research questions about space travel

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Reach for the stars: research topics on space exploration.

With recent advances in commercial space exploration, we have curated a list of our best Research Topics on outer space. Explore collections edited by experts from NASA, The Goddard Space Flight Center, Space Science Institute, German Aerospace Center, Canadian Space Agency, National Space Science Center, European Space Agency, International Space University, and many more.

Research Topics:

Optimization of Exercise Countermeasures for Human Space Flight – Lessons from Terrestrial Physiology and Operational Implementation

Biology in Space: Challenges and Opportunities

Microbiology of Extreme and Human-Made Confined Environments (Spacecraft, Space Stations, Cleanrooms, and Analogous Sites)

Geospace Observation of Natural Hazards

Astrobiology of Mars, Europa, Titan and Enceladus - Most Likely Places for Alien Life

Imagining the Future of Astronomy and Space Science

Brains in Space: Effects of Spaceflight on the Human Brain and Behavior

Creative Performance in Extreme Human Environments: Astronauts and Space

Space Traffic Management: a new era in Earth orbit

Wound Management and Healing in Space

Robotic Manipulation and Capture in Space

A Multidisciplinary Approach to designing Sensorimotor Adaptation countermeasures for space exploration missions

Active Experiments in Space: Past, Present, and Future

On-orbit Manufacturing and Assembly Technologies for Future Space Activities

Current and Future Instrumentation for the Detection and Identification of Signatures of Life on Mars and Beyond

On-Orbit Servicing and Active Debris Removal: Enabling a Paradigm Shift in Spaceflight

Space Weather with Small Satellites

AI in the Space Sciences

Higher Plants, Algae and Cyanobacteria in Space Environments

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October 11, 2021

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The future of spaceflight—from orbital vacations to humans on Mars

NASA aims to travel to the moon again—and beyond. Here’s a look at the 21st-century race to send humans into space.

Welcome to the 21st-century space race, one that could potentially lead to 10-minute space vacations, orbiting space hotels , and humans on Mars. Now, instead of warring superpowers battling for dominance in orbit, private companies are competing to make space travel easier and more affordable. This year, SpaceX achieved a major milestone— launching humans to the International Space Station (ISS) from the United States —but additional goalposts are on the star-studded horizon.

Private spaceflight

Private spaceflight is not a new concept . In the United States, commercial companies played a role in the aerospace industry right from the start: Since the 1960s, NASA has relied on private contractors to build spacecraft for every major human spaceflight program, starting with Project Mercury and continuing until the present.

Today, NASA’s Commercial Crew Program is expanding on the agency’s relationship with private companies. Through it, NASA is relying on SpaceX and Boeing to build spacecraft capable of carrying humans into orbit. Once those vehicles are built, both companies retain ownership and control of the craft, and NASA can send astronauts into space for a fraction of the cost of a seat on Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft.

SpaceX, which established a new paradigm by developing reusable rockets , has been running regular cargo resupply missions to the International Space Station since 2012. And in May 2020, the company’s Crew Dragon spacecraft carried NASA astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken to the ISS , becoming the first crewed mission to launch from the United States in nearly a decade. The mission, called Demo-2, is scheduled to return to Earth in August. Boeing is currently developing its Starliner spacecraft and hopes to begin carrying astronauts to the ISS in 2021.

Other companies, such as Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic , are specializing in sub-orbital space tourism. Test launch video from inside the cabin of Blue Origin’s New Shepard shows off breathtaking views of our planet and a relatively calm journey for its first passenger, a test dummy cleverly dubbed “Mannequin Skywalker.” Virgin Galactic is running test flights on its sub-orbital spaceplane , which will offer paying customers roughly six minutes of weightlessness during its journey through Earth’s atmosphere.

With these and other spacecraft in the pipeline, countless dreams of zero-gravity somersaults could soon become a reality—at least for passengers able to pay the hefty sums for the experience.

Early U.S. Spaceflight

Looking to the moon

Moon missions are essential to the exploration of more distant worlds. After a long hiatus from the lunar neighborhood, NASA is again setting its sights on Earth’s nearest celestial neighbor with an ambitious plan to place a space station in lunar orbit sometime in the next decade. Sooner, though, the agency’s Artemis program , a sister to the Apollo missions of the 1960s and 1970s, is aiming to put the first woman (and the next man) on the lunar surface by 2024.

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Extended lunar stays build the experience and expertise needed for the long-term space missions required to visit other planets. As well, the moon may also be used as a forward base of operations from which humans learn how to replenish essential supplies, such as rocket fuel and oxygen, by creating them from local material.

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Such skills are crucial for the future expansion of human presence into deeper space, which demands more independence from Earth-based resources. And although humans have visited the moon before, the cratered sphere still harbors its own scientific mysteries to be explored—including the presence and extent of water ice near the moon's south pole, which is one of the top target destinations for space exploration .

NASA is also enlisting the private sector to help it reach the moon. It has awarded three contracts to private companies working on developing human-rated lunar landers—including both Blue Origin and SpaceX. But the backbone of the Artemis program relies on a brand new, state-of-the-art spacecraft called Orion .

Archival Photos of Spaceflight

Currently being built and tested, Orion—like Crew Dragon and Starliner—is a space capsule similar to the spacecraft of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, as well as Russia’s Soyuz spacecraft. But the Orion capsule is larger and can accommodate a four-person crew. And even though it has a somewhat retro design, the capsule concept is considered to be safer and more reliable than NASA’s space shuttle—a revolutionary vehicle for its time, but one that couldn’t fly beyond Earth’s orbit and suffered catastrophic failures.

Capsules, on the other hand, offer launch-abort capabilities that can protect astronauts in case of a rocket malfunction. And, their weight and design mean they can also travel beyond Earth’s immediate neighborhood, potentially ferrying humans to the moon, Mars, and beyond.

A new era in spaceflight

By moving into orbit with its Commercial Crew Program and partnering with private companies to reach the lunar surface, NASA hopes to change the economics of spaceflight by increasing competition and driving down costs. If space travel truly does become cheaper and more accessible, it’s possible that private citizens will routinely visit space and gaze upon our blue, watery home world—either from space capsules, space stations, or even space hotels like the inflatable habitats Bigelow Aerospace intends to build .

The United States isn’t the only country with its eyes on the sky. Russia regularly launches humans to the International Space Station aboard its Soyuz spacecraft. China is planning a large, multi-module space station capable of housing three taikonauts, and has already launched two orbiting test vehicles—Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2, both of which safely burned up in the Earth’s atmosphere after several years in space.

Now, more than a dozen countries have the ability to launch rockets into Earth orbit. A half-dozen space agencies have designed spacecraft that shed the shackles of Earth’s gravity and traveled to the moon or Mars. And if all goes well, the United Arab Emirates will join that list in the summer of 2020 when its Hope spacecraft heads to the red planet . While there are no plans yet to send humans to Mars, these missions—and the discoveries that will come out of them—may help pave the way.

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Eight ethical questions about exploring outer space that need answers

Senior Lecturer in Philosophy, University of St Andrews

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Benjamin Sachs receives funding from the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

University of St Andrews provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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Metallic shrapnel flying faster than bullets; the Space Shuttle smashed to pieces; astronauts killed or ejected into space. The culprit? Space debris – remnants of a Russian satellite blown up by a Russian missile. The one survivor, Ryan Stone, has to find her way back to Earth with oxygen supplies failing and the nearest viable spacecraft hundreds of miles away.

Over on Mars, 20 years in the future, an exploration mission from Earth is going wrong. An epic dust storm forces the crew to abandon the planet, leaving behind an astronaut, Mark Watney, who is presumed dead. He has to figure out how to grow food while awaiting rescue.

Hollywood knows how to terrify and inspire us about outer space. Movies like Gravity (2013) and The Martian (2015), present space as hostile and unpredictable – spelling danger for any intrepid human who dares to venture outside Earth’s hospitable confines.

This is only part of the story, however – the bit with people centre stage. Sure, no one wants to see astronauts killed or stranded in space. And we all want to enjoy the fruits of successful planetary science, like determining which planets could host human life or simply whether we’re alone in the universe.

Valuing space

But should we care about the universe beyond how it affects us as humans? That is the big question – call it question #1 of extraterrestrial environmental ethics, a field too many people have ignored for too long. I’m one of a group of researchers at the University of St Andrews trying to change that. How we ought to value the universe depends on two other intriguing philosophical questions:

Question #2: the kind of life we are most likely to discover elsewhere is microbial – so how should we view this lifeform? Most people would accept that all humans have intrinsic value, and matter not only in relation to their usefulness to someone else. Accept this and it follows that ethics places limits on how we may treat them and their living spaces.

People are starting to accept that the same is true of mammals, birds and other animals. So what about microbial beings? Some philosophers like Albert Schweitzer and Paul Taylor have previously argued that all living things have a value in themselves, which would obviously include microbes. Philosophy as a whole has not reached a consensus, however, on whether it agrees with this so-called biocentrism.

Question #3: for planets and other places not hospitable to life, what value should we place on their environment? Arguably we care about our environment on Earth primarily because it supports the species that live here. If so, we might extend the same thinking to other planets and moons that can support life.

But this doesn’t work for “dead” planets. Some have proposed an idea called aesthetic value, that certain things should be treasured not because they are useful but because they are aesthetically wonderful. They have applied this not only to great artistic works like Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and Beethoven’s Fifth, but also to parts of the Earth’s environment, such as the Grand Canyon. Could that apply to other planets?

Alien environments

Supposing we could answer these theoretical questions, we could proceed to four important practical questions about space exploration:

Question #4: is there a duty to protect the environment on other planets? When it comes to sending astronauts, instruments or robots to other worlds, there are clearly important scientific reasons for making sure they don’t take terrestrial organisms with them and wind up depositing them there.

Otherwise, if we discovered life, we wouldn’t know whether it was indigenous – not to mention the risk of wiping it out entirely. But is scientific clarity all that matters, or do we need to start thinking about galactic environmental protection?

Question #5: what, besides biological contamination, would count as violating such an obligation to treat that planet’s environment with respect? Drilling for core samples, perhaps, or leaving instruments behind, or putting tyre tracks in the dirt?

Question #6: what about asteroids? The race is well underway to develop technology to harvest the untold trillions of pounds of mineral wealth presumed to exist on asteroids, as already reported in The Conversation. It helps that no one seems to think of asteroids as environments we need to protect.

The same goes for empty space. The movie Gravity gave us some human-centred reasons to be worried about the buildup of debris in space , but might there be other reasons to object? If so, would our obligation be to merely create less debris, or something stronger – like not producing any new debris or even cleaning up what we’ve left already?

Read more: The seven most extreme planets ever discovered

Question #7: what considerations might offset arguments in favour of behaving ethically in space? Of the various reasons for going there – intellectual/scientific, utilitarian, profit-driven – are any strong enough to override our obligations?

We also need to factor in the inevitable risks and uncertainties here. We can’t know what benefits space missions will have. We can’t be certain of not biologically contaminating the planets we visit. What risk/reward trade-offs should we be willing to undertake?

Discussions about outer space have the advantage that we have very little attachment to anything out there. These ethical questions might therefore be some of the only ones humans can address with a large measure of emotional distance. For this reason, answering them might help us to make progress with Earth-bound issues like global warming, mass extinction and nuclear waste disposal.

Space exploration also directly raises questions about our relationship to Earth – once we overcome the technological puzzles preventing the terraforming of a planet like Mars, or find ways of reaching habitable exoplanets. I’ll leave you with one extremely important one for the future:

Question #8: given that the Earth is not the only potential home for human beings, what reasons for protecting its environment would remain once we can realistically go somewhere else?

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• Habitable planets
• Outer space
• Extraterrestrial
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• Microbial life

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About research in space

Gravity affects everything we do on Earth but we know surprisingly little about how it works and how it affects life. Until recently scientists had no way of experimenting without gravity to understand what life would be like without it.

Orbiting our planet in an extended free-fall, astronauts on the International Space Station live in microgravity. Through the astronauts up there, scientists are conducting pioneering investigations, testing theories, and pushing the boundaries of our knowledge.

Research in space improves our life on Earth. Space research brings knowledge, discoveries, improvements to our daily life and – one day – the daily lives of explorers of our solar system.

Exploring nature

The studies of life and physical sciences in space are well established fields that complement terrestrial research programmes.

Biology, physiology, fluid physics and combustion, material sciences, fundamental physics and  astrobiology are all studied in space, observing how gravity affects basic phenomena on Earth and expanding our knowledge of the world around us.

Improving health

Space offers unique possibilities to study health problems related to diseases, ageing and immobility.

Research focuses on osteoporosis, muscle atrophy and nutrition, and tries to understand the effects of physiological adaptations for health and safety and ways to counteract unwanted changes in the human body. Spaceflight is a driving force behind developing advanced medical instruments for monitoring and diagnostics.

Innovating technologies

Studies in weightlessness can reveal properties that are important for energy production or environmental protection. Space research has already increased knowledge on combustion, liquids in porous substances and how dust particles behave.

These studies are expected to lead to low-pollution high-efficiency combustion for power plants, aircraft and cars, as well as  improved crude oil-recovery and innovative air and water purification techniques. Increased knowledge of life-support technology used in spaceflight  will make our diets safer.

Caring for the environment

These studies are expected to lead to low-pollution high-efficiency combustion in for power plants, aircraft and cars as well as improved crude oil-recovery and innovative air and water purification techniques. Increased knowledge of life-support technology used in spaceflight will make our diets safer.

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100+ Space Research Topics [Updated]

Space has always attracted humanity’s imagination. The vastness of the cosmos, with its twinkling stars, mysterious planets, and enigmatic black holes, beckons us to explore its depths. But why do we study space? What are the research topics that drive scientists to reach for the stars? In this blog, we’ll delve into the fascinating world of space research topics, exploring key topics that continue to inspire and challenge researchers around the globe.

Why Do We Study Space?

Table of Contents

Here are some key points explaining why we study space:

• Understanding our Origins: Space research helps us uncover the origins of the universe, including how galaxies, stars, and planets formed.
• Advancing Scientific Knowledge: Studying space leads to breakthroughs in physics, astronomy, and other scientific fields, expanding our understanding of the cosmos.
• Technological Innovation: Space exploration drives the development of new technologies, such as satellite communication and medical imaging, benefiting society as a whole.
• Exploration and Discovery: Humans are inherently curious, and space offers a vast frontier for exploration, fueling our desire to discover new worlds and phenomena.
• Earth Observation: Space-based observations provide valuable data on Earth’s climate, weather patterns, and environmental changes, aiding in disaster management and conservation efforts.
• Search for Life: Investigating other planets and celestial bodies helps us understand the conditions necessary for life, potentially leading to the discovery of extraterrestrial life forms.
• Inspiration and Education: Space exploration inspires future generations of scientists, engineers, and explorers, fostering innovation and curiosity about the universe.

100+ Space Research Topics: Category Wise

Astronomy and astrophysics.

• Exoplanet detection methods and recent discoveries
• The life cycle of stars: from birth to death
• Supermassive black holes and their role in galaxy formation
• Gravitational waves: detection and implications
• Dark matter and dark energy: understanding the mysteries of the universe
• Supernovae explosions: studying the aftermath of stellar deaths
• Galactic dynamics: exploring the structure and evolution of galaxies
• Cosmic microwave background radiation: insights into the early universe
• Gamma-ray bursts: uncovering the most energetic explosions in the cosmos
• The search for extrasolar planets with potential habitable conditions

Planetary Science

• Martian geology and the search for signs of past life
• Jupiter’s Great Red Spot: dynamics and longevity
• Saturn’s rings: composition, structure, and origin
• Lunar exploration: past missions and future prospects
• Venusian atmosphere: understanding the greenhouse effect and extreme conditions
• Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto: Jupiter’s diverse moons
• Titan: Saturn’s moon with an Earth-like atmosphere and hydrocarbon lakes
• The Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud: reservoirs of comets and icy bodies
• Dwarf planets: Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and Ceres
• Planetary volcanism: processes and consequences on various celestial bodies

Space Technology and Engineering

• Satellite constellations for global internet coverage
• CubeSats: miniaturized satellites for scientific research and technology demonstration
• Space debris mitigation strategies and technologies
• Ion propulsion systems: efficient propulsion for deep space missions
• Space telescopes: next-generation observatories for astronomy and astrophysics
• Space-based solar power: harvesting solar energy in orbit
• Asteroid mining: extracting resources from near-Earth objects
• In-situ resource utilization on other planets and moons
• Additive manufacturing (3D printing) in space exploration
• Autonomous spacecraft navigation and control for long-duration missions

Astrobiology and the Search for Life

• Extremophiles: organisms thriving in extreme environments on Earth and their implications for extraterrestrial life
• Biosignatures: markers of past or present life on other planets
• Methanogenesis on Mars: potential evidence for subsurface microbial life
• Europa’s subsurface ocean: exploring the possibility of life beneath the ice
• Enceladus: hydrothermal vents and the search for life in its subsurface ocean
• The habitability of exoplanets: assessing conditions for life beyond the solar system
• Panspermia: the transfer of life between celestial bodies
• Astrobiology field research in extreme environments on Earth
• SETI: the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and communication
• The implications of discovering microbial life on Mars or other celestial bodies

Space Policy and Ethics

• International collaboration in space exploration and research
• The Outer Space Treaty: principles governing the use of outer space
• Space tourism regulations and safety considerations
• Space law and jurisdiction: legal frameworks for activities in space
• Military applications of space technology and potential arms race in space
• Space resource utilization and ownership rights
• Space environmentalism: advocating for the protection of celestial bodies and their environments
• Space colonization ethics and implications for human societies
• Space governance beyond national boundaries
• Cultural heritage preservation on the Moon and other celestial bodies

Challenges and Future Directions

• Funding challenges and opportunities in space research and exploration
• Space radiation hazards and mitigation strategies for astronauts
• Interplanetary communication and navigation for deep space missions
• Long-duration spaceflight: physiological and psychological effects on astronauts
• Terraforming Mars: engineering a habitable environment on the Red Planet
• Space elevator concept: a revolutionary approach to space access
• Next-generation space launch vehicles and propulsion technologies
• Nuclear propulsion for crewed missions to Mars and beyond
• Space settlement design and infrastructure requirements
• Advancing artificial intelligence and robotics for autonomous space exploration

Space Weather and Space Environment

• Solar flares and coronal mass ejections: impacts on Earth’s magnetosphere and technology
• Space weather forecasting and its applications in satellite operations
• Magnetospheres of Earth and other planets: comparative studies and dynamics
• Solar wind interactions with planetary atmospheres and magnetospheres
• Aurora phenomena on Earth and other planets
• Radiation belts: understanding and mitigating hazards for spacecraft and astronauts
• Cosmic rays: sources, composition, and effects on space missions
• Space climate change: long-term variations in solar activity and their consequences
• Space weather effects on satellite communications, navigation, and power systems
• Space weather monitoring and prediction networks

Space Exploration and Missions

• Mars Sample Return mission: challenges and scientific objectives
• Artemis program: NASA’s plans for returning astronauts to the Moon
• Asteroid impact mitigation strategies and planetary defense initiatives
• The James Webb Space Telescope: capabilities and scientific goals
• Europa Clipper mission: exploring Jupiter’s icy moon for signs of habitability
• China’s Chang’e lunar exploration program: past achievements and future missions
• Commercial crew and cargo transportation to the International Space Station
• Voyager and Pioneer missions: the farthest human-made objects in space
• Space missions to study near-Earth objects and potential asteroid mining targets
• International Mars exploration collaborations and missions

Space Communication and Navigation

• Deep space communication networks and relay satellites
• Laser communication technology for high-speed data transmission in space
• Satellite-based navigation systems: GPS, Galileo, and GLONASS
• Interplanetary Internet: protocols and architectures for space communications
• Radio astronomy and interferometry: probing the universe with radio waves
• Quantum communication in space: secure and ultra-fast communication channels
• Delay-tolerant networking for deep space missions
• Autonomous navigation systems for spacecraft and rovers
• Optical communications for small satellites and CubeSats
• Space-to-ground communication systems for remote sensing and Earth observation satellites

Space Medicine and Human Spaceflight

• Microgravity effects on human physiology and health
• Countermeasures for mitigating bone and muscle loss in space
• Psychological challenges of long-duration space missions
• Space food technology: nutrition and sustainability in space
• Medical emergencies in space: protocols and procedures for astronaut health care
• Radiation shielding and protection for crewed missions beyond Earth orbit
• Sleep and circadian rhythms in space: optimizing astronaut performance
• Artificial gravity concepts for maintaining crew health on long-duration missions
• Telemedicine applications for space exploration missions
• Bioastronautics research: advancing human spaceflight capabilities and safety

Space Industry and Commercialization

• NewSpace companies: the rise of private space exploration ventures
• Satellite constellation deployments for global internet coverage
• Space tourism: opportunities, challenges, and market trends
• Commercial spaceports and launch facilities around the world
• Space manufacturing and in-space assembly techniques

Tips To Write Space Research Papers

Crafting space research papers can be a thrilling and fulfilling pursuit, yet it demands meticulous planning and implementation to guarantee that your efforts effectively convey your discoveries and make meaningful contributions to the discipline. Here are some tips to help you write space research papers:

• Choose a Narrow Topic: Space is a vast field with numerous sub-disciplines. Narrow down your topic to something specific and manageable, ensuring that it aligns with your interests and expertise.
• Conduct Thorough Research: Before you start writing, immerse yourself in the existing literature on your chosen topic. Familiarize yourself with key concepts, theories, and recent discoveries to provide context for your research.
• Develop a Clear Thesis Statement: Define the central argument or hypothesis of your paper in a concise and focused thesis statement. This statement should guide your writing and serve as the foundation for your research.
• Outline Your Paper: Create a detailed outline outlining the structure of your paper, including the introduction, literature review, results, and conclusion sections. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that your paper flows logically.
• Write a Compelling Introduction: Begin your paper with a captivating introduction that offers context about your subject, underscores its importance, and delineates the paper’s framework . Grab the reader’s interest and inspire them to delve further into your work.
• Provide a Comprehensive Literature Review: Synthesize the existing research on your topic in a literature review section. Examine pertinent research, theories, methodologies, and results, pinpointing any disparities or deficiencies in the existing literature that your study seeks to rectify.
• Detail Your Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including data collection, analysis, and interpretation techniques. Provide enough detail for readers to understand how your study was conducted and to evaluate its validity and reliability.
• Present Your Results Clearly: Present your research findings in a clear, concise manner, using tables, figures, and charts to illustrate key data points. Interpret your results objectively and discuss their implications in relation to your research question or hypothesis.
• Engage in Critical Analysis: Analyze your findings in the context of existing literature, discussing their significance, strengths, limitations, and potential implications for future research. Be critical and objective in your evaluation, acknowledging any potential biases or limitations in your study.
• Craft a Strong Conclusion: Summarize the main findings of your research and reiterate their significance in the conclusion section. Discuss any implications for theory, practice, or policy and suggest avenues for future research.
• Proofread and Revise: Before submitting your paper, carefully proofread it for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Edit your writing to ensure clarity, coherence, and consistency, guaranteeing that your points are adequately backed and logically organized.
• Follow Formatting Guidelines: Follow the formatting instructions provided by the journal or conference to which you intend to submit your paper. Pay attention to details such as font size, margins, citation style, and reference formatting to ensure that your paper meets the publication requirements.

Space research offers a window into the vastness of the cosmos, revealing the beauty and complexity of the universe we inhabit. From the depths of space to the surfaces of distant planets, scientists are uncovering new wonders and answering age-old questions about our place in the universe. As we look to the stars, let us be inspired by the spirit of exploration and discovery that drives humanity ever onward, towards new horizons and unknown worlds. I hope you find the best space research topics from the above list.

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The 10 biggest space science stories of 2021

The universe revealed more of its secrets this year, and new missions will further explore our solar system and beyond.

The year 2021 was one of major scientific expansion. Thanks to a variety of exploratory missions and their cutting-edge instruments, astronomers have been able to peer into the cosmos like never before.

Researchers have turned the Earth into a giant telescope to view powerful jets from a black hole. Solar system surveys have revealed new moons and massive comets previously lurking undetected by scientists. The sun has also been a main attraction for research as it reawakens from its recent slumber.

Here's our look back at the 10 biggest space stories of 2021.

1. Discovery of Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein

Two researchers unexpectedly discovered the largest-known comet to date .

Graduate student Pedro Bernardinelli was looking through Dark Energy Survey data to find objects that live beyond Neptune's orbit when he noticed an object significantly farther from the sun than the objects he planned to study. He asked his advisor, cosmologist Gary Bernstein, to have a look. 

They had actually detected a comet that is much larger than any of the ones known so far to science: It may be 10 times wider and 1,000 times more massive than a typical comet.

On top of that, this comet has not swung around the sun since the hominid ancestor Lucy walked on the Earth approximately 3 million years ago. 

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Their finding was officially designated a comet on June 23, 2021 and named Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein after its discoverers.

In a big sweep of scientific luck, astronomers will only have to wait a decade to see this comet approach the sun. Comets come from very far away, originating from one of the outermost regions of the solar system known as the Oort Cloud . Comets journey through our cosmic neighborhood in long elliptical orbits and can take thousands of years to complete one trip around the sun. 

Scientists should be able to get a more accurate reading of Comet Bernardinelli-Bernstein's size and composition when the comet makes its closest to Earth in the year 2031, although it will still be beyond Saturn's average orbit when it swings nearby. 

2. Amateur astronomer discovers a new moon around Jupiter

A previously-unknown moon has been detected around the largest planet in the solar system.

Jupiter is a giant, so it gravitationally attracts many objects into its vicinity. Earth has one major moon, Mars has two: but Jupiter boasts at least 79 moons, and there may be dozens or hundreds more of them that astronomers have yet to identify.

The latest discovery was made by amateur astronomer Kai Ly, who found evidence of this Jovian moon in a data set from 2003 that had been collected by researchers using the 3.6-meter Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) on Mauna Kea. Ly they confirmed the moon was likely bound to Jupiter's gravity using data from another telescope called Subaru. 

The new moon, called EJc0061, belongs to the Carme group of Jovian moons. They orbit in the opposite direction of Jupiter's rotation at an extreme tilt relative to Jupiter's orbital plane.

3. NASA will return to Venus this decade

Mars is a popular target for space agencies, but Earth's other neighbor has been garnering more attention recently. 

In 2020, researchers announced that they had detected traces of phosphine in Venus' atmosphere. It is a possible biosignature gas, and the news certainly reawakened interest in the planet. 

In early June 2021, NASA announced it will launch two missions to Venus by 2030. One mission, called DAVINCI+ (short for Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging, Plus) will descend through the planet's atmosphere to learn about how it has changed over time. The other mission, VERITAS (Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) will attempt to map the planet's terrain from orbit like never before. 

Venus has been visited by robotic probes, but NASA has not launched a dedicated mission to the planet since 1989. 

The interest in Martian exploration may be one reason why Venus has been neglected in recent decades, but the second planet from the sun is also a challenging place to study. Although it may have once been a balmy world with oceans and rivers, a runaway greenhouse effect took hold of Venus around 700 million years ago and now the planet's surface is hot enough to melt lead.

4. The sun is reawakening

The sun was experiencing a quiet time in its roughly decade-long cycle, but it is now exiting that phase.

The sun has had very little activity in recent years, but the star's surface is now erupting in powerful events that spew out charged particles towards Earth. In early November, for instance, a series of solar outbursts triggered a large geomagnetic storm on our planet. 

This eruption is known as a coronal mass ejection, or CME. It's essentially a billion-ton cloud of solar material with magnetic fields, and when this bubble pops, it blasts a stream of energetic particles out into the solar system. If this material heads in the direction of Earth, it interacts with our planet's own magnetic field and causes disturbances. These can include ethereal displays of auroras near Earth's poles, but can also include satellite disruptions and energy losses.

5. James Webb Space Telescope flies into space

A whole new era of space science began on Christmas Day 2021 with the successful launch of the world's next major telescope. 

NASA, the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency are collaborating on the $10 billion James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), a project more than three decades in the making. Space telescopes take a long time to plan and assemble: The vision for this particular spacecraft began before its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope, had even launched into Earth orbit.

Whereas Hubble orbits a few hundred miles from Earth's surface, JWST is heading to an observational perch located about a million miles from our planet. The telescope began its journey towards this spot, called the Earth-sun Lagrange Point 2 (L2), on Dec. 25, 2021 at 7:20 a.m. EST (1220 GMT) when an Ariane 5 rocket launched the precious payload from Europe's Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana.

The telescope will help astronomers answer questions about the evolution of the universe and provide a deeper understanding about the objects found in our very own solar system.

6. Event Horizon Telescope takes high-resolution image of black hole jet

In July 2021, the novel project behind the world's first photo of a black hole published an image of a powerful jet blasting off from one of these supermassive objects. 

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is a global collaboration of eight observatories that work together to create one Earth-sized telescope. The end result is a resolution that is 16 times sharper and an image that is 10 times more accurate than what was possible before. 

Scientists used EHT's incredible abilities to observe a powerful jet being ejected by the supermassive black hole at the center of the Centaurus A galaxy, one of the brightest objects in the night sky. The galaxy's black hole is so large that it has the mass of 55 million suns.

7. Scientists spot the closest-known black hole to Earth

Just 1,500 light-years from Earth lies the closest-known black hole to Earth, now called " The Unicorn ." 

Tiny black holes are hard to spot, but scientists managed to find this one when they noticed strange behavior from its companion star, a red giant. Researchers observed its light shifting in intensity, which suggested to them that another object was tugging on the star.

This black hole is super-lightweight at just three solar masses. Its location in the constellation Monoceros ("the unicorn") and its rarity have inspired this black hole's name.

8. Earth's second 'moon' flies off into space

An object dropped into Earth's orbit like a second moon, and this year, it made its final close approach of our planet. 

It is classified as a "minimoon," or temporary satellite. But it's no stray space rock — the object, known as 2020 SO, is a leftover fragment of a 1960s rocket booster from the American Surveyor moon missions. 

On Feb. 2, 2021, 2020 SO reached 58% of the way between Earth and the moon, roughly 140,000 miles (220,000 kilometers) from our planet. It was the minimoon's final approach, but not its closest trip to Earth. It achieved its shortest distance to our planet a few months prior, on Dec. 1, 2020. 

It has since drifted off into space and away from Earth's orbit, never to return.

9. Parker Solar Probe travels through the sun's atmosphere

This year, NASA's sun-kissing spacecraft swam within a structure that's only visible during total solar eclipses and was able to measure exactly where the star's "point of no return" is located.

The Parker Solar Probe has been zooming through the inner solar system to make close approaches to the sun for the past three years, and it is designed to help scientists learn about what creates the solar wind, a sea of charged particles that flow out of the sun and can affect Earth in many ways.

The spacecraft stepped into the sun's outer atmosphere, known as the corona , during its eight solar flyby. The April 28 maneuver supplied the data that confirmed the exact location of the Alfvén critical surface: the point where the solar wind flows away from the sun, never to return.

The probe managed to get as low as 15 solar radii, or 8.1 million miles (13 million km) from the sun's surface. It was there that it passed through a huge structure called a pseudostreamer, which can be seen from Earth when the moon blocks the light from the sun's disk during a solar eclipse . In a statement about the discovery, NASA officials described that part of the trip as "flying into the eye of a storm." 

10. Perseverance begins studying rocks on Mars

Last but not least, this year marked the arrival of NASA's Perseverance rover on Mars. 

The mission has been working hard to find traces of ancient Martian life since it reached the Red Planet on Feb. 18, 2021. Engineers have equipped Perseverance with powerful cameras to help the mission team decide what rocks are worth investigating. 

One of Perseverance's most charming findings has been " Harbor Seal Rock ," a curiously-shaped feature that was probably carved out by the Martian wind over many years. Perseverance has also obtained several rock samples this year, which will be collected by the space agency for analysis at some point in the future.

Perseverance is taking its observations from the 28-mile-wide (45 kilometers) Jezero Crater, which was home to a river delta and a deep lake billions of years ago. 

Follow Doris Elin Urrutia on Twitter @salazar_elin. Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook. 

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Doris is a science journalist and Space.com contributor. She received a B.A. in Sociology and Communications at Fordham University in New York City. Her first work was published in collaboration with London Mining Network, where her love of science writing was born. Her passion for astronomy started as a kid when she helped her sister build a model solar system in the Bronx. She got her first shot at astronomy writing as a Space.com editorial intern and continues to write about all things cosmic for the website. Doris has also written about microscopic plant life for Scientific American’s website and about whale calls for their print magazine. She has also written about ancient humans for Inverse, with stories ranging from how to recreate Pompeii’s cuisine to how to map the Polynesian expansion through genomics. She currently shares her home with two rabbits. Follow her on twitter at @salazar_elin.

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Everything you need to know about space travel (almost)

We're a long way from home...

Paul Parsons

When did we first start exploring space?

The first human-made object to go into space was a German V2 missile , launched on a test flight in 1942. Although uncrewed, it reached an altitude of 189km (117 miles).

Former Nazi rocket scientists were later recruited by both America and Russia (often at gunpoint in the latter case), where they were instrumental in developing Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) – rockets capable of carrying nuclear weapons from one side of the planet to the other.

It was these super-missiles that formed the basis for the space programmes of both post-war superpowers. As it happened, Russia was the first to reach Earth orbit, when it launched the uncrewed Sputnik 1 in October 1957, followed a month later by Sputnik 2, carrying the dog Laika – the first live animal in space.

The USA sent its first uncrewed satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit soon after, in January 1958. A slew of robotic spaceflights followed, from both sides of the Atlantic, before Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin piloted Vostok 1 into orbit on 12 April 1961, to become the first human being in space . And from there the space race proper began, culminating in Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin becoming the first people to walk on the Moon as part of NASA's Apollo programme .

Why is space travel important?

Space exploration is the future. It satisfies the human urge to explore and to travel, and in the years and decades to come it could even provide our species with new places to call home – especially relevant now, as Earth becomes increasingly crowded .

Extending our reach into space is also necessary for the advancement of science. Space telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope and probes to the distant worlds of the Solar System are continually updating, and occasionally revolutionising, our understanding of astronomy and physics.

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But there are also some very practical reasons, such as mining asteroids for materials that are extremely rare here on Earth.

One example is the huge reserve of the chemical isotope helium-3 thought to be locked away in the soil on the surface of the Moon . This isotope is a potential fuel for future nuclear fusion reactors – power stations that tap into the same source of energy as the Sun. Unlike other fusion fuels, helium-3 gives off no hard-to-contain and deadly neutron radiation.

However, for this to happen the first challenge to overcome is how to build a base on the Moon. In 2019, China's Chang’e 4 mission marked the beginning of a new space race to conquer the Moon, signalling their intent to build a permanent lunar base , while the NASA Artemis mission plans to build a space station, called Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway , providing a platform to ferry astronauts to the Moon's surface.

Could humans travel into interstellar space and how would we get there?

It’s entirely feasible that human explorers will visit the furthest reaches of our Solar System. The stars, however, are another matter. Interstellar space is so vast that it takes light – the fastest thing we know of in the Universe – years, centuries and millennia to traverse it. Faster-than-light travel may be possible one day, but is unlikely to become a reality in our lifetimes.

It’s not impossible that humans might one day cross this cosmic gulf, though it won’t be easy. The combustion-powered rocket engines of today certainly aren’t up to the job – they just don’t use fuel efficiently enough. Instead, interstellar spacecraft may create a rocket-like propulsion jet using electric and magnetic fields. This so-called ‘ ion drive ’ technology has already been tested aboard uncrewed Solar System probes.

Another possibility is to push spacecraft off towards the stars using the light from a high-powered laser . A consortium of scientists calling themselves Breakthrough Starshot is already planning to send a flotilla of tiny robotic probes to our nearest star, Proxima Centauri, using just this method.

Though whether human astronauts could survive such punishing acceleration, or the decades-long journey through deep space, remains to be seen.

How do we benefit from space exploration?

Pushing forward the frontiers of science is the stated goal of many space missions . But even the development of space travel technology itself can lead to unintended yet beneficial ‘spin-off’ technologies with some very down-to-earth applications.

Notable spin-offs from the US space programme, NASA, include memory foam mattresses, artificial hearts, and the lubricant spray WD-40. Doubtless, there are many more to come.

Read more about space exploration:

• The next giant leaps: The UK missions getting us to the Moon
• Move over, Mars: why we should look further afield for future human colonies
• Everything you need to know about the Voyager mission
• 6 out-of-this-world experiments recreating space on Earth

Space exploration also instils a sense of wonder, it reminds us that there are issues beyond our humdrum planet and its petty squabbles, and without doubt it helps to inspire each new generation of young scientists. It’s also an insurance policy. We’re now all too aware that global calamities can and do happen – for instance, climate change and the giant asteroid that smashed into the Earth 65 million years ago, leading to the total extinction of the dinosaurs .

The lesson for the human species is that we keep all our eggs in one basket at our peril. On the other hand, a healthy space programme, and the means to travel to other worlds, gives us an out.

Is space travel dangerous?

In short, yes – very. Reaching orbit means accelerating up to around 28,000kph (17,000mph, or 22 times the speed of sound ). If anything goes wrong at that speed, it’s seldom good news.

Then there’s the growing cloud of space junk to contend with in Earth's orbit – defunct satellites, discarded rocket stages and other detritus – all moving just as fast. A five-gram bolt hitting at orbital speed packs as much energy as a 200kg weight dropped from the top of an 18-storey building.

And getting to space is just the start of the danger. The principal hazard once there is cancer-producing radiation – the typical dose from one day in space is equivalent to what you’d receive over an entire year back on Earth, thanks to the planet’s atmosphere and protective magnetic field.

Add to that the icy cold airless vacuum , the need to bring all your own food and water, plus the effects of long-duration weightlessness on bone density, the brain and muscular condition – including that of the heart – and it soon becomes clear that venturing into space really isn’t for the faint-hearted.

When will space travel be available to everyone?

It’s already happening – that is, assuming your pockets are deep enough. The first self-funded ‘space tourist’ was US businessman Dennis Tito, who in 2001 spent a week aboard the International Space Station (ISS) for the cool sum of $20m (£15m).

Virgin Galactic has long been promising to take customers on short sub-orbital hops into space – where passengers get to experience rocket propulsion and several minutes of weightlessness, before gliding back to a runway landing on Earth, all for $250k (£190k). In late July 2020, the company unveiled the finished cabin in its SpaceShipTwo vehicle, suggesting that commercial spaceflights may begin shortly.

Meanwhile, Elon Musk’s SpaceX , which in May 2020 became the first private company to launch a human crew to Earth orbit aboard the Crew Dragon , plans to offer stays on the ISS for $35k (£27k) per night. SpaceX is now prototyping its huge Starship vehicle , which is designed to take 100 passengers from Earth to as far afield as Mars for around $20k (£15k) per head. Musk stated in January that he hoped to be operating 1,000 Starships by 2050.

10 Short Lessons in Space Travel by Paul Parsons is out now (£9.99, Michael O'Mara)

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• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 18 January 2024

The effect of space travel on human reproductive health: a systematic review

• Marta Gimunová   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7284-2678 1 ,
• Ana Carolina Paludo 2 ,
• Martina Bernaciková 1 &
• Julie Bienertova-Vasku 1  

npj Microgravity volume  10 , Article number:  10 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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With increasing possibilities of multi-year missions in deep space, colonizing other planets, and space tourism, it is important to investigate the effects of space travel on human reproduction. This study aimed to systematically review and summarize the results of available literature on space travel, microgravity, and space radiation, or Earth-based spaceflight analogues impact on female and male reproductive functions in humans. This systematic review was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines and Space Biomedicine Systematic Review methods. The search was performed using three databases: PubMed, Web of Science, and Medline Complete. During the database search, 364 studies were identified. After the study selection process, 16 studies were included in the review. Five studies included female participants, and the findings show an increased risk of thromboembolism in combined oral contraceptive users, decreased decidualization, functional insufficiency of corpus luteum, and decreased progesterone and LH levels related to space travel or its simulation. Male participants were included in 13 studies. In males, reproductive health considerations focused on the decrease in testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin levels, the ratio of male offspring, sperm motility, sperm vitality, and the increase in sperm DNA fragmentation related to space travel or its simulation. Results of this systematic review highlight the need to focus more on the astronaut’s reproductive health in future research, as only 16 studies were found during the literature search, and many more research questions related to reproductive health in astronauts still need to be answered.

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Introduction.

To undertake multi-year missions in deep space, colonize other planets, and/or prepare appropriate safety measures for space tourism, it is important to investigate the possible effects of space travel on human reproduction. During space travel, astronauts are exposed to several hazardous factors, such as alterations in gravitation forces, including hypogravity and hypergravity, or ionizing radiation 1 , 2 . Exposure to microgravity has been demonstrated to impair the endocrine system in males 3 , muscle mass, and bone mass 4 , 5 ; it also leads to altered fluid and electrolyte balance, cardiovascular changes, or increased glomerular filtration rate in both genders 2 . Experimental bed rest studies are typically used in humans to simulate spaceflight microgravity 6 . For in vitro samples, clinostat or random positioning machines are used to simulate microgravity by randomization of the gravity direction over time. In animal studies, hindlimb suspension is usually used to stimulate the physiological effects of microgravity 2 . Ionizing radiation, which is about 500 times greater in space compared to Earth conditions, was observed to cause DNA damage, apoptosis in ovarian follicles, and sperm DNA fragmentation in animal models 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 .

Until now, limited research has focused on the effect of space travel on the reproductive system and its function, along with endocrine regulation of reproduction or prenatal development. Endocrine regulation of sex hormones is the most investigated as it also impacts musculoskeletal health and skeletal muscle protein metabolism (e.g. 9 , 10 ). Most of this research is based on animal models 1 , 2 .

Female mouse models show that microgravity affects embryonic stem cell growth and differentiation 11 , resulting in impaired decidualization of the endometrium needed for implantation and maintaining pregnancy 12 . Data from therapeutic radiation on ovaries suggests that space radiation exposure during a typical Mars mission may reduce the ovarian reserve by 50% by destroying some of the primordial follicles. Furthermore, space radiation may lead to a decreased time interval to menopause, leading to a decreased reproductive capacity of the female astronaut 13 . Exposure to total body radiation of 15 Gy leads to the loss of ovarian function in humans 14 .

In males, the microgravity exposure was observed to reduce the total sperm count in mice models 15 , decrease testes weight, and decrease testosterone concentrations in male rats 2 , 16 . Exposure to ionizing radiation increases sperm DNA fragmentation in Echinogammarus marinus models 7 , affecting the male reproductive health. Data from therapeutic radiation on testes in humans show that a dose higher than 1 Gy might result in azoospermia and risk for hereditary disorders 17 . Furthermore, decreased serum testosterone levels were observed in men treated with radiotherapy for rectal cancer when testes are exposed to direct or scattered radiation 18 .

As described in The Impact of Sex and Gender on Adaptation to Space: A NASA Decadal Review 19 , reproductive demographics of female and male US astronauts significantly differ based on biological processes and gender roles for parents. Women are usually the primary caregivers (e.g., ref. 20 ) and are often required to take an extended family leave from their career when having a child (e.g., ref. 21 ). A smaller number of female astronauts (44.7%) have at least one child compared to the male astronauts (83.9%). Female astronauts also significantly delay reproduction, on average, by 5.6 years compared to males. It was hypothesized that the delayed reproduction in female astronauts is related to the required extensive space travel training time 19 . A new NASA decadal review is expected next year, adding more current data on the topic. However, not only delayed reproduction but also the impact of the potential acceleration of aging and gonadal radiation exposure related to space travel might be other factors affecting the reproduction capacity in female astronauts 19 . Therefore, the aim of this study was to systematically review and summarize the results of available literature on space travel, microgravity, and space radiation’s impact on female and male reproductive functions in humans.

Characteristics of included studies

During the database search, 364 studies were identified (Pubmed: 121 articles; Medline Complete: 142 articles; Web of Science: 101 articles). After the duplicate removal ( n  = 160), studies involving animal samples ( n  = 45), different methodologies, or non-English language articles (e.g., conference paper, book chapter; n  = 12), 147 studies were screened based on title and abstract in which 120 studies were excluded. In the last stage, 27 studies remained, followed by the exclusion of 5 studies due to no full-text being available and eight studies because the outcomes needed to match the topic. Via another method (accidental find), two studies focusing on ionizing radiation’s effect on male reproductive health were found 22 , 23 . A total of 16 studies were included in the systematic review.

The methodological quality of the included studies (Table 1 ) ranged from 70.0% 24 to 90.9% 25 , suggesting good methodological quality 26 . The most common methodological deficits consisted of not reporting the study’s hypothesis clearly, not reporting the probability values, and the lack of representativeness of the source population. The methodological quality of the included studies is shown in Supplementary Table 1 .

Six of the included studies used bed rest study design. Bed rest studies’ methodological quality (Table 2 ) ranged between 2 27 to 7 points 28 . No study indicated a prohibition of sunlight exposure. Four studies did not indicate a set wake/sleep time 6 , 10 , 29 , 30 . One study design allowed a limited ambulation time (to shower and toilet) 29 . In three of the included studies, the recommended 6° head-down tilt was not used 6 , 27 , 29 .

Articles meeting the inclusion criteria included four articles from USA (25%), two articles from China (12, 5%), two articles from Russia (12, 5%), one article from Poland (6, 25%), one article from Italy (6, 25%), one article from South Korea (6, 25%), one article from India (6, 25%), one article from Japan (6, 25%), one article from Spain (6, 25%), one article from Austria (6, 25%), and one article from Germany (6, 25%) 6 , 10 , 12 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 .

As shown in Table 3 , in most of the included studies, only male participants were analyzed (11 studies; 68, 75% 6 , 10 , 22 , 23 , 25 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 35 ), three studies focused on female participants (18, 75% 12 , 24 , 32 ), and two studies included a mixed sample (12, 5% 27 , 34 ).

Thirteen articles reported data from the experiments on Earth. Simulated microgravity by parabolic flight was used in two studies 31 , 35 and by clinostat system in one study 12 ; in two studies ionizing radiation occupational exposure was used 22 , 23 , head-down bed rest was performed in four studies 10 , 27 , 28 , 30 , bed rest was conducted in two studies 6 , 29 , in two studies dry immersion was used 24 , 32 , and in one study data from water submersion were reported 25 . Three articles reported data on space exposure 30 , 33 , 34 . Eight of included studies focused on endocrine changes after the space flight or its simulation 10 , 25 , 6 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ; four studies focused on sperms 22 , 23 , 31 , 35 ; two studies focused on menstrual cycle changes 24 , 32 ; one study focused on endometrial stromal cells 12 , one study focus of the venous thromboembolism risk 34 , and one study focused on offspring sex ratio in male astronauts 33 .

Female and mixed studies

Three studies, including female participants, and two studies, including mixed samples, were identified during the study selection process. Their characteristics are shown in Table 4 . One study used a clinostat system to simulate the microgravity of in vitro samples of human endometrial stromal cells (PSCs) from the uterus 12 . Two studies used dry immersion to simulate microgravity; in both studies, participants were allowed 30 min/day to spend outside the immersion bath for hygiene procedures 24 , 32 . Tomilovskaya et al. 32 described the first female dry immersion study, and their participants were involved in their study for two menstrual cycles. The three-day dry immersion occurred between day 7 and day 10 of participants’ menstrual cycles 32 . In a study by Gorbacheva et al. 24 , two menstrual cycles were followed; the 5-day-long dry immersion was performed between day 10 and day 15 of participants’ menstrual cycles. One study used one hour-long -12° head-down bed rest to simulate microgravity and analyze endocrine parameter changes 27 . In one study, spaceflight exposure was used to analyze proteins involved in clotting cascade from blood samples obtained twice before spaceflight, five times during the flight, and twice after flight 34 .

In Table 5 , results from female and mixed samples studies are shown. In female in vitr o samples, exposure to microgravity was observed to decrease decidualization (the process of endometrial cells in preparation for, or during pregnancy) by decreasing proliferation and migration and endometrial stromal cells growth rate through Akt/MMP and FOXO3a/autophagic flux 12 . Two studies reported that menstrual cycle length stayed intact after dry immersion exposure 24 , 32 . Gorbacheva et al. 24 observed decreased luteinizing hormone (LH), progesterone, and ovarian volume at day 9 of the menstrual cycle after the immersion. On the other hand, an increase in dominant follicle diameter and no change in uterus size and endometrial thickness were reported 24 . The mixed sample study focused on venous thromboembolism risk in male and female astronauts, showing an increased risk in females taking combined oral contraceptives 34 . A head-down bed rest mixed sample study reported no statistically significant change in oestradiol, testosterone, and LH levels after the rest 27 .

Male studies

Eleven studies focused on male participants were identified during the study selection process. In Table 6 , the male studies’ characteristics are summarized. In the study by Little et al. 33 , retrospective data from astronauts’ biographies were included in the analysis of offspring ratio. A study by Smith et al. 30 focused on the effect of long- and short-duration space flight and −6° head-down bed rest on testosterone levels. In two studies, parabolic flights were used to simulate short-duration microgravity 31 , 35 . In a study by Boada et al. 35 , twenty parabolic flight maneuvers (8.5 s of microgravity for each parabola) were used for frozen sperm samples. In a study by Ikeuchi et al. 31 , fresh sperm samples underwent ten parabolic flight maneuvers (20 to 25 s of microgravity for each parabola). Occupational low-dose exposure to ionizing radiation while working with radiation in a hospital on sperm characteristics was analyzed in two studies 22 , 23 . Four studies analyzed the effect of bed rest or −6° head-down bed rest on testosterone levels 10 , 6 , 28 , 29 . Studies by Belavy et al. 6 , Liang et al. 28 , and Zachwieja et al. 10 applied a strict bed rest. Study design by Smorawinski et al. 29 provided 20 min/day to ambulate (to shower and toilet). In one study, the effect of water submersion on testosterone levels was analyzed 25 . In the study by Loder et al. 25 , divers were allowed to emerge for less than 20 min every 4 hours to urinate, defecate, drink, or undergo medical checks.

One of the studies including male participants in the space study setting (Table 7 ) focused on the offspring sex ratio, showing a decreased ratio of male offspring (43.75%) in male astronauts 33 . Furthermore, the study by Little et al. 33 observed a decreased male offspring ratio of 38.41% in high G pilots compared to 50.34% in low G pilots. The second study using the space study setting focused on endocrine changes, showing no statistically significant changes in testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) during or after the short and long-duration space flight. A decrease in total, free, and bioavailable testosterone was observed only on the landing day after the space flight, probably as the transient effect of flight 30 . One study observed decreased sperm motility after microgravity exposure 31 , and another study by Boada et al. 35 observed no statistically significant change in sperm motility, vitality, or sperm DNA fragmentation after exposure to microgravity. Occupational ionizing radiation exposure was observed to decrease sperm motility, vitality, and concentration and to increase sperm DNA fragmentation in comparison with non-exposed controls 22 , 23 . Bed rest and head-down bed rest studies show no statistically significant change in testosterone and prolactin after the rest 10 , 28 , 29 , 30 . SHBG was observed to decrease after the bed rest 6 . After the water submersion, a decrease in plasma testosterone was observed 25 .

The aim of this study was to systematically review and summarize the results of available literature on space travel, microgravity, and space radiation impact on female and male reproductive functions in humans. The reproductive health consideration of space travel differs for female and male astronauts. In female astronauts, they include oral contraceptive use 34 , progesterone and LH levels 27 , ovarian and uterus changes 24 , decidualization, and endometrial stromal cell growth rate 12 . In males, reproductive health considerations focus on testosterone and SHBG levels 10 , 25 , 6 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , the ratio of male offspring 33 , sperm motility 22 , 23 , 31 , 35 , sperm vitality 22 , 35 , and sperm DNA fragmentation 22 , 23 , 35 . To support those considering these options, it might be helpful to explore assisted reproductive technologies such as oocyte and sperm cryopreservation, along with reproductive counseling possibilities, as suggested by Rose 13 and Ronca et al. 36 .

In female astronauts, the endocrine regulation of the menstrual cycle involves the hypothalamic release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, which peaks mid-cycle and invokes ovulation 37 . The developing ovum in ovaries produces estrogen, and the corpus luteum , which forms after ovulation, produces progesterone. Animal models show a decrease in luteinizing hormone related to 37 days-long spaceflights; however, no changes in estrous cycle stages were observed 38 . In naturally cycling women, simulated microgravity by dry immersion led to a decrease in luteinizing hormone by 12% and progesterone by 52%, showing functional insufficiency of corpus luteum 24 . The menstrual cycle length was not altered after 3 and 5 days of dry immersion 24 , 32 . One hour of −12° head-down bed rest did not induce any significant changes in the endocrine regulation of the cycle, suggesting that longer microgravity exposure is needed to affect the endocrine regulation of the menstrual cycle 27 . Despite the fact that abnormal uterine bleeding is a common complaint among reproductive-aged women 39 , uterine bleeding changes were not analyzed in any of the included studies.

As the menstrual bleeding flow management during space flight training and the space flight can be challenging, medically induced amenorrhea using combined oral contraceptives is often used by female astronauts 40 . However, combined (progestin and estrogen) oral contraceptives were associated with lower circulating concentrations of albumin, higher concentrations of transferrin, and elevated markers of inflammation, which can contribute to an increased risk of venous thromboembolism event during space travel 34 . The occlusive deep venous thrombosis was diagnosed in one female astronaut during a long-duration spaceflight 41 , highlighting the need to carefully consider the type of combined oral contraceptives used before and during flight 34 .

Human pregnancy is currently contradicted during space flight as a safety measure to protect the fetus 13 , 42 , 43 . Multi-year duration space flights and colonization will require understanding the impact of space flight on pregnancy, and simulation studies will try to provide better insight into reproduction in space. Fetal development, long-term effects on gestation under space conditions, and monitoring the development and function of offspring conceived and developed in space are some of the potential priorities for future space programs as described in a European perspective of human development and reproduction in space by Jain et al. 43 . The study by Cho et al. 12 showed that exposure to simulated microgravity leads to decreased decidualization and endometrial stromal cells growth rate due to decrease in Akt activity and FOX03a expression leading to an unreceptive endometrium. Furthermore, if microgravity and space radiation alter the pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance during pregnancy, it can increase the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth, or fetal growth restriction 44 . The absence of gravitational loading during the last trimester of gestation may cause hypotrophy of muscles and osteopenia in the trunk and legs, leading to delayed acquisition of developmental milestones such as sitting or walking of the fetus developed in space 45 . Animal models show increased perinatal morbidity for the rats that spent 9 to 20 days in spaceflight during their gestation. In surviving offspring, no delay in walking acquisition was observed 46 .

High-altitude airplane flights, e.g., transatlantic flights, constitute trivial cosmic radiation exposure for casual travelers. Pregnant pilots, flight attendants, and frequent flyers may exceed the recommended radiation exposure 47 . During transatlantic air travel in the third trimester of pregnancy, most of the pregnant women report no change in fetal movements during take-off or flight 48 . A study by Grajewski et al. 49 focusing on miscarriage risk among flight attendants shows that cosmic radiation exposure of 0,1 mGy or more may be associated with an increased risk of miscarriage in weeks 9 to 13. However, the miscarriage risk was also associated with other factors such as work during sleep hours and high physical demands, and the miscarriage risk was not increased among flight attendants compared to a control group of teachers 49 . Maternal stress and exposure to stressful events during pregnancy were observed to impact the infant’s physical health 50 , premature birth, and low birth weight 51 , suggesting a possible negative effect of space travel-related stress on the fetus.

Space travel may increase the carcinogenic risk to reproductive organs. This risk was proposed to be higher in women as they have a higher incidence of radiation-induced cancers, as widely discussed in Market al. 19 . Still, the low number of female astronauts does not allow for assessment of the risk of spaceflight on gynecological cancer 36 .

In expert opinion by Rose 13 , significantly reduced ovarian reserve and consequent decrease in the reproductive capacity and decreased time interval to menopause caused by space radiation was suggested in female astronauts. Unfortunately, no original article showing the data about reproductive capacity or age of menopause in astronauts was found during the literature search in this systematic review.

Testosterone is the key hormone in the development of the male reproductive system and promotes muscle and bone mass 52 . Testosterone has been, therefore, often considered as a potential countermeasure for musculoskeletal losses related to space flight (e.g. 10 ). The testosterone level seems unchanged by the space flight or bed rest study settings 9 , 10 , 6 , 27 , 28 , 30 apart from the transient effects after flight 30 . A decrease in testosterone levels was observed in a short-term water submersion (41 h) study by Loder et al. 25 . Similarly, it was hypothesized that the decrease is related to stress effect 25 . The self-rated sexual drive was reported to temporarily decrease during space flight in male astronauts parallelly to urinary, plasma, and salivary testosterone levels in a study by Strollo et al. 53 . Similarly, animal studies show a decrease in testosterone levels in simulated microgravity studies caused by a reduction in testicular blood flow related to body fluid shift 1 .

Prolactin and LH levels did not change during the analog bed rest study 27 , 6 . Similarly, no LH and FSH levels change was observed after a 6-week hindlimb suspension in animal models 54 . Serum SHBG levels were observed to decrease during bed rest in inactive participants. The physical activity load during the bed rest led to stable SHBG levels 6 . Similarly, no change during or after the space flight in the level of SHBG was observed by Smith et al. 30

Results observed by Ikeuchi et al. 31 using fresh semen suggest that sperm motility is reduced by microgravity. In a study by Boada et al. 35 using frozen semen, no significant change in sperm motility, vitality, or sperm DNA fragmentation was observed compared to Earth condition after a similar parabolic flight experiment as used by Ikeuchi et al. 31 . These results suggest that the sperm integrity may be protected by cryopreservation during the space flight when transporting male human gametes into space 35 . Still, chronic occupational exposure to ionizing radiation was observed to have a detrimental effect on sperm motility, vitality, concentration, and DNA fragmentation 22 , 23 . Similarly, ionizing radiation and microgravity were observed to increase sperm DNA fragmentation in animal studies 1 . Furthermore, a decreased sex ratio of male offspring by male astronauts exposed to high G forces was reported by Little et al. 33 . The authors hypothesized that sperm sex differences in sperm motility and longevity, smaller size, and cytoplasm content in Y sperm were the reason of decreased sex ratio of male offspring as higher G forces may accelerate metabolism in sperm subtracting energy available for travel to the ovum 33 . However, current knowledge shows no morphological differences between X and Y sperms in humans 55 . Still, X and Y sperms differences in genetic content may lead to differences in their stress response 56 . The study by You et al. 57 reported that the viability of human Y spermatozoa was lower after exposure to stress (e.g., different temperatures and culture periods) compared to X spermatozoa, which may result in a shift of the offspring sex ratio as observed by Little et al. 33 . Similarly, low male sex offspring ratio associated with occupational testicular radiation exposure was observed in a previous study 58 . On the other hand, no association between offspring sex ratio and gonadal irradiation was observed in childhood cancer survivors in a study by Reulen et al. 59

Future studies on the effect of space radiation on both fresh and frozen semen samples are needed to assess the possibility of creating a human sperm bank outside the Earth. A study by Wakayama et al. 60 analyzed the effect of space radiation on mouse freeze-dried spermatozoa stored for almost six years on the International Space Station. The sperm DNA and fertility were not affected after the storage outside the Earth compared to control preserved on Earth, and the current data show the possibility of storing freeze-dried spermatozoa for more than 200 years in space 60 .

Among potential priorities identified by Jain et al. 43 for future research regarding reproductive aspects of space flight were topics similar to those covered in this systematic review. Additionally, the effect of space travel on libido and the possibility of pregnancy and birth in space were proposed 43 . Results of this systematic review highlight the need to focus more on both female and male astronauts’ reproductive health in future research, as only 16 studies were found during the literature search, and many more research questions related to reproductive health in female and male astronauts still need to be answered.

There are several limitations of this systematic review. The main limitation is the few included studies and the wide range of reproductive health parameters they focused on. The small sample sizes, different types of populations (healthy volunteers, astronauts), and different methodologies need to be considered when comparing or generalizing the results. The limited number of studies addressing these health concerns underscores the imperative need for future research dedicated to reproductive health in both female and male astronauts.

Eligibility criteria for selecting studies

A systematic review of the effect of space travel or its simulation, e.g., bed rest studies, microgravity simulation, or dry immersion, on reproductive health in human females and males was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines 61 and according the Space Biomedicine Systematic Review methods ( https://sites.google.com/view/sr-methods/home ). The search was performed using three databases, PubMed, Web of Science, and Medline Complete, on the 29 th of April 2023 by one researcher (MG). The eligibility criteria included: (1) astronauts, space travel, or space simulation; (2) experimental or retrospective studies performed on human participants (animal studies were excluded); (3) description of reproductive health parameters.

Search strategy and selection process

The following terms with Boolean operators were used for the search: (“infertility” OR “birth outcomes” OR “amenorrhea” OR “menstrual” OR “menstrual cycle” OR “follicular phase” OR “luteal phase” OR “menstruation” OR “ovarian cycle” OR “ovulation” OR “anovulation” OR “reproduct*” OR “obstetric*” OR “gynecolog*” OR “maternal” OR “pregnan*” OR “contracept*” OR “prenatal” OR “postpartum” OR “preconception” OR “women’s health” OR “miscarriage” OR “pregnancy loss” OR “menarche” OR “polycystic ovary syndrome” OR “menopause” OR “endometriosis” OR “stillbirth” OR “placental abruption” OR “low birth weight” OR “preterm birth” OR “in vitro fertilization” OR “irregular periods” OR “sperm” OR “testosterone” OR “semen quality” OR “oligospermia” OR “semen” OR “testis” OR “testes” OR “testicular” OR “offspring” OR “reproductive hormone” OR “asthenozoospermia” OR “oligozoospermia” OR “oligoasthenozoospermia” OR “oligoasthenoteratozoospermia” OR “teratozoospermia” OR “spermatogenesis” OR “varicocele” OR “erection” OR “libido” OR “erectile dysfunction” OR “sexual drive”) AND (“space travel” OR “astronaut*” OR “spaceflight” OR “space analogue” OR “cosmonaut*” OR “space simulation” OR “zero gravity” OR “microgravity” OR “hypogravity” OR “low gravity” OR “space radiation”) AND (“human” OR “participant*” OR “women” OR “men” OR “woman” OR “man”) NOT (“review”). The literature search did not exclude any studies published before certain data due to a limited number of scientific studies focused on the analyzed topic as proposed in Ahrari et al. 1 . Studies published until April 2023 were included in this study. Exclusion criteria included animal studies, non-English language, review articles, conference papers, books, and book chapters, and no full-text available. All studies identified in the search were imported into Rayyan systematic review software 62 to continue the selection process. Studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria (e.g., duplicates, non-English articles, reviews, conference papers, books and book chapters, and animal studies) were excluded by one researcher (MG). The title and abstract of the remaining studies were screened by two researchers (MG, ACP). Any disagreement between researchers was resolved by discussion. After that, the full texts of the included studies were screened to confirm their relevance to the current systematic review. The PRISMA flow diagram summarizes the study selection process (Fig. 1 ).

PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection process (template from 61 ).

Data collection process and assessment of study quality

Data extraction was performed by two researchers (MG, MB) using a pre-determined form consisting of (i) study characteristics (author, publication year and country, sample characteristics, study setting: Earth/space, and exposure: spaceflight/microgravity/ionizing radiation/bed rest/water submersion/dry immersion); and (ii) analyzed reproductive health parameters and results.

The methodological quality assessment of included studies was performed by one researcher (MG) using the Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist 63 . The original checklist consists of 27 questions assessing the quality of reporting, external and internal validity, and statistical power. For this review, 13 items were considered relevant. A similar approach was used in previous studies by Gimunová et al. 64 and Paludo et al. 65 . A binary score for each question: 0 = no/unable to determine, 1= yes was used. The final score (in %) was classified as follows: <45.4% “poor” methodological quality; 45.5–61.0% “fair” methodological quality”; and >61.0% “good” methodological quality 26 . The quality assessment was not used to exclude any study.

Additionally, as recommended in Space Biomedicine Systematic Review Methods, the Bed rest studies transferability was assessed by the recommended tool ( https://sites.google.com/view/sr-methods/guides/bed rest-transferability) used in a previous systematic review by Winnard et al. 66 . The methodological quality of bed rest studies was assessed by one researcher (MG) considering eight questions comparing the study design with “ideal design” resulting in a total score between 0 to 8 points.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The original studies presented in the systematic review are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

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This project was supported by the Rector’s Group for Space Research and Astronautics at Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.

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M.G. and J.B.V.: conceptualization and search. A.C.P. and M.G.: data selection. M.B. and M.G.: data analysis. M.G., J.B.V., and A.C.P.: drafted manuscript. All authors critically revised the manuscript, contributed to the article, and approved the submitted version.

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Gimunová, M., Paludo, A.C., Bernaciková, M. et al. The effect of space travel on human reproductive health: a systematic review. npj Microgravity 10 , 10 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-024-00351-1

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 26). 109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/space-exploration-essay-topics/

"109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." IvyPanda , 26 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/space-exploration-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2023) '109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples'. 26 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." October 26, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/space-exploration-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "109 Space Exploration Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." October 26, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/space-exploration-essay-topics/.

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The ethics of space exploration

Asu talk will examine ethical questions surrounding life in space.

Photo by Mikhail Nilov/Pexels

The prospect of life in space is an endless topic to explore. And one that prompts some serious questions.

What is the impact of extended space travel on the human body? Can space travel bring life-threatening extraterrestrial contaminants back to Earth? Do we spend money on space exploration and research when there are problems on Earth to solve?

These questions and more will be tackled at an upcoming BioEthics Breakfast Club talk titled “Life in Space.” The event takes place from 9 to 10 a.m. on Wednesday, Jan. 17, in room 202 of the Life Sciences Center.  Register here .

The breakfast club is associated with the university’s  Life Science Ethics program.  

"There are many ethical questions that arise as a result of the new and emerging ideas about what amounts to a space activity, how to balance competing concerns and interests in the use of the space environment, and the impacts of certain activities," said  Timiebi Aganaba , an assistant professor at the  School for the Future of Innovation in Society , who will be leading the discussion alongide  Cheryl Nickerson , a professor at ASU’s  School of Life Sciences . 

Aganaba works in global space governance law and environmental advocacy, and Nickerson’s research is aimed at improving the health and well-being of astronauts.  

Here, Nickerson shares more about her research and the upcoming event.

Editor's note: Answers have been edited for length and clarity.

Question: What prompted you to put on this event?

Answer:  As the next steps in human space exploration are being planned to the moon and Mars with professional astronauts, and the rapidly growing commercial spaceflight industry transports civilian space travelers to low Earth orbit, it will be critical to ensure health and safety in this inherently unsafe environment.  

We are currently in a renaissance period for spaceflight research that has tremendous potential for breakthrough advances in diverse biological and technological domains to benefit human health and habitation in space and life on Earth.  

In our long-standing efforts to safely send humans into space, my team and I have been working closely with both NASA and commercial spaceflight groups to better understand and address the challenges faced by both professional astronauts and the new wave of civilian space travelers — the findings of which hold potential translational benefits for the public.

Q: Space exploration and ethics will be an important part of the discussion. What are the most common ethical questions related to space travel?

A:  As with every audacious new venture undertaken by humans, an assessment of risk versus return must be cogently determined. 

For example, the goal of many in the spaceflight community is to push toward a mission to Mars in search of life on other planets. The need to better understand our universe and the timeless question of “Are we alone?” is offset by the risk of forward contamination — taking microorganisms from Earth to Mars, limiting our ability to distinguish life on Mars — or back contamination — bringing potentially harmful microbes back to Earth.  

Perhaps a more likely and potentially severe risk of such a mission is the limited knowledge that we currently have of the long-term effect of the deep space environment — including reduced gravity and increased radiation — on the mental and physical well-being of the astronauts. 

In addition, an underrecognized but critically important ethical risk is the high public and political visibility of spaceflight research and the limited access to this platform, which creates a risk to the quality and progress of spaceflight biological and health research that can result from sensationalized media commentaries and unsubstantiated experimental conclusions in the published scientific literature.  

Q: What has your research revealed about the impact of extended time in space on the human body?

A:  Infectious disease is … an important risk for professional astronauts and civilian space travelers, whose immune systems are impacted in the space environment. My team’s microbiology, infectious disease and 3D tissue engineering research using spaceflight and spaceflight analogue platforms has pioneered novel approaches to benefit human health and habitat sustainability. 

Our research has shown that unexpected microbial and human cellular and molecular responses occur in these environments. … Our findings are providing a foundation for the  development of novel strategies to combat infectious disease in space and on Earth. 

Q: The issue of contaminants is a chilling one. Why is this a concern? What kinds of contaminants might be brought back to the Earth? 

A:  The impact of reduced gravity and radiation on the terrestrial microbes that humans and their spacecraft take with them and return back to Earth during their excursions to other space destinations is very important to the health and performance of human spaceflight travelers, as changes in microorganisms during a spaceflight mission could impact the disease-causing ability of pathogens, integrity and function of the crew’s microbiome, and contamination of life support systems during deep space exploration.

This collective area of study is the focus of my team’s research.

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The 6 biggest questions about space travel, answered

Space suddenly seems a little more reachable — at least, for those who have cash to burn.

Virgin Galactic’s announcement Tuesday that it is going public through a merger with an investment firm came with an update that the company is preparing to send its first customers into space within a year, CNBC reported . More than 600 people have placed deposits topping $80 million in total, chairman Chamath Palihapitiya told the network, and another 2,500 want to get in line.

Virgin isn’t alone in the space race: Blue Origin, Jeff Bezos’s space exploration company, is promoting “the largest windows in space” on its New Shepard capsule, although test flights with humans onboard have not yet taken place. (Bezos owns The Washington Post.) Elon Musk announced last year that his company, SpaceX, has a customer lined up who will pay to fly around the moon. Last month, NASA made a change in policy and said it would allow space tourists to visit the International Space Station as soon as next year. The agency said logistics would have to be arranged by SpaceX and Boeing, which NASA has tapped to get crews to the space station.

So will we all be jetting around space with our cameras, orbital passports and zero-gravity fanny packs in a decade? Not so fast. Here’s what potential space explorers need to know.

Virgin Galactic announces it will take its space tourism venture public

What does space tourism involve?

The most widely touted versions involve rocketing passengers more than 50 miles into the atmosphere and achieving minutes of weightlessness and witnessing Earth views before returning to land. Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin differ in the details of how they will get to space and the altitude they’ll reach, but they are promoting relatively similar experiences and plan to carry six passengers at once.

There are even more ambitious offerings: Space Adventures , which has sent seven people to space as tourists, offers multiday experiences including a “circumlunar” mission, a trip to the International Space Station and a spacewalk add-on; the company has contracted with Boeing to help sell seats aboard its spacecraft. Bigelow Space Operations, a branch of space-technology company Bigelow Aerospace, said last month it had “paid substantial sums as deposits and reservation fees to secure up to four SpaceX launches to the International Space Station.”

For those craving weightlessness without the actual space travel, Zero Gravity Corporation gets you there 15 times, for 20 to 30 seconds each, in a trip, through aerobatic maneuvers.

How much does it cost?

Virgin Galactic is reportedly charging up to $250,000 for its trips. Reuters reported that Blue Origin will charge between $200,000 and $300,000.

For the biggest spenders, Bigelow Space Operations has set the price of a space station trip at $52 million; most of that cost is to get there. NASA estimated that staying at the station would set travelers back about $35,000 a night.

Space Adventures does not list prices on its website. (If you have to ask, you probably can’t afford it.) The last tourist in space, Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté, reportedly paid $35 million for his 2009 trip to the space station arranged by the company in partnership with Russia’s space agency.

The option of least resistance is Zero Gravity Corporation, which sells a single seat on its flights (which, again, don’t actually go to space) for $5,400 plus tax.

Who can go?

Other than prohibitions associated with cost, no companies have announced any limitations on who can travel. On its website, Virgin Galactic says its plan is to “open space to everybody,” from ages “spanning the teens to the 90s.”

NASA invites tourists to space station, while a Trump tweet casts doubt on his own administration’s moon plan

How soon can people go?

This has been a moving target for more than a decade, and initial dates are still not firm. Virgin Galactic’s chairman said Tuesday that it expected to fly its first customers within a year, but with a backlog of hundreds, the wait would still be extensive. Blue Origin has not yet opened reservations or even flown a test flight with humans. And SpaceX has said its trip around the moon could not happen before 2023 .

What kind of training is necessary?

Astronauts who fly with space programs are subject to high fitness standards and rigorous training. Space tourists, not so much.

Blue Origin says passengers will learn everything they need to know the day before launch, including “mission and vehicle overviews, in-depth safety briefings, mission simulation and instruction on your in-flight activities such as operational procedures, communications and maneuvering in a weightless environment.”

Virgin Galactic says training and preparation would take three days: “Pre-flight training will ensure that each astronaut is mentally and physically prepared to savor every second of the spaceflight and fully equipped to fulfill any personal objectives. Our aerospace medical experts will be constantly on hand to offer advice and help, and to check pre-flight fitness,” the company says.

Where do I sign up?

For the most part, companies that are moving closer to spaceflight are taking names on their websites. There are also a handful of travel agents accredited for space trips with Virgin Galactic. Bigelow Space Operations essentially tells people to stay tuned: “As you might imagine, as they say ‘the devil is in the details,’ and there are many.”

Christian Davenport contributed to this report.

Space tourism will surely be a blast, but can it also improve life on Earth?

Introducing By The Way, a new digital travel product from The Washington Post

Yes, space tourism is for the rich. But sending artists to space is good for us all.

The Ethics of Space Exploration

Date: 19 November 2020

Although we can’t yet be certain that space is the final frontier, it is without question the next one. Human space flight and the exploration of space has fascinated the human imagination for millennia. From the myth of Icarus to Jules Verne’s From the Earth to the Moon , we imagined what it would be like to fly near the sun or to explore the moon long before our technology could get us there.

Of course, space travel is no longer the stuff of science fiction, and we needn’t worry that the sun will melt our wax wings sending us plummeting to the earth. For over half a century it has been technologically possible to fly to space and more recently to explore its vast reaches. In the relatively short time since the first human space flight in 1961, technological possibilities have expanded greatly, opening a wide variety of opportunities for humans in space that include scientific research, private tourism, earth observation, exploration of deep space, and even the potential for off-world sustainable living. Given our ever-increasing ventures into space, space has become more a set of activities than a location.

At Trilateral we offer expertise in these areas and are excited to join partners in exploring these topics in research or education projects.

New Developments

One recent and important change to the exploration of space is that it is no longer the exclusive destination of government funded space programs. Private businesses, most notably SpaceX and Virgin Galactic, have already made a significant imprint in this sector, with Virgin Galactic building the world’s first commercial spaceport in New Mexico, and SpaceX teaming up with NASA to construct the latest rocket that successfully delivered astronauts to the International Space Station. Moreover, ushering in a new era witnessing for the first time non-professional astronauts in space, several companies have publicly stated their plan to take tourists into space, while the company Space Adventures has already sent paying customers on a 10-day trip to the ISS, each of whom paid in excess of $20mn.

Reflecting a renewed public interest in space exploration, the European Space Agency (ESA) has invested €14.4bn in space exploration up to 2022. This investment includes the assembly and operation of the lunar “Gateway” space station, which will serve as a staging station for missions to the moon and to Mars allowing astronauts to stay in space for longer amounts of time traveling back to the Gateway to stock up on supplies without travelling back to Earth.

Looking even further into the future, both NASA and ESA are doing tentative research on long-duration human space flight, setting up a permanent residence on the moon and the potential for the colonization of Mars.

Ethical Questions

As more money is invested in space, as more people—both professional astronauts as well as tourists—travel to space, as our spaceships are able to venture farther out into the galaxy, these fascinating developments in space exploration raise a myriad of ethical questions, both theoretical and practical:

• Does the space environment (including the solar system and beyond) contain anything of inherent value?
• Do we have an ethical obligation to limit our activities on space entities such as asteroids, comets, moons, or planets? Or are they there for us to research and exploit? Are we ethically permitted to take resources from the moon or other planets for use on earth? Should we preserve pristine space environments?
• If we discover extraterrestrial life, including microbial, would it deserve our moral consideration? For what reasons? To what extent?
• If long duration space flight becomes technologically feasible, would it be justifiable to send humans into space for years or decades? What are the risks involved?
• If we discover that another planet, e.g. Mars, would be habitable if we drastically altered the landscape, also known as terraforming, are we justified in doing so?
• What challenges would space colonies face both in terms of physical survival but also in terms of psychological hardships?

Questions about current practices raise practical questions demanding more immediate answers:

• Is the current budget allocated for space exploration justifiable when there are injustices on earth that need urgent attention?
• How can we clean up the vast amount of space junk in orbit? How can we avoid future missions adding to this pollution?
• How can we further exploit satellites for earth observation to combat climate change, or to provide digital education to the world’s population?
• Does space belong to no one or to everyone? What are the legal ramifications of this answer?
• Is outer space akin to the American Wild West where prospectors can claim planetary resources on a first-come first-served basis? If not, which regulatory protocols do we need in place?
• How can we foster continued international collaboration in space?
• Is exploration a good in its own right, or is it only justifiable if it yields actionable research?
• Are we justified in asking astronauts to engage in such high-risk activity which literally changes their bodies in terms of fluid distribution, loss of body mass, and sleeplessness?  

Addressing these questions

In order to answer ethical questions, we ordinarily appeal to the three most prominent ethical theories of the Western tradition: consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics. Space ethics is no different—at least in terms of where we should begin. It is sensible to begin addressing the above questions by contemplating how they each fit into our available ethical frameworks. What are the risks and consequences of further space exploration? Are there inviolable values that can direct and constrain our actions on space? Is the development and cultivation of virtuous characteristics that prepare us to act in an ethical way the best approach when the moral landscape is uncertain and unpredictable?

These traditional theories are not the only ethical frameworks we can appeal to. Perhaps the ethics of care, principlism, prima facie duties, theories of justice, and an ethic of responsibility can aid our inquiry as well.

Owing to the radically unforeseeable aspects of continued human activity in space, we must also ask the meta-ethical question of whether these normative theories and frameworks, which were constructed to guide human action and interaction on earth, are relevant to the space environment. Is future human activity in space relevantly similar to that of human activity on earth such that our ethical theories and frameworks are still valid for our intentions and actions there? Or are our values and norms thoroughly terrestrial requiring a new space ethics?

We want to work with you

Space exploration has long fascinated the mind and stimulated human imagination in vast ways. Yet it also elicits critical questions concerning meta-ethics, bioethics, environmental ethics, research ethics, business ethics, moral standing, as well as critical political and policy issues relevant to technology designers, engineers, policy makers, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, and moral and political philosophers. Space ethics is undoubtedly the next frontier of ethical inquiry.

For more information, please contact:

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ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer)

Acerca de NASA

ACME (Advanced Combustion via Microgravity Experiments)

AcrimSat (Active Cavity Irradiance Monitor Satellite)

ACT (Atmospheric Carbon and Transport) – America

ACTE (Adaptive Compliant Trailing Edge)

Active Galaxies

ADEOS (Advanced Earth Observing Satellite) / MIDORI

Advanced Air Transport Technology

Advanced Air Vehicles Program

Advanced Composites

Advanced Studies & Concepts (PACE)

Advanced Spacesuits

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AIM (Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere)

Air Mobility Pathfinders Project

Air Traffic Control Labs

Airborne Science

AirMOSS (Airborne Microwave Observatory of Subcanopy and Subsurface)

AJAX (Alpha Jet Atmospheric eXperiment)

Akatsuki/Venus Climate Orbiter mission (PLANET-C)

Alan B. Shepard Jr.

Alan G. Poindexter

Alan L. Bean

Albert Sacco Jr.

Alfred M. Worden

Analog Missions

Andre Douglas

Andrew J. Feustel

Andrew M. Allen

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Animal Biology

Anna L. Fisher

Anne C. McClain

Antarctic Stations

Antarctic Station NSF

Anthony W. England

APH (Advanced Plant Habitat)

Apollo Program

Apollo 15 Subsatellite

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Applied Sciences Program

Apply for Funding

ARCTAS (Arctic Research of the Composition of the Troposphere from Aircraft and Satellites)

ARIEL (Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey)

Armstrong Flight Research Center

Armstrong Test Facility (Plum Brook)

Artemis Campaign Development Division

ASCA (Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics)

Asteroid Initiative

Asian American and Native Hawaiian Pacific Islander Heritage

ASTHROS (Astrophysics Stratospheric Telescope for High Spectral Resolution Observations at Submillimeter-wavelengths)

Astro Observatory 1

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Astrobiology

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Astrophysics Division

Astrophysics Explorers Program

Astrophysics Pioneers

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ATLAS (Atmospheric Laboratory of Applications and Science)

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ATS (Applications Technology Satellite Program )

ATTREX (Airborne Tropical TRopopause Experiment)

Awarded Abstracts

AWE (Atmospheric Waves Experiment)

B-377 Super Guppy

Barbara R. Morgan

BARREL (Balloon Array for Radiation-belt Relativistic Electron Losses)

Barry E. Wilmore

BBXRT (Broad Band X-ray Telescope)

BECCAL (Bose Einstein Condensates & Cold Atoms Lab)

Become an Astronaut

Benefits Back on Earth

Benefits to Humanity

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Benjamin Alvin Drew

BepiColombo

Bernard A. Harris Jr.

Bill Nelson

Binary Stars

Biological Experiment-01 (BioExpt-01)

BION / Biocosmos

Black History Month

Bonnie J. Dunbar

Brand Guidelines Center

Brent W. Jett

Brewster H. Shaw Jr.

Brian Duffy

Brian T. O’Leary

BRIC (Biological Research in Canisters)

Brown Dwarfs

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Budget & Annual Reports

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Caldwell Catalog

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Callie First Graphic Novel

Candidate Astronauts

Carbon Cycle

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Carlos I. Noriega

Carruthers Geocorona Observatory (GLIDE)

CARVE (Carbon in Arctic Reservoirs Vulnerability Experiment)

Cassini-Huygens

Catherine G. Coleman

CATS (Cloud-Aerosol Transport System)

Cell and Molecular Biology

Centennial Challenges

Centennial Challenges News

Center Innovation Fund Center of Excellence for Collaborative Innovation (CoECI)

CERES (Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System)

CeREs (Compact Radiation Belt Explorer)

Ceres Dwarf Planet

Cessna C206

CGRO (Compton Gamma Ray Observatory)

CHAMP (Challenging Mini-satellite Payload)

Chandra X-ray Observatory

Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-3

Charles A. Bassett II

Charles Camarda

Charles Conrad Jr.

Charles D. Gemar

Charles D. Walker

Charles E. Brady Jr.

Charles F. Bolden Jr.

Charles G. Fullerton

Charles J. Precourt

Charles Lacy Veach

Charles M. Duke Jr.

Charles O. Hobaugh

Chiaki Mukai

CHIPS (Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer)

Christina Birch

Christina H. Koch

Christopher J. Ferguson

Christopher J. Loria

Christopher J. Cassidy

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Ciencia e Investigación

CINDI (Coupled Ion Neutral Dynamic Investigation)

CIPHER (Complement of Integrated Protocols for Human Exploration Research)

Cirrus SR-22

Clayton C. Anderson

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Climate Science

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Columbia 300

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Complex Fluids

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Constellations

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Convergent Aeronautics Solutions

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Coronal Mass Ejections

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Cosmic Origins Program

Courses & Curriculums for Professionals

COVID-19 Response

Crab Nebula

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Cross Program Integration

CRRES (Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite)

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CubeSat Launch Initiative

CubeSat Or Microsat Probabilistic and Analogies Cost Tool (COMPACT)

CuPID (Cusp Plasma Imaging Detector)

Curiosity (Rover)

Curtis L. Brown Jr.

CUSP (CubeSat Mission to Study Solar Particles)

Cycles & Focus Areas

CYGNSS (Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System)

Dale A. Gardner

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Dark Matter & Dark Energy

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Data Resources

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DAVINCI (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging)

Deep Impact / EPOXI (Extrasolar Planet Observation and Deep Impact Extended Investigation)

Deep Space 1

Deep Space Atomic Clock

Deep Space Network (DSN)

Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC)

Deniz Burnham

Desert RATS (Research and Technology Studies)

Developmental, Reproductive and Evolutionary Biology

(DECLIC) DEvice for the study of Critical LIquids and Crystallization

Didymos & Dimorphos

Diffuse X-Ray Spectrometer (DXS)

DISCOVER AQ (Deriving Information on Surface Conditions from COlumn and VERtically Resolved Observations Relevant to Air Quality)

Discovery Program

Diversity at NASA

Dominic A. Antonelli

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Don L. Lind

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Donn F. Eisele

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Douglas G. Hurley

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Draper SERIES-2

DSCOVR (Deep Space Climate Observatory)

Duane G. Carey

Duane Graveline

Dust Storms

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Early Career Faculty

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Earth Observing-1 (EO-1)

Earth Science Data Systems Program

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Earthquakes

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Earth’s Moon

Earth’s Vital Signs

Ecostress (ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station)

Edgar D. Mitchell

Edward G. Gibson

Edward G. Givens Jr.

Edward H. White II

Edward M. Fincke

Edward T. Lu

Eileen M. Collins

ELaNa (Educational Launch of Nanosatellites)

Electrified Powertrain Flight Demo

ElectroHydroDynamic (EHD) Test Chamber

Electromagnetic Spectrum

ELFIN (Electron Losses & Fields Investigation)

Ellen Ochoa

Ellen S. Baker

Ellington Field

Elliot M. See Jr.

Elliptical Galaxies

Ellison S. Onizuka

Emergency & Pandemic Response

EMIT (Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation)

Environmental Management Division (EMD)

Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA)

ERBS (Earth Radiation Budget Satellite)

Eric A. Boe

EscaPADE (Escape and Plasma Acceleration and Dynamics Explorers)

Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR)

Eta Aquarids

E-TBEx (Enhanced Tandem Beacon Experiment)

Eugene A. Cernan

Eugene H. Trinh

Europa Clipper

EUVE (Extreme-Ultraviolet Explorer)

Everyday Extraordinary Stories

Exoplanet Discoveries

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Exoplanet Travel Bureau

Expedition 1

Expedition 2

Expedition 3

Expedition 4

Expedition 5

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Expedition 7

Expedition 8

Expedition 9

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Expedition 12

Expedition 13

Expedition 14

Expedition 15

Expedition 16

Expedition 17

Expedition 18

Expedition 19

Expedition 20

Expedition 21

Expedition 22

Expedition 23

Expedition 24

Expedition 25

Expedition 26

Expedition 27

Expedition 28

Expedition 29

Expedition 30

Expedition 31

Expedition 32

Expedition 33

Expedition 34

Expedition 35

Expedition 36

Expedition 37

Expedition 38

Expedition 39

Expedition 40

Expedition 41

Expedition 42

Expedition 43

Expedition 44

Expedition 45

Expedition 46

Expedition 47

Expedition 48

Expedition 49

Expedition 50

Expedition 51

Expedition 52

Expedition 53

Expedition 54

Expedition 55

Expedition 56

Expedition 57

Expedition 58

Expedition 59

Expedition 60

Expedition 61

Expedition 62

Expedition 63

Expedition 65

Expedition 66

Expedition 67

Expedition 68

Expedition 69

Expedition 70

Expeditions

Exploration Capabilities Division

EFT 1 (Exploration Flight Test 1)

Exploration Ground Systems

Exploration Operations Division

Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate

Explorer 33

Explorer 35

Explorer 49

Explorers Program

Extraterrestrial Life

Extreme Ultraviolet High-Throughput Spectroscopic Telescope (EUVST) Epsilon

Extreme Weather Events

EZIE (Electrojet Zeeman Imaging Explorer)

F. Drew Gaffney

FAST (Fast Auroral SnapshoT Explorer)

FASTSat (Fast, Affordable, Science and Technology Satellite)

FBCE (Flow Boiling and Condensation Experiment)

Featured Careers

Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope

Fernando Caldeiro

Film & Documentary Guidelines

Find Your Place

First Woman Graphic Novel

Fission Surface Power (FSP)

FLARE (Flammability Limits At Reduced-g Experiment)

Flight Demos Capabilities

Flight Opportunities Program

Flight Program

Flight Providers

Flight Simulation

Fluid Physics

For Colleges & Universities

Former Astronauts

Francis R. Scobee

Franco Malerba

Frank Borman

Frank L. Culbertson Jr.

Frank Rubio

Franklin R. Chang-Díaz

Fred W. Haise Jr.

Fred W. Leslie

Frederick D. Gregory

Frederick H. Hauck

Frederick W. Sturckow

Fruit Fly Lab (FFL)

Fundamental Physics

FUSE (Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer)

FutureFlight Central

G. David Low

G. Reid Wiseman

Galaxies, Stars, & Black Holes Research

Galaxy of Horrors

GALEX (Galaxy Evolution Explorer)

Galileo Jupiter Atmospheric Probe

Game Changing Development Program

Gamma-Ray Bursts

Garrett E. Reisman

Gary E. Payton

Gas Giant Exoplanets

Gateway Program

Gateway Space Station

GEDI (Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation)

Gemini VIII

GRIP (Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes)

Gente de la NASA

General George D. Nelson

George D. Zamka

Geosat (U.S. Navy GEOdetic SATellite)

Geospace Dynamics Constellation (GDC)

Gerald Carr

Glenn Research Center

GLIMR (Geosynchronous Littoral Imaging and Monitoring Radiometer)

Global Hawk

Goddard Institute for Space Studies

Goddard Space Flight Center

GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite)

GOLD (Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk)

GPIM (Green Propellant Infusion Mission)

GPM (Global Precipitation Global Precipitation Measurement)

GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment)

GRACE-FO (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-on)

Grades 5 – 8

Grades 5 – 8 for Educators

Grades 9 – 12

Grades 9-12 for Educators

Grades K – 4

Grades K – 4 for Educators

GRAIL (Gravity Recovery And Interior Laboratory)

Grants & Opportunities

Gravity Probe B (GP-B)

Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Gasses

Gregory C. Johnson

Gregory E. Chamitoff

Gregory H. Johnson

Gregory J. Harbaugh

Gregory Jarvis

Gregory T. Linteris

Griffin (lander)

Ground Facilities for ISS

Guion S. Bluford Jr.

Gulfstream C-20A

Gulfstream G-III

Gulfstream G-V

Gulfstream IV

Guy S. Gardner

HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy)

Halley’s Comet

Harrison H. Schmitt

Heidemarie M. Stefanyshyn-Piper

Heliophysics

Heliophysics Division

Heliophysics Research Program

Heliosphere

Helix Nebula

Henry W. Hartsfield Jr.

HERA (Human Exploration Research Analog)

HERMES (Heliophysics Environmental and Radiation Measurement Experiment Suite)

Herschel Space Observatory

HETE-1 (High Energy Transient Explorer 1)

HETE-2 (High Energy Transient Explorer 2)

High-Tech Computing

Hinode (Solar B)

Hi-Rate Composite Aircraft Manufacturing

Hispanic Heritage Month

Hiten / Hagomoro

Hitomi (ASTRO-H)

Horsehead Nebula

HS3 Hurricane Mission (Hurricane and Severe Storm Sentinel)

Human Dimensions

Human Health and Performance

Human Landing System Program

Human Research Program

Human Spaceflight Capabilities Division

Hybrid Thermally Efficient Core

Hypersonic Technology

HyspIRI (Hyperspectral Infrared Imager)

IBEX (Interstellar Boundary Explorer)

ICESat (Ice, Clouds and Land Elevation Satellite)

ICESat-2 (Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite-2)

ICON (Ionospheric Connection Explorer)

IEH-3 (International Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker)

IMAGE (Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration)

Images & Media Guidelines

IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe)

IMP-8 (Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 8)

In-flight Education Downlinks

INCUS (Investigation of Convective Updrafts)

Infrared Space Observatory (ISO)

Ingenuity (Helicopter)

InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport)

Institutional Funding

Integrated Aviation Systems Program

International Gamma-ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL)

International Space Station (ISS)

International Space Station Division

ISRU (In-Situ Resource Utilization)

IRIS (Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph)

Irregular Galaxies

ISEE-3/ICE (International Sun-Earth Explorer-3 / International Cometary Explorer)

ISERV (ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System)

ISS-RapidScat (Rapid Scatterometer)

ISS Research

IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer)

IXPE (Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer)

Jack D. Fischer

Jack Hathaway

Jack R. Lousma

James A. Lovell Jr.

James A. McDivitt

James A. Pawelczyk

James B. Irwin

James C. Adamson

James D. A. Van Hoften

James D. Halsell Jr.

James D. Wetherbee

James F. Buchli

James F. Reilly

James H. Newman

James M. Kelly

James P. Bagian

James P. Dutton

James S. Voss

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

Janet L. Kavandi

Janice E. Voss

Jasmin Moghbeli

Jason-CS (Continuity of Service) / Sentinel-6

Jay Clark Buckey

Jeanette J. Epps

Jean-Jacques Favier

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Jeffrey N. Williams

Jeffrey S. Ashby

Jerry L. Ross

Jerry M. Linenger

Jessica U. Meir

Jessica Watkins

Jessica Wittner

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Joan E. Higginbotham

Joe F. Edwards Jr.

Joe H. Engle

John A. Llewellyn

John B. Herrington

John D. Olivas

John E. Blaha

John H. Casper

John H. Glenn Jr.

John L. Phillips

John L. Swigert Jr.

John M. Fabian

John M. Grunsfeld

John M. Lounge

John O. Creighton

John S. Bull

John W. Young

Johnson Flight Operations

Johnson Space Center

Johnson’s Mission Control Center

Joint Agency Satellite Division

Jon A. McBride

José M. Hernández

Joseph M. Acaba

Joseph P. Allen

Joseph P. Kerwin

Joseph R. Tanner

Josh A. Cassada

JPSS (Joint Polar Satellite System)

Judith A. Resnik

JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer)

Jupiter Moons

JWST (James Webb Space Telescope)

K. Megan McArthur

Kalpana Chawla

Karen L. Nyberg

Karl G. Henize

Karol J. Bobko

Katherine Johnson IV & V Facility

Kathleen Rubins

Kathryn C. Thornton

Kathryn D. Sullivan

Kathryn P. Hire

Kayla Barron

Keck Interferometer (KI)

Kennedy Space Center

Kenneth D. Bowersox

Kenneth D. Cameron

Kenneth D. Cockrell

Kenneth S. Reightler Jr.

Kenneth T. Ham

Kent V. Rominger

Kepler / K2

Kevin A. Ford

Kevin P. Chilton

Kevin R. Kregel

Kjell N. Lindgren

Knowledge Inventory For Professionals

Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO)

L. Blaine Hammond Jr.

L. Gordon Cooper Jr.

La Tierra y calentamiento global

LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere Dust Environment Explorer)

LAGEOS (LAser GEOdynamics Satellite)

Landsat 8 / LDCM (Landsat Data Continuity Mission)

Langley Research Center

Laser Communications Relay

Launch Services Office

Launch Services Program

Laurel B. Clark

Lawrence J. Delucas

LBTI (Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer)

LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite)

Lee J. Archambault

Lee M. Morin

LEIA (Lunar Explorer Instrument for space biology Applications)

Leland D. Melvin

Lenticular Galaxies

Leonid K. Kadenyuk

Leonid MAC (Multi-instrument Aircraft Campaign)

Leroy Chiao

Lessons Learned for Professionals

LGBTQ Pride

Life at NASA

LIS (Lightning Imaging Sensor)

Linda M. Godwin

LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna)

Lisa M. Nowak

Lodewijk Van Den Berg

LOFTID (Low-Earth Orbit Flight Test of an Inflatable Decelerator)

Logistics Management Division (LMD)

Logo & Media Usage

Loral O’Hara

Loren J. Shriver

Loren W. Acton

Low Boom Flight Demonstrator

Low-Density Supersonic Decelerator

Low-Earth Orbit Economy

LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter)

LSII Consortium

Luke Delany

LunaH-Map (Lunar Polar Hydrogen Mapper)

Lunar Discovery & Exploration Program

Lunar Eclipses

Lunar Lander Simulation

Lunar Orbiter

Lunar Orbiter 1

Lunar Orbiter 2

Lunar Orbiter 3

Lunar Orbiter 4

Lunar Orbiter 5

Lunar Prospector

Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium

Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative

Lunar Surface Technology Research

Lunar Trailblazer

M. Scott Carpenter

Mae C. Jemison

Magnetosphere

MAIA (Multi-Angle Imager for Aerosols)

Management Astronauts

Manley Lanier Carter Jr.

Manufacturing, Materials, 3-D Printing

MarCO (Mars Cube One)

Marcos Berrios

Margaret Rhea Seddon

Mario Runco Jr.

Mark C. Lee

Mark E. Kelly

Mark L. Polansky

Mark N. Brown

Mark T. Vande Hei

Mars Campaign Development Division

Mars Climate Orbiter

Mars Exploration Program

Mars Exploration Rovers (MER)

Mars Express

Mars Global Surveyor (MGS)

Mars Observer

Mars Odyssey

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)

Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE)

Mars Pathfinder

Mars Phoenix

Mars Polar Lander / Deep Space 2

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

Mars Sample Return (MSR)

Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)

Marsha Ivins

Marshall Space Flight Center

Marshall Test Facility and Support Infrastructure

Martian Moon Exploration (MMX)

Martin J. Fettman

Mary E. Weber

Mary L. Cleave

Materials Science

Materials Science Research Rack (MSRR)

Matthew Dominick

MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN)

Megan McArthur

Merchandise Approvals

MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging)

Messier Catalog

Meteor Showers

Meteors & Meteorites

MetOp (Meteorological Operational satellite)

Michael A. Baker

Michael Collins

Michael Fincke

Michael E. Fossum

Michael E. Lopez-Alegria

Michael J. Bloomfield

Michael J. Foreman

Michael J. Massimino

Michael J. McCulley

Michael J. Smith

Michael L. Coats

Michael L. Gernhardt

Michael P. Anderson

Michael R. Barratt

Michael R. Clifford

Michael S. Hopkins

Michael T. Good

Michel F. Curtis

Michoud Assembly Facility

Microbial Tracking (MT)

Microbiology

Millie Hughes-Fulford

Mini-RF Instrument

MinXSS (Miniature X-ray Solar Spectrometer)

Mission Equity

Mission Support Directorate

MMS (Magnetospheric Multiscale)

Modeling, Analysis and Prediction (MAP) Program

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

Modern Figures

Modular Optoelectric Multispectral Scanner (MOMS)

MOS (Marine Observation Satellite)

MSI Exchange

MSL Instrumentation

Multi-Spectral Fluorescence Imaging System (Spectrum)

MUSE (Multi-slit Solar Explorer)

Museum Alliance

N. Jan Davis

NAAMES (North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study)

Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

Nancy J. Currie-Gregg

NASA Advisory Council (NAC)

NASA Aeronautics Committee

NASA Centers & Facilities

NASA Directorates

NASA Educator Professional Development Center

NASA en español

NASA Engineering and Safety Center

NASA Engineering & Safety Center Academy

NASA Headquarters

NASA History

NASA History Office

NASA Home & City

NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) Program

NASA iTech Program

NASA Knowledge Program

NASA Open Source Software

NASA Safety Center

NASA Safety Center Professional Development

NASA Shared Services Center

NASA Social Media Contacts

NASA Socials Program

NASA STEM Projects

NASA Worldwind

National Aeronautics Research Institute

National Space Council Users’ Advisory Group (NSpC UAG)

Native American Heritage Month

Natural Disasters

NEA Scout (Near Earth Asteroid Scout)

NEAR Shoemaker

Near Space Network

Near-Earth Object (NEO)

Nebulae Game

NEEMO (NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations)

Neil A. Armstrong

Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory

Neil W. Woodward III

NEK/SIRIUS (Nezemnyy Eksperimental’nyy Kompleks/Scientific International Research In a Unique terrestrial Station)

NEO Surveyor (Near-Earth Object Surveyor Space Telescope)

Neptune Moons

Neptune-Like Exoplanets

Neutral Buoyancy Lab

Neutron Stars

New Frontiers Program

New Horizons

NExIS (NASA’s Exploration & In-space Services)

Next Gen STEM

NIAC Studies

NIAC Symposium

NICER (Neutron star Interior Composition Explorer)

Nicholas J. M. Patrick

Nichole Ayers

Nicole A. Mann

Nicole P. Stott

Night Sky Network

NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar)

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

NOAA-20 (JPSS-1)

NOAA-21 (JPSS-2)

NOAA-N Prime

Norman E. Thagard

Northrop Grumman Commercial Resupply

Nova-C (Lander)

NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array)

O / OREOS (Organism / Organic Exposure to Orbital Stresses)

Ocean Surface Topography Mission (OSTM) / Jason-2

Ocean Worlds

Oceanography

Oceans Melting Greenland (OMG)

OCO (Orbiting Carbon Observatory)

OCO-2 (Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2)

OCO-3 (Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3)

Office of Diversity and Equal Opportunity (ODEO)

Office of International and Interagency Relations (OIIR)

Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs (OLIA)

Office of Small Business Programs (OSBP)

Office of Strategic Infrastructure (OSI)

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Office of the Chief Financial Officer (OCFO)

Office of the Chief Health and Medical Officer (OCHMO)

Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO)

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Office of the General Counsel (OGC)

One Year Crew

Opportunities For Educators to Get Involved

Opportunities For International Participants to Get Involved

Opportunities For Researchers to Get Involved

Opportunities For Students to Get Involved

Opportunities For U.S. Citizens to Get Involved

Opportunities to Contribute to NASA Missions & Get Involved

Opportunity (Rover)

ORACLES (ObseRvations of Aerosols above CLouds and their IntEractionS)

Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO)

ORFEUS (Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer)-SPAS II

Origin & Evolution of the Universe

Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

Orion Nebula

Orion Spacecraft

Orionids OSAM-1 (On-Orbit Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing 1)

OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security-Regolith Explorer)

Outer Planets & Ocean Worlds Program

Outside the Classroom

Owen K. Garriott

Ozone Layer

Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS)

PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, Ocean Ecosystem)

Pamela A. Melroy

Parker Solar Probe (PSP)

Partner Astronauts

Partner with NASA STEM

Partner With Us

Patricia C. Robertson

Patrick G. Forrester

Paul D. Scully-Power

Paul J. Weitz

Paul S. Lockhart

Paul W. Richards

Peggy A. Whitson

Peregrine Lunar Lander

Perseverance (Rover)

Peter J. K. Wisoff

PFMI (Pore Formation and Mobility Investigation)

Philae (Lander)

Philip K. Chapman

Physical Sciences

Physical Sciences Program

PI Resources

Pierre J. Thuot

Piers J. Sellers

Pioneer 0 / Able 1

Pioneer 1 / Able 2

Pioneer P-3 / Able 4B

Pioneer P-30 / Able 5A

Pioneer P-31 / Able 5B

Pioneer Venus

Pioneer Venus 1

Pioneer Venus 2

Planetary Defense

Planetary Defense Coordination Office

Planetary Environments & Atmospheres

Planetary Geosciences & Geophysics

Planetary Science Division

Planetary Transits

Plant Biology

Plasma Kristall 4 (PK-4)

Plume-Surface Interaction (PSI) Project

Pluto Moons

Popular History

Post Doc Program

Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA)

PREFIRE (Polar Radiant Energy in the Far-InfraRed Experiment)

PRESat (PharmaSat Risk Evaluation Satellite)

Private Astronaut Missions

Prizes, Challenges & Crowdsourcing

Prizes, Challenges & Crowdsourcing News

Project Management & Systems Engineering

Project Mercury

Proxima Centauri b

Psyche Asteroid

Psyche Mission

PUNCH (Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere)

Q-PACE (CubeSat Particle Aggregation and Collision Experiment)

Quadrantids

Quesst (X-59)

Quesst: The Flights

Quesst: The Mission

Quesst: The Science

Quesst: The Team

Quesst: The Vehicle

QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer)

RADARSAT-1 (Radar Satellite 1)

Randolph J. Bresnik

Redstone 3 (Freedom 7)

Redstone 4 (Liberty Bell 7)

Research & Analytics Program

Research Archive

Research Opportunities in Space and Earth Sciences (ROSES)

Revolutionary Vertical Lift Technology

Rex J. Walheim

RHESSI (Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager)

Richard A. Mastracchio

Richard A. Searfoss

Richard F. Gordon Jr.

Richard H. Truly

Richard J. Hieb

Richard M. Linnehan

Richard M. Mullane

Richard N. Richards

Richard O. Covey

Richard R. Arnold

Rick D. Husband

Rings of Jupiter

Rings of Neptune

Rings of Saturn

Ring-Sheared Drop (RSD)

RLL (Robotic Lunar Lander)

Robert A. R. Parker

Robert C. Springer

Robert D. Cabana

Robert F. Overmyer

Robert J. Cenker

Robert L. Behnken

Robert L. Crippen

Robert L. Curbeam Jr.

Robert L. Gibson

Robert L. Satcher Jr.

Robert L. Stewart

Robert Shane Kimbrough

Robotic Lunar Exploration Program

Rodent Research (RR)

Roger B. Chaffee

Roger K. Crouch

Ronald A. Parise

Ronald E. Evans

Ronald E. McNair

Ronald J. Garan Jr.

Ronald J. Grabe

Ronald M. Sega

Rosalind Franklin (Rover)

ROSAT (ROentgen SATellite)

Roy D. Bridges Jr.

Russell L. Schweickart

RXTE (Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer)

S. Christa McAuliffe

S. David Griggs

SAC-B (Satélite de Aplicaciones Científicas-B)

SAGE III (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment)

SAGE-III Meteor-3M (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III on Meteor-3M)

Sally K. Ride

SAMPEX (Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer)

Samuel T. Durrance

Sandra H. Magnus

Saturn Moons

SBIR / STTR

Science & Research

Science Activation

Science Leadership

Science Mission Directorate

Science of Space Exploration

Science Solicitations

Science-enabling Technology

Scientific Balloons

Scott D. Altman

Scott D. Tingle

Scott E. Parazynski

Scott J. Horowitz

Scott J. Kelly

SEAC4RS (Studies of Emissions, Atmospheric Composition, Clouds and Climate Coupling by Regional Surveys)

SeaWiFS (Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor)

Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Satellite

Sentinel-6B

Serena M. Auñón-Chancellor

Seres Humanos en el spacio

SERVIR (Regional Visualization and Monitoring System)

Seyfert Galaxies

Shannon W. Lucid

Shannon Walker

Sherwood C. Spring

Shoemaker-Levy 9

Shuttle-Mir

Sidney M. Gutierrez

Sierra UAS #2

SIR-C/X-SAR (Shuttle Imaging Radar-C / X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar)

Sistema solar

Skywatching Tips

Small Bodies of the Solar System

Small Business Innovation Research / Small Business

Small Satellite Missions

Small Spacecraft Technology Program

SmallSats Program

SMAP (Soil Moisture Active Passive)

SMART-1 (Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology 1)

SNOE (Student Nitric Oxide Explorer)

SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy) / 747-SP

Soft Matter Dynamics (SMD) / FOAM

Software to License

SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory)

Solar Cruiser

Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)

Solar Eclipses

Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP)

Solar Flares

Solar Orbiter

Solar Sail – Beyond Plum Brook

Solar System Ambassadors

Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute

Solar Terrestrial Probes Program

Solid Fuel Ignition and Extinction (SoFIE)

Solidification Using a Baffle in Sealed Ampoules (SUBSA)

SORCE (Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment)

SORTIE (Scintillation Observations & Response of the Ionosphere to Electrodynamics)

Sounding Rockets

Sounding Rockets Program

Sounds & Ringtones

Southern Delta Aquariids

Space Biology

Space Biology Program

Space Biosciences at Ames

Space Communications & Navigation Program (SCaN)

Space Communications Technology

Space Environment Testbeds (SET-1)

Space Environments Testing Management Office (SETMO)

Space Flight Awareness (SFA)

Space Grant

SLS (Space Launch System)

Space Life & Physical Sciences Research & Applications Division

Space Nuclear Propulsion (SNP)

Space Operations Directorate Resource Management Office

Space Operations Mission Directorate

Space Samples for Your Classroom

Space Shuttle

Space Station Research Opportunities

Space Tech Graduate Research

Space Technology 5

Space Technology 6

Space Technology 7 / Disturbance Reduction System (DRS)

Space Technology Grants

Space Technology Mission Directorate

Space Technology Research Grants

Space Vehicle Mockup Facility

Space Weather

SpaceX Commercial Resupply

Spectrum Management

SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe and Ices Explorer)

Spiral Galaxies

Spirit (Rover)

Spitzer Space Telescope

Spot the International Space Station

SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission)

Stanley G. Love

Stardust / Stardust NExT

Stennis Space Center

Stennis Test Facility and Support Infrastructure

Stephanie D. Wilson

Stephen D. Thorne

Stephen G. Bowen

Stephen K. Robinson

Stephen N. Frick

Stephen S. Oswald

STEREO (Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory)

Steven A. Hawley

Steven L. Smith

Steven R. Nagel

Steven R. Swanson

Steven W. Lindsey

Story Musgrave

Strange New Worlds

Strategic Integration and Management Division

Strategic Partnerships Guidelines

Stratosphere

Stuart A. Roosa

Studying Exoplanets

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS)

Sunita L. Williams

SunRISE (Sun Radio Interferometer Space Experiment)

Suomi NPP (Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership)

Super King Air

Super-Earth Exoplanets

Surveyor Model 1

Surveyor Model 2

Surveyor Model SD-1

Susan J. Helms

Susan L. Kilrain

Sustainability at Kennedy Space Center

Sustainable Flight Demonstrator

Sustainable Flight National Partnership

SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography)

Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS)

System-Wide Safety

T-38 Astronaut Trainer

Tamara E. Jernigan

Taylor Wang

Tech Demo Missions

Tech Dev Projects

Tech Portfolio

Technology Demonstration

Technology Demonstration Missions Program

Technology for Living in Space

Technology for Space Travel

Technology Highlights

Technology Research

Telerobotics

Terence T. Henricks

Terrence W. Wilcutt

Terrestrial Exoplanets

Terrestrial Planets

Terriers (Tomographic Experiment Using Radiative Recombinative Ionospheric EUV and Radio Sources)

Terry J. Hart

Terry W. Virts Jr.

TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite)

Tethered Satellite System (TSS)

The Future of Commercial Space

The Great Red Spot

The Habitable Zone

The Human Body in Space

The Milky Way

The North Star

The Search for Life

THEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions During Substorms)

THEMIS-ARTEMIS (Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions During Substorms – Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence and Electrodynamics of Moon’s Interaction with the Sun)

Theodore C. Freeman

Thermosphere

Thomas D. Akers

Thomas D. Jones

Thomas H. Marshburn

Thomas J. Hennen

Thomas K. Mattingly II

Thomas P. Stafford

TIMED (Thermospere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics Mission)

Timothy J. Creamer

Timothy L. Kopra

TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite Program)

TOMS-EP (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer – Earth Probe)

TOPEX / Poseidon (ocean TOPography EXperiment)

Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor – 1 (TSIS-1)

Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor – 2 (TSIS-2)

TRACE (Transition Region and Coronal Explorer)

Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO)

Tracking Aerosol Convection Interactions Experiment (TRACER)

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)

Tracy Caldwell Dyson

Transformational Tools

Technologies

Transformative Aeronautics Concepts Program

Trojan Asteroids

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)

TROPICS (Time-Resolved Observations of Precipitation Structure and Storm Intensity with a Constellation of Smallsats)

Troposphere

Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollution (TEMPO)

TWINS (Two Wide-Angle Imaging Neutral-Atom Spectrometers)

Twins Study

Tyler N. Hague

UAS in the NAS

UAS Traffic Management

Underway Recovery Test 10

Universe of Monsters

University Innovation

University Leadership Initiative

University Student Research Challenge

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS)

Uranus Moons

Urban Air Mobility Simulation

USGS (United States Geological Survey)

Valles Marineris

Van Allen Probes

Vance D. Brand

Vegetable Production System (VEGGIE)

Venus Express

VERITAS (Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography & Spectroscopy)

Vertical Motion Simulator

Victor J. Glover

VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover)

Virgil I. Grissom

Virtual Guest Program

Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS)

Voyager Program

Wallops Flight Facility

Walter Cunningham

Walter M. Schirra Jr.

Warren Hoburg

Water & Energy Cycle

Water on Earth

Weather and Atmospheric Dynamics

Wendy B. Lawrence

White Dwarfs

White Sands Test Facility

White Sands Test Facility and Support Infrastructure

Why Go To Space

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP)

William A. Anders

William A. Oefelein

William A. Pailes

William B. Lenoir

William C. McCool

William E. Thornton

William F. Fisher

William F. Readdy

William G. Gregory

William M. Shepherd

William R. Pogue

William S. McArthur Jr.

Wind Mission

Winston E. Scott

WIRE (Wide-Field Infrared Explorer)

WISE (Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer)

Women at NASA

Women’s History Month

Xelene Lunar Lander (XL-1)

xEVA & Human Surface Mobility

XMM-Newton (X-ray Multi-Mirror Newton)

XRISM (X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission)

Yvonne Darlene Cagle

Zena Cardman

Zero Boil-Off Tank (ZBOT-NC)