews
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(PDF) The Interpretation of the Book of Revelation in Early
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The most profound and dramatic portrayal of theocentric worship is found in Revelation 4-5. All of the action, the symbols, and the sounds image the power and grace of God in the Gospel. The worshipers in chapter 4 gather around the throne of God. The focus of the liturgical action is on God the Crea- tor.
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The New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation : a study of Revelation 21-22 in the light of its background in Jewish tradition

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Volume 29 - Issue 1

STUDIES IN THE BOOK OF REVELATION

Gordon Campbell

SCIENTISM: SCIENCE, ETHICS AND RELIGION

SEX AND LOVE IN THE HOME

PASTORAL THEOLOGY IN THE CLASSICAL TRADITION

THE LAST THINGS: BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ESCHATOLOGY

THE ONE IN THE MANY: A CONTEMPORARY RECONSTRUCTION OF THE GOD-WORLD RELATIONSHIP

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The Four Interpretive Approaches to the Book of Revelation

1. Preterist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

2. Historicist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

3. Idealist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

4. Futurist Approach to Interpreting Revelation

A. Dispensational Premillennialism

B. Historic Premillennialism

C. Amillennialism

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