self esteem essay introduction

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is Self-Esteem?

Your Sense of Your Personal Worth or Value

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

Theories of Self-Esteem

Healthy self-esteem, low self-esteem, excessive self-esteem.

• How to Improve

Self-esteem is your subjective sense of overall personal worth or value. Similar to self-respect, it describes your level of confidence in your abilities and attributes.

Having healthy self-esteem can influence your motivation, your mental well-being, and your overall quality of life. However, having self-esteem that is either too high or too low can be problematic. Better understanding what your unique level of self-esteem is can help you strike a balance that is just right for you.

Key elements of self-esteem include:

• Self-confidence
• Feelings of security
• Sense of belonging
• Feeling of competence

Other terms often used interchangeably with self-esteem include self-worth, self-regard, and self-respect.

Self-esteem tends to be lowest in childhood and increases during adolescence, as well as adulthood, eventually reaching a fairly stable and enduring level. This makes self-esteem similar to the stability of personality traits over time.

Why Self-Esteem Is Important

Self-esteem impacts your decision-making process, your relationships, your emotional health, and your overall well-being. It also influences motivation , as people with a healthy, positive view of themselves understand their potential and may feel inspired to take on new challenges.

Four key characteristics of healthy self-esteem are:

• A firm understanding of one's skills
• The ability to maintain healthy relationships with others as a result of having a healthy relationship with oneself
• Realistic and appropriate personal expectations
• An understanding of one's needs and the ability to express those needs

People with low self-esteem tend to feel less sure of their abilities and may doubt their decision-making process. They may not feel motivated to try novel things because they don’t believe they can reach their goals. Those with low self-esteem may have issues with relationships and expressing their needs. They may also experience low levels of confidence and feel unlovable and unworthy.

People with overly high self-esteem may overestimate their skills and may feel entitled to succeed, even without the abilities to back up their belief in themselves. They may struggle with relationship issues and block themselves from self-improvement because they are so fixated on seeing themselves as perfect .

Click Play to Learn More About Self-Esteem

This video has been medically reviewed by Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS .

Many theorists have written about the dynamics involved in the development of self-esteem. The concept of self-esteem plays an important role in psychologist Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs , which depicts esteem as one of the basic human motivations.

Maslow suggested that individuals need both appreciation from other people and inner self-respect to build esteem. Both of these needs must be fulfilled in order for an individual to grow as a person and reach self-actualization .

It is important to note that self-esteem is a concept distinct from self-efficacy , which involves how well you believe you'll handle future actions, performance, or abilities.

Factors That Affect Self-Esteem

There are many factors that can influence self-esteem. Your self-esteem may be impacted by:

• Physical abilities
• Socioeconomic status
• Thought patterns

Racism and discrimination have also been shown to have negative effects on self-esteem. Additionally, genetic factors that help shape a person's personality can play a role, but life experiences are thought to be the most important factor.

It is often our experiences that form the basis for overall self-esteem. For example, low self-esteem might be caused by overly critical or negative assessments from family and friends. Those who experience what Carl Rogers referred to as unconditional positive regard will be more likely to have healthy self-esteem.

There are some simple ways to tell if you have healthy self-esteem. You probably have healthy self-esteem if you:

• Avoid dwelling on past negative experiences
• Believe you are equal to everyone else, no better and no worse
• Express your needs
• Feel confident
• Have a positive outlook on life
• Say no when you want to
• See your overall strengths and weaknesses and accept them

Having healthy self-esteem can help motivate you to reach your goals, because you are able to navigate life knowing that you are capable of accomplishing what you set your mind to. Additionally, when you have healthy self-esteem, you are able to set appropriate boundaries in relationships and maintain a healthy relationship with yourself and others.

Low self-esteem may manifest in a variety of ways. If you have low self-esteem:

• You may believe that others are better than you.
• You may find expressing your needs difficult.
• You may focus on your weaknesses.
• You may frequently experience fear, self-doubt, and worry.
• You may have a negative outlook on life and feel a lack of control.
• You may have an intense fear of failure.
• You may have trouble accepting positive feedback.
• You may have trouble saying no and setting boundaries.
• You may put other people's needs before your own.
• You may struggle with confidence .

Low self-esteem has the potential to lead to a variety of mental health disorders, including anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. You may also find it difficult to pursue your goals and maintain healthy relationships. Having low self-esteem can seriously impact your quality of life and increases your risk for experiencing suicidal thoughts.

If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the  National Suicide Prevention Lifeline  at  988 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

Overly high self-esteem is often mislabeled as narcissism , however there are some distinct traits that differentiate these terms. Individuals with narcissistic traits may appear to have high self-esteem, but their self-esteem may be high or low and is unstable, constantly shifting depending on the given situation. Those with excessive self-esteem:

• May be preoccupied with being perfect
• May focus on always being right
• May believe they cannot fail
• May believe they are more skilled or better than others
• May express grandiose ideas
• May grossly overestimate their skills and abilities

When self-esteem is too high, it can result in relationship problems, difficulty with social situations, and an inability to accept criticism.

How to Improve Self-Esteem

Fortunately, there are steps that you can take to address problems with your perceptions of yourself and faith in your abilities. How do you build self-esteem? Some actions that you can take to help improve your self-esteem include:

• Become more aware of negative thoughts . Learn to identify the distorted thoughts that are impacting your self-worth.
• Challenge negative thinking patterns . When you find yourself engaging in negative thinking, try countering those thoughts with more realistic and/or positive ones. 
• Use positive self-talk . Practice reciting positive affirmations to yourself.
• Practice self-compassion . Practice forgiving yourself for past mistakes and move forward by accepting all parts of yourself.

Low self-esteem can contribute to or be a symptom of mental health disorders, including anxiety and depression . Consider speaking with a doctor or therapist about available treatment options, which may include psychotherapy (in-person or online), medications, or a combination of both.

Get Help Now

We've tried, tested, and written unbiased reviews of the best online therapy programs including Talkspace, Betterhelp, and Regain. Find out which option is the best for you.

Though some of the causes of low self-esteem can’t be changed, such as genetic factors, early childhood experiences, and personality traits, there are steps you can take to feel more secure and valued. Remember that no one person is less worthy than the next. Keeping this in mind may help you maintain a healthy sense of self-esteem.

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares strategies that can help you learn to truly believe in yourself, featuring IT Cosmetics founder Jamie Kern Lima.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

Trzesniewski KH, Donnellan MB, Robins RW. Stability of self-esteem across the life span .  J Pers Soc Psychol . 2003;84(1):205-220.

von Soest T, Wagner J, Hansen T, Gerstorf D. Self-esteem across the second half of life: The role of socioeconomic status, physical health, social relationships, and personality factors .  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . 2018;114(6):945-958. doi:10.1037/pspp0000123

Johnson AJ. Examining associations between racism, internalized shame, and self-esteem among African Americans . Cogent Psychology . 2020;7(1):1757857. doi:10.1080/23311908.2020.1757857

Gabriel AS, Erickson RJ, Diefendorff JM, Krantz D. When does feeling in control benefit well-being? The boundary conditions of identity commitment and self-esteem.   Journal of Vocational Behavior . 2020;119:103415. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103415

Nguyen DT, Wright EP, Dedding C, Pham TT, Bunders J. Low self-esteem and its association with anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation in Vietnamese secondary school students: A cross-sectional study .  Front Psychiatry . 2019;10:698. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00698

Brummelman E, Thomaes S, Sedikides C. Separating narcissism from self-esteem.   Curr Dir Psychol Sci . 2016;25(1):8-13. doi:10.1177/0963721415619737

Cascio CN, O’Donnell MB, Tinney FJ, Lieberman MD, Taylor SE, Stretcher VJ, et. al. Self-affirmation activates brain systems associated with self-related processing and reward and is reinforced by future orientation . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience . 2016;11(4):621-629. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv136

Maslow AH. Motivation and Personality . 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row; 1987.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

What is Self-Esteem? A Psychologist Explains

“Believe in yourself.”

That is the message that we encounter constantly, in books, television shows, superhero comics, and common myths and legends.

We are told that we can accomplish anything if we believe in ourselves.

Of course, we know that to be untrue; we cannot accomplish anything in the world simply through belief—if that were true, a lot more children would be soaring in the skies above their garage roof instead of lugging around a cast for a few weeks!

However, we know that believing in yourself and accepting yourself for who you are is an important factor in success, relationships, and happiness and that self-esteem plays an important role in living a flourishing life . It provides us with belief in our abilities and the motivation to carry them out, ultimately reaching fulfillment as we navigate life with a positive outlook.

Various studies have confirmed that self-esteem has a direct relationship with our overall wellbeing, and we would do well to keep this fact in mind—both for ourselves and for those around us, particularly the developing children we interact with.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Self-Compassion Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will not only help you show more compassion to yourself but will also give you the tools to enhance the self-compassion of your clients, students or employees and lead them to a healthy sense of self-esteem.

This Article Contains:

• What is the Meaning of Self-esteem? A Definition

Self-Esteem and Psychology

Incorporating self-esteem in positive psychology, 22 examples of high self-esteem, 18 surprising statistics and facts about self-esteem, relevant research, can we help boost self-esteem issues with therapy and counseling, the benefits of developing self-esteem with meditation, can you test self-esteem, and what are the problems with assessment, 17 factors that influence self-esteem, the effects of social media, 30 tips & affirmations for enhancing self-esteem, popular books on self-esteem (pdf), ted talks and videos on self-esteem, 15 quotes on self-esteem, a take-home message, what is the meaning of self-esteem.

You probably already have a good idea, but let’s start from the beginning anyway: what is self-esteem?

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall sense of his or her value or worth. It can be considered a sort of measure of how much a person “values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself” (Adler & Stewart, 2004).

According to self-esteem expert Morris Rosenberg, self-esteem is quite simply one’s attitude toward oneself (1965). He described it as a “favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the self”.

Various factors believed to influence our self-esteem include:

• Personality
• Life experiences
• Social circumstances
• The reactions of others
• Comparing the self to others

An important note is that self-esteem is not fixed. It is malleable and measurable, meaning we can test for and improve upon it.

Self-esteem and self-acceptance are often confused or even considered identical by most people. Let’s address this misconception by considering some fundamental differences in the nature and consequences of self-esteem and unconditional self-acceptance.

• Self-esteem is based on evaluating the self, and rating one’s behaviors and qualities as positive or negative, which results in defining the self as worthy or non-worthy (Ellis, 1994).
• Self-acceptance, however, is how the individual relates to the self in a way that allows the self to be as it is. Acceptance is neither positive nor negative; it embraces all aspects and experiences of the self (Ellis, 1976).
• Self-esteem relies on comparisons to evaluate the self and ‘decide’ its worth.
• Self-acceptance, stems from the realization that there is no objective basis for determining the value of a human being. So with self-acceptance, the individual affirms who they are without any need for comparisons.
• Self-esteem is contingent on external factors, such as performance, appearance, or social approval, that form the basis on which the self is evaluated.
• With self-acceptance, a person feels satisfied with themselves despite external factors, as this sense of worthiness is not derived from meeting specific standards.
• Self-esteem is fragile (Kernis & Lakey, 2010).
• Self-acceptance provides a secure and enduring positive relationship with the self (Kernis & Lakey, 2010).
• When it comes to the consequences on wellbeing, while self-esteem appears to be associated with some markers of wellbeing, such as high life satisfaction (Myers & Diener, 1995) and less anxiety (Brockner, 1984), there is also a “dark side” of self-esteem, characterized by egotism and narcissism (Crocker & Park, 2003).
• Self-acceptance is strongly associated with numerous positive markers of general psychological wellbeing (MacInnes, 2006).

Self-esteem has been a hot topic in psychology for decades, going about as far back as psychology itself. Even Freud , who many consider the founding father of psychology (although he’s a bit of an estranged father at this point), had theories about self-esteem at the heart of his work.

What self-esteem is, how it develops (or fails to develop) and what influences it has kept psychologists busy for a long time, and there’s no sign that we’ll have it all figured out anytime soon!

While there is much we still have to learn about self-esteem, we have at least been able to narrow down what self-esteem is and how it differs from other, similar constructs. Read on to learn what sets self-esteem apart from other self-directed traits and states.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Concept

Self-esteem is not self-concept, although self-esteem may be a part of self-concept. Self-concept is the perception that we have of ourselves, our answer when we ask ourselves the question “Who am I?” It is knowing about one’s own tendencies, thoughts, preferences and habits, hobbies, skills, and areas of weakness.

Put simply, the awareness of who we are is our concept of our self .

Purkey (1988) describes self-concept as:

“the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence”.

According to Carl Rogers, founder of client-centered therapy , self-concept is an overarching construct that self-esteem is one of the components of it (McLeod, 2008).

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Image

Another similar term with a different meaning is self-image; self-image is similar to self-concept in that it is all about how you see yourself (McLeod, 2008). Instead of being based on reality, however, it can be based on false and inaccurate thoughts about ourselves. Our self-image may be close to reality or far from it, but it is generally not completely in line with objective reality or with the way others perceive us.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Worth

Self-esteem is a similar concept to self-worth but with a small (although important) difference: self-esteem is what we think, feel, and believe about ourselves, while self-worth is the more global recognition that we are valuable human beings worthy of love (Hibbert, 2013).

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Confidence

Self-esteem is not self-confidence ; self-confidence is about your trust in yourself and your ability to deal with challenges, solve problems, and engage successfully with the world (Burton, 2015). As you probably noted from this description, self-confidence is based more on external measures of success and value than the internal measures that contribute to self-esteem.

One can have high self-confidence, particularly in a certain area or field, but still lack a healthy sense of overall value or self-esteem.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Efficacy

Similar to self-confidence, self-efficacy is also related to self-esteem but not a proxy for it. Self-efficacy refers to the belief in one’s ability to succeed at certain tasks (Neil, 2005). You could have high self-efficacy when it comes to playing basketball, but low self-efficacy when it comes to succeeding in math class.

Unlike self-esteem, self-efficacy is more specific rather than global, and it is based on external success rather than internal worth.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Compassion

Finally, self-esteem is also not self-compassion. Self-compassion centers on how we relate to ourselves rather than how we judge or perceive ourselves (Neff, n.d.). Being self-compassionate means we are kind and forgiving to ourselves, and that we avoid being harsh or overly critical of ourselves. Self-compassion can lead us to a healthy sense of self-esteem, but it is not in and of itself self-esteem.

We explore this further in The Science of Self-Acceptance Masterclass© .

Esteem in Maslow’s Theory – The Hierarchy of Needs

The mention of esteem may bring to mind the fourth level of Maslow’s pyramid : esteem needs.

While these needs and the concept of self-esteem are certainly related, Maslow’s esteem needs are more focused on external measures of esteem, such as respect, status, recognition, accomplishment, and prestige (McLeod, 2017).

There is a component of self-esteem within this level of the hierarchy, but Maslow felt that the esteem of others was more important for development and need fulfillment than self-esteem.

Download 3 Free Self-Compassion Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you to help others create a kinder and more nurturing relationship with themselves.

Download 3 Free Self-Compassion Tools Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

Dr. Martin Seligman has some concerns about openly accepting self-esteem as part of positive psychology . He worries that people live in the world where self-esteem is injected into a person’s identity, not caring in how it is done, as long as the image of “confidence” is obtained. He expressed the following in 2006:

I am not against self-esteem, but I believe that self-esteem is just a meter that reads out the state of the system. It is not an end in itself. When you are doing well in school or work, when you are doing well with the people you love, when you are doing well in play, the meter will register high. When you are doing badly, it will register low. (p. v)

Seligman makes a great point, as it is important to take his words into consideration when looking at self-esteem. Self-esteem and positive psychology may not marry quite yet, so it is important to look at what research tells us about self-esteem before we construct a rationale for it as positive psychology researcher, coach, or practitioner.

Examples of these characteristics are being open to criticism, acknowledging mistakes, being comfortable with giving and receiving compliments, and displaying a harmony between what one says, does, looks, sounds, and moves.

People with high self-esteem are unafraid to show their curiosity, discuss their experiences, ideas, and opportunities. They can also enjoy the humorous aspects of their lives and are comfortable with social or personal assertiveness (Branden, 1992).

Although low self-esteem has received more attention than high self-esteem, the positive psychology movement has brought high self-esteem into the spotlight. We now know more about what high self-esteem looks like and how it can be cultivated.

We know that people with high self-esteem:

• Appreciate themselves and other people.
• Enjoy growing as a person and finding fulfillment and meaning in their lives.
• Are able to dig deep within themselves and be creative.
• Make their own decisions and conform to what others tell them to be and do only when they agree.
• See the word in realistic terms, accepting other people the way they are while pushing them toward greater confidence and a more positive direction.
• Can easily concentrate on solving problems in their lives.
• Have loving and respectful relationships.
• Know what their values are and live their lives accordingly.
• Speak up and tell others their opinions, calmly and kindly, and share their wants and needs with others.
• Endeavor to make a constructive difference in other people’s lives (Smith & Harte, n.d.).

We also know that there are some simple ways to tell if you have high self-esteem. For example, you likely have high self-esteem if you:

• Act assertively without experiencing any guilt, and feel at ease communicating with others.
• Avoid dwelling on the past and focus on the present moment.
• Believe you are equal to everyone else, no better and no worse.
• Reject the attempts of others to manipulate you.
• Recognize and accept a wide range of feelings, both positive and negative, and share them within your healthy relationships.
• Enjoy a healthy balance of work, play, and relaxation .
• Accept challenges and take risks in order to grow, and learn from your mistakes when you fail.
• Handle criticism without taking it personally, with the knowledge that you are learning and growing and that your worth is not dependent on the opinions of others.
• Value yourself and communicate well with others, without fear of expressing your likes, dislikes, and feelings.
• Value others and accept them as they are without trying to change them (Self Esteem Awareness, n.d.).

Based on these characteristics, we can come up with some good examples of what high self-esteem looks like.

Imagine a high-achieving student who takes a difficult exam and earns a failing grade. If she has high self-esteem, she will likely chalk up her failure to factors like not studying hard enough, a particularly difficult set of questions, or simply having an “off” day. What she doesn’t do is conclude that she must be stupid and that she will probably fail all future tests too.

Having a healthy sense of self-esteem guides her toward accepting reality, thinking critically about why she failed, and problem-solving instead of wallowing in self-pity or giving up.

For a second example, think about a young man out on a first date. He really likes the young woman he is going out with, so he is eager to make a good impression and connect with her. Over the course of their discussion on the date, he learns that she is motivated and driven by completely different values and has very different taste in almost everything.

Instead of going along with her expressed opinions on things, he offers up his own views and isn’t afraid to disagree with her. His high self-esteem makes him stay true to his values and allows him to easily communicate with others, even when they don’t agree. To him, it is more important to behave authentically than to focus on getting his date to like him.

23 Examples of Self-Esteem Issues

Here are 23 examples of issues that can manifest from low self-esteem:

• You people please
• You’re easily angered or irritated
• You feel your opinion isn’t important
• You hate you
• What you do is never good enough
• You’re highly sensitive to others opinions
• The world doesn’t feel safe
• You doubt every decision
• You regularly experience the emotions of sadness and worthlessness
• You find it hard keeping relationships
• You avoid taking risks or trying new things
• You engage in addictive avoidance behaviors
• You struggle with confidence
• You find it difficult creating boundaries
• You give more attention to your weaknesses
• You are often unsure of who you are
• You feel negative experiences are all consuming
• You struggle to say no
• You find it difficult asking for your needs to be met
• You hold a pessimistic or negative outlook on life
• You doubt your abilities or chances of success
• You frequently experience negative emotions, such as fear, anxiety or depression
• You compare yourself with others and often you come in second best

It can be hard to really wrap your mind around self-esteem and why it is so important. To help you out, we’ve gathered a list of some of the most significant and relevant findings about self-esteem and low self-esteem in particular.

Although some of these facts may make sense to you, you will likely find that at least one or two surprise you—specifically those pertaining to the depth and breadth of low self-esteem in people (and particularly young people and girls).

• Adolescent boys with high self-esteem are almost two and a half times more likely to initiate sex than boys with low self-esteem, while girls with high self-esteem are three times more likely to delay sex than girls with low self-esteem (Spencer, Zimet, Aalsma, & Orr, 2002).
• Low self-esteem is linked to violence, school dropout rates, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and low academic achievement (Misetich & Delis-Abrams, 2003).
• About 44% of girls and 15% of boys in high school are attempting to lose weight (Council on Alcoholism and Drug Abuse, n.d.).
• Seven in 10 girls believe that they are not good enough or don’t measure up in some way (Dove Self-Esteem Fund, 2008).
• A girl’s self-esteem is more strongly related to how she views her own body shape and body weight than how much she actually weighs (Dove Self-Esteem Fund, 2008).
• Nearly all women (90%) want to change at least one aspect of their physical appearance (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
• The vast majority (81%) of 10-year old girls are afraid of being fat (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
• About one in four college-age women have an eating disorder (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
• Only 2% of women think they are beautiful (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
• Absent fathers, poverty, and a low-quality home environment have a negative impact on self-esteem (Orth, 2018).

These facts on low self-esteem are alarming and disheartening, but thankfully they don’t represent the whole story. The whole story shows that there are many people with a healthy sense of self-esteem, and they enjoy some great benefits and advantages. For instance, people with healthy self-esteem:

• Are less critical of themselves and others.
• Are better able to handle stress and avoid the unhealthy side effects of stress.
• Are less likely to develop an eating disorder.
• Are less likely to feel worthless, guilty, and ashamed .
• Are more likely to be assertive about expressing and getting what they want.
• Are able to build strong, honest relationships and are more likely to leave unhealthy ones.
• Are more confident in their ability to make good decisions.
• Are more resilient and able to bounce back when faced with disappointment, failure, and obstacles (Allegiance Health, 2015).

Given the facts on the sad state of self-esteem in society and the positive outcomes associated with high self-esteem, it seems clear that looking into how self-esteem can be built is a worthwhile endeavor.

Luckily, there are many researchers who have tackled this topic. Numerous studies have shown us that it is possible to build self-esteem, especially in children and young people.

How? There are many ways!

Recent research found a correlation between self-esteem and optimism with university students from Brazil (Bastianello, Pacico & Hutz & 2014). One of the most interesting results came from a cross-cultural research on life satisfaction and self-esteem, which was conducted in 31 countries.

They found differences in self-esteem between collective and individualistic cultures with self-esteem being lower in collectivist cultures. Expressing personal emotions, attitudes, and cognitive thoughts are highly associated with self-esteem, collectivist cultures seem to have a drop in self-esteem because of a lack of those characteristics (Diener & Diener 1995).

China, a collectivist culture, found that self-esteem was a significant predictor of life satisfaction (Chen, Cheung, Bond & Leung, 2006). They found that similar to other collectivist cultures, self-esteem also had an effect on resilience with teenagers. Teenagers with low self-esteem had a higher sense of hopelessness and had low resilience (Karatas, 2011).

In more individualistic cultures, teenagers who were taught to depend on their beliefs, behaviors, and felt open to expressing their opinion had more resilience and higher self-esteem (Dumont & Provost, 1999).

School-based programs that pair students with mentors and focus on relationships, building, self-esteem enhancements, goal setting , and academic assistance have been proven to enhance students’ self-esteem, improve relationships with others, reduce depression and bullying behaviors (King, Vidourek, Davis, & McClellan, 2009).

Similarly, elementary school programs that focus on improving self-esteem through short, classroom-based sessions also have a positive impact on students’ self-esteem, as well as reducing problem behaviors and strengthening connections between peers (Park & Park, 2014).

However, the potential to boost your self-esteem and reap the benefits is not limited to students! Adults can get in on this endeavour as well, although the onus will be on them to make the changes necessary.

Self-esteem researcher and expert Dr. John M. Grohol outlined six practical tips on how to increase your sense of self-esteem, which include:

6 Practical Tips on How to Increase Self-Esteem

1. take a self-esteem inventory to give yourself a baseline..

It can be as simple as writing down 10 of your strengths and 10 of your weaknesses. This will help you to begin developing an honest and realistic conception of yourself.

2. Set realistic expectations.

It’s important to set small, reachable goals that are within your power. For example, setting an extremely high expectation or an expectation that someone else will change their behavior is virtually guaranteed to make you feel like a failure, through no fault of your own.

3. Stop being a perfectionist.

Acknowledge both your accomplishments and mistakes. Nobody is perfect, and trying to be will only lead to disappointment. Acknowledging your accomplishments and recognizing your mistakes is the way to keep a positive outlook while learning and growing from your mistakes.

4. Explore yourself.

The importance of knowing yourself and being at peace with who you are cannot be overstated. This can take some trial and error, and you will constantly learn new things about yourself, but it is a journey that should be undertaken with purpose and zeal.

5. Be willing to adjust your self-image.

We all change as we age and grow, and we must keep up with our ever-changing selves if we want to set and achieve meaningful goals.

6. Stop comparing yourself to others.

Comparing ourselves to others is a trap that is extremely easy to fall into, especially today with social media and the ability to project a polished, perfected appearance. The only person you should compare yourself to is you (Grohol, 2011).

The Positivity Blog also offers some helpful tips on enhancing your self-esteem, including:

• Say “stop” to your inner critic.
• Use healthier motivation habits.
• Take a 2-minute self-appreciation break.
• Write down 3 things in the evening that you can appreciate about yourself.
• Do the right thing.
• Replace the perfectionism.
• Handle mistakes and failures in a more positive way.
• Be kinder towards other people .
• Try something new.
• Stop falling into the comparison trap.
• Spend more time with supportive people (and less time with destructive people).
• Remember the “whys” of high self-esteem (Edberg, 2017).

Another list of specific, practical things you can do to develop and maintain a good sense of self-esteem comes from the Entrepreneur website:

• Use distancing pronouns. When you are experiencing stress or negative self-talk, try putting it in more distant terms (e.g., instead of saying “I am feeling ashamed,” try saying “Courtney is feeling ashamed.”). This can help you to see the situation as a challenge rather than a threat.
• Remind yourself of your achievements. The best way to overcome imposter syndrome—the belief that, despite all of your accomplishments, you are a failure and a fraud—is to list all of your personal successes. You might be able to explain a couple of them away as a chance, but they can’t all be due to luck!
• Move more! This can be as simple as a short walk or as intense as a several-mile run, as quick as striking a “power pose” or as long as a two-hour yoga session; it doesn’t matter exactly what you do, just that you get more in touch with your body and improve both your health and your confidence.
• Use the “five-second” rule. No, not the one about food that is dropped on the ground! This five-second rule is about following up good thoughts and inspiring ideas with action. Do something to make that great idea happen within five seconds.
• Practice visualizing your success. Close your eyes and take a few minutes to imagine the scenario in which you have reached your goals, using all five senses and paying attention to the details.
• Be prepared—for whatever situation you are about to encounter. If you are going into a job interview, make sure you have practiced, know about the company, and have some good questions ready to ask. If you are going on a date, take some time to boost your confidence, dress well, and have a plan A and a plan B (and maybe even a plan C!) to make sure it goes well.
• Limit your usage of social media. Spend less time looking at a screen and more time experiencing the world around you.
• Meditate. Establish a regular meditation practice to inspect your thoughts, observe them, and separate yourself from them. Cultivating a sense of inner peace will go a long way towards developing healthy self-esteem.
• Keep your goals a secret. You don’t need to keep all of your hopes and dreams to yourself, but make sure you save some of your goal striving and success for just you—it can make you more likely to meet them and also more satisfied when you do.
• Practice affirmations (like the ones listed later in this piece). Make time to regularly say positive things about yourself and situations in which you often feel uncertain.
• Build your confidence through failure. Use failure as an opportunity to learn and grow, and seek out failure by trying new things and taking calculated risks (Laurinavicius, 2017).

Now that we have a good idea of how to improve self-esteem , there is an important caveat to the topic: many of the characteristics and factors that we believe result from self-esteem may also influence one’s sense of self-esteem, and vice versa.

For example, although we recommend improving self-esteem to positively impact grades or work performance, success in these areas is at least somewhat dependent on self-esteem as well.

Similarly, those who have a healthy level of self-esteem are more likely to have positive relationships, but those with positive relationships are also more likely to have healthy self-esteem, likely because the relationship works in both directions.

While there is nothing wrong with boosting your self-esteem, keep in mind that in some cases you may be putting the cart before the horse, and commit to developing yourself in several areas rather than just working on enhancing your self-esteem.

Based on research like that described above, we have learned that there are many ways therapy and counseling can help clients to improve their self-esteem.

If done correctly, therapy can be an excellent method of enhancing self-esteem, especially if it’s low to begin with.

Here are some of the ways therapy and counseling can a client’s boost self-esteem:

• When a client shares their inner thoughts and feelings with the therapist, and the therapist responds with acceptance and compassion rather than judgment or correction, this can build the foundations of healthy self-esteem for the client.
• This continued acceptance and unconditional positive regard encourage the client to re-think some of their assumptions, and come to the conclusion that “Maybe there’s nothing wrong with me after all!”
• The therapist can explain that self-esteem is a belief rather than a fact and that beliefs are based on our experiences; this can help the client understand that he could be exactly the same person as he is right now and have high self-esteem instead of low, if he had different experiences that cultivated a sense of high self-esteem instead of low self-esteem.
• The therapist can offer the client new experiences upon which to base this new belief about herself, experiences in which the client is “basically acceptable” instead of “basically wrong.” The therapist’s acceptance of the client can act as a model for the client of how she can accept herself.
• Most importantly, the therapist can accept the client for who he is and affirm his thoughts and feelings as acceptable rather than criticizing him for them. The therapist does not need to approve of each and every action taken by the client, but showing acceptance and approval of who he is at the deepest level will have an extremely positive impact on his own belief in his worth and value as a person (Gilbertson, 2016).

Following these guidelines will encourage your client to develop a better sense of self-love , self-worth, self-acceptance , and self-esteem, as well as discouraging “needless shame” and learning how to separate herself from her behavior (Gilbertson, 2016).

One of these methods is meditation—yes, you can add yet another benefit of meditation to the list! However, not only can we develop self-esteem through meditation , we also gain some other important benefits.

When we meditate, we cultivate our ability to let go and to keep our thoughts and feelings in perspective. We learn to simply observe instead of actively participate in every little experience that pops into our head. In other words, we are “loosening the grip we have on our sense of self” (Puddicombe, 2015).

While this may sound counterintuitive to developing and maintaining a positive sense of self, it is actually a great way to approach it. Through meditation, we gain the ability to become aware of our inner experiences without over-identifying with them, letting our thoughts pass by without judgment or a strong emotional response.

As meditation expert Andy Puddicombe notes, low self-esteem can be understood as the result of over-identification with the self. When we get overly wrapped up in our sense of self, whether that occurs with a focus on the positive (I’m the BEST) or the negative (I’m the WORST), we place too much importance on it. We may even get obsessive about the self, going over every little word, thought, or feeling that enters our mind.

A regular meditation practice can boost your self-esteem by helping you to let go of your preoccupation with your self, freeing you from being controlled by the thoughts and feelings your self-experiences.

When you have the ability to step back and observe a disturbing or self-deprecating thought, it suddenly doesn’t have as much power over you as it used to; this deidentification with the negative thoughts you have about yourself results in less negative talk over time and freedom from your overly critical inner voice (Puddicombe, 2015).

Self-esteem is the topic of many a psychological scale and assessment, and many of them are valid, reliable, and very popular among researchers; however, these assessments are not perfect. There are a few problems and considerations you should take into account if you want to measure self-esteem, including:

• Lack of consensus on the definition (Demo, 1985).
• Overall gender differences in self-esteem (Bingham, 1983).
• Too many instruments for assessing self-esteem, and low correlations between them (Demo, 1985).
• The unexplained variance between self-reports and inferred measures such as ratings by others (Demo, 1985).

Although these issues are certainly not unique to the measurement of self-esteem, one should approach the assessment of self-esteem with multiple measurement methods in hand, with the appropriate level of caution, or both.

Still, even though there are various issues with the measurement of self-esteem, avoiding the measurement is not an option! If you are looking to measure self-esteem and worried about finding a validated scale, look no further than one of the foundations of self-esteem research: Rosenberg’s scale.

Measuring Self-Esteem with the Rosenberg Scale

The most common scale of self-esteem is Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (also called the RSE and sometimes the SES). This scale was developed by Rosenberg and presented in his 1965 book Society and the Adolescent Self-Image.

It contains 10 items rated on a scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Some of the items are reverse-scored, and the total score can be calculated by summing up the total points for an overall measure of self-esteem (although it can also be scored in a different, more complex manner—see page 61 of this PDF for instructions).

The 10 items are:

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2. At times I think I am no good at all. 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 6. I certainly feel useless at times. 7. I feel that I’m a person of worth. 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 9. All in all, I am inclined to think that I am a failure. 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.

As you likely figured out already, items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are reverse-scored, while the other items are scored normally. This creates a single score of between 10 and 40 points, with lower scores indicating higher self-esteem. Put another way, higher scores indicate a strong sense of low self-esteem.

The scale is considered highly consistent and reliable, and scores correlate highly with other measures of self-esteem and negatively with measures of depression and anxiety. It has been used by thousands of researchers throughout the years and is still in use today, making it one of the most-cited scales ever developed.

The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967/1981)

The second most commonly used reliable and valid measure for self-esteem is The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Within this test, 50 items are included to measure the test-takes attitudes towards themselves, by responding to statements with the selection of “like me” or “not like me” (Robinson, Shaver & Wrightsman, 2010).

Initially created to test the self-esteem of children, it was later altered by Ryden (1978) and now two separate versions exist; one for children and one for adults.

Find out more about taking this test here .

It might be quicker to list what factors don’t influence self-esteem than to identify which factors do influence it! As you might expect, self-esteem is a complex construct and there are many factors that contribute to it, whether positively or negatively.

For a quick sample of some of the many factors that are known to influence self-esteem, check out this list:

• Commitment to the worker, spouse, and parental role are positively linked to self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 1994).
• Worker identity meaning is positively related to self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
• Being married and older is linked to lower self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
• Higher education and higher income are related to higher self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
• Low socioeconomic status and low self-esteem are related (von Soest, Wagner, Hansen, & Gerstorf, 2018).
• Living alone (without a significant other) is linked to low self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
• Unemployment and disability contribute to lower self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
• A more mature personality and emotional stability are linked to higher self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
• Social norms (the importance of friends’ and family members’ opinions) about one’s body and exercise habits are negatively linked to self-esteem, while exercise self-efficacy and self-fulfillment are positively linked to self-esteem (Chang & Suttikun, 2017).

If you’re thinking that an important technological factor is missing, go on to the next section and see if you’re right!

Although you may have found some of the findings on self-esteem covered earlier surprising, you will most likely expect this one: studies suggest that social media usage negatively impacts self-esteem (Friedlander, 2016).

This effect is easy to understand. Humans are social creatures and need interaction with others to stay healthy and happy; however, we also use those around us as comparisons to measure and track our own progress in work, relationships, and life in general. Social media makes these comparisons easier than ever, but they give this tendency to compare a dark twist.

What we see on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter is not representative of real life. It is often carefully curated and painstakingly presented to give the best possible impression.

We rarely see the sadness, the failure, and the disappointment that accompanies everyday human life; instead, we see a perfect picture, a timeline full of only good news, and short blurbs about achievements, accomplishments, and happiness .

Although this social comparison with unattainable standards is clearly a bad habit to get into, social media is not necessarily a death knell for your self-esteem. Moderate social media usage complemented by frequent self-reminders that we are often only seeing the very best in others can allow us to use social media posts as inspiration and motivation rather than unhealthy comparison.

You don’t need to give up social media for good in order to maintain a healthy sense of self-esteem—just use it mindfully and keep it in the right perspective!

By viewing self-esteem as a muscle to grow we establish a world of new opportunities. No longer do we have to view ourselves in the same light.

Use these 10 tips to strengthen the attitudes towards yourself:

1. Spend time with people who lift you up 2. Giveback by helping others 3. Celebrate your achievements, no matter the size 4. Do what makes you happy 5. Change what you can – and let go of what you can’t 6. Let go of perfectionism ideals 7. Speak to yourself like a friend 8. Get involved in extra-curricula’s 9. Own your uniqueness 10. Create a positive self-dialogue.

Influential American author, Jack Canfield explains “Daily affirmations are to the mind what exercise is to the body.” (watch this YouTube clip).

Affirmations are a great way to boost your self-esteem and, in turn, your overall wellbeing. There are tons of examples of affirmations you can use for this purpose, including these 17 from Develop Good Habits :

• Mistakes are a stepping stone to success. They are the path I must tread to achieve my dreams.
• I will continue to learn and grow.
• Mistakes are just an apprenticeship to achievement.
• I deserve to be happy and successful.
• I deserve a good life. I deny any need for suffering and misery.
• I am competent, smart, and able.
• I am growing and changing for the better.
• I love the person I am becoming.
• I believe in my skills and abilities.
• I have great ideas. I make useful contributions.
• I acknowledge my own self-worth; my self-confidence is rising.
• I am worthy of all the good things that happen in my life.
• I am confident with my life plan and the way things are going.
• I deserve the love I am given.
• I let go of the negative feelings about myself and accept all that is good.
• I will stand by my decisions. They are sound and reasoned.
• I have, or can quickly get, all the knowledge I need to succeed.

If none of these leap out and inspire you, you can always create your own! Just keep in mind these three simple rules for creating effective affirmations:

• The affirmations should be in the present tense. They must affirm your value and worth right here, right now (e.g., not “I will do better tomorrow” but “I am doing great today.”).
• The affirmations should be positively worded. They should not deny or reject anything (i.e., “I am not a loser.”), but make a firm statement (e.g., “I am a worthy person.”).
• The affirmations should make you feel good and put you in a positive light. They should not be empty words and they should be relevant to your life (e.g., “I am a world-class skier” is relevant if you ski, but is not a good affirmation if you don’t ski.).

Use these three rules to put together some positive, uplifting, and encouraging affirmations that you can repeat as often as needed—but aim for at least once a day.

There are many, many books available on self-esteem: what it is, what influences it, how it can be developed, and how it can be encouraged in others (particularly children). Here is just a sample of some of the most popular and well-received books on self-esteem :

• Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem by Matthew McKay, PhD ( Amazon )
• The Self-Esteem Guided Journal by Matthew McKay & C. Sutker ( Amazon )
• Ten Days to Self-Esteem by David D. Burns, MD ( Amazon )
• The Six Pillars of Self-Esteem: The Definitive Work on Self-Esteem by the Leading Pioneer in the Field by Nathanial Branden (if you’re not a big reader, check out the animated book review video below) ( Amazon )
• The Self-Esteem Workbook by Glenn R. Schiraldi, PhD ( Amazon )
• The Self-Esteem Workbook for Teens: Activities to Help You Build Confidence and Achieve Your Goals by Lisa M. Schab, LCSW ( Amazon )
• Believing in Myself by E Larsen & C Hegarty. ( Amazon )
• Being Me: A Kid’s Guide to Boosting Confidence and Self-Esteem by Wendy L. Moss, PhD ( Amazon )
• Healing Your Emotional Self: A Powerful Program to Help You Raise Your Self-Esteem, Quiet Your Inner Critic, and Overcome Your Shame by Beverly Engel ( Amazon )

Plus, here’s a bonus—a free PDF version of Nathaniel Branden’s The Psychology of Self-Esteem: A Revolutionary Approach to Self-Understanding That Launched a New Era in Modern Psychology .

If reading is not a preferred method of learning more, fear not! There are some great YouTube videos and TED Talks on self-esteem. A few of the most popular and most impactful are included here.

Why Thinking You’re Ugly is Bad for You by Meaghan Ramsey

This TED talk is all about the importance of self-esteem and the impact of negative self-esteem, especially on young people and girls. Ramsey notes that low self-esteem impacts physical as well as mental health, the work we do, and our overall finances as we chase the perfect body, the perfect face, or the perfect hair. She ends by outlining the six areas addressed by effective self-esteem programs:

• The influence of family, friends, and relationships
• The media and celebrity culture
• How to handle teasing and bullying
• The way we compete and compare ourselves with others
• The way we talk about appearance
• The foundations of respecting and caring for yourself

Meet Yourself: A User’s Guide to Building Self-Esteem by Niko Everett

Another great TEDx Talk comes from the founder of the Girls for Change organization, Niko Everett. In this talk, she goes over the power of self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-love. She highlights the importance of the thoughts we have about ourselves and the impact they have on our self-esteem and shares some techniques to help both children and adults enhance their self-esteem.

Self-Esteem – Understanding & Fixing Low Self-Esteem by Actualized.org

This video from Leo Gura at Actualized.org defines self-esteem, describes the elements of self-esteem, and the factors that influence self-esteem. He shares why self-esteem is important and how it can be developed and enhanced.

How to Build Self Esteem – The Six Pillars of Self-Esteem by Nathaniel Branden Animated Book Review by FightMediocrity

This quick, 6-minute video on self-esteem outlines what author Nathaniel Branden sees as the “Six Pillars” of self-esteem:

• The practice of living consciously Be aware of your daily activities and relationship with others, insecure reflections, and also personal priorities.
• The practice of self-acceptance This includes becoming aware and accepting the best and the worst parts of you and also the disowned parts of ourselves.
• The practice of self-responsibility This implies realizing that you are responsible for your choices and actions.
• The practice of self-assertiveness Act through your real convictions and feelings as much as possible.
• The practice of living purposefully Achieve personal goals that energize your existence.
• The practice of personal integrity Don’t compensate your ideals, beliefs, and behaviors for a result that leads to incongruence. When your behaviors are congruent with your ideals, integrity will appear.

The speaker provides a definition and example of each of the six pillars and finishes the video by emphasizing the first two words of each pillar: “The Practice.” These words highlight that the effort applied to building self-esteem is, in fact, the most important factor in developing self-esteem.

Sometimes all you need to get to work on bettering yourself is an inspirational quote. The value of quotes is subjective, so these may not all resonate with you, but hopefully, you will find that at least one or two lights that spark within you!

“You yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your love and affection.”

Sharon Salzberg

“The greatest thing in the world is to know how to belong to oneself.”

Michel de Montaigne

“The man who does not value himself, cannot value anything or anyone.”

“Dare to love yourself as if you were a rainbow with gold at both ends.”

“As long as you look for someone else to validate who you are by seeking their approval, you are setting yourself up for disaster. You have to be whole and complete in yourself. No one can give you that. You have to know who you are—what others say is irrelevant.”

“I don’t want everyone to like me; I should think less of myself if some people did.”

Henry James

“Remember, you have been criticizing yourself for years and it hasn’t worked. Try approving of yourself and see what happens.”

Louise L. Hay

“Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness that most frightens us. We ask ourselves, Who am I to be brilliant, gorgeous, talented, fabulous? Actually, who are you not to be?”

Marianne Williamson

“I don’t entirely approve of some of the things I have done, or am, or have been. But I’m me. God knows, I’m me.”

“To me, self-esteem is not self-love. It is self-acknowledgement, as in recognizing and accepting who you are.”

Amity Gaige

“Self-esteem is as important to our well-being as legs are to a table. It is essential for physical and mental health and for happiness.”

Louise Hart

“Self-esteem is made up primarily of two things: feeling lovable and feeling capable. Lovable means I feel people want to be with me. They invite me to parties; they affirm I have the qualities necessary to be included. Feeling capable is knowing that I can produce a result. It’s knowing I can handle anything that life hands me.”

Jack Canfield

“You can’t let someone else lower your self-esteem, because that’s what it is—self-esteem. You need to first love yourself before you have anybody else love you.”

Winnie Harlow

“A man cannot be comfortable without his own approval.”

“Our self-respect tracks our choices. Every time we act in harmony with our authentic self and our heart, we earn our respect. It is that simple. Every choice matters.” Dan Coppersmith

17 Exercises To Foster Self-Acceptance and Compassion

Help your clients develop a kinder, more accepting relationship with themselves using these 17 Self-Compassion Exercises [PDF] that promote self-care and self-compassion.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

We hope you enjoyed this opportunity to learn about self-esteem! If you take only one important lesson away from this piece, make sure it’s this one: you absolutely can build your own self-esteem, and you can have a big impact on the self-esteem of those you love.

Self-esteem is not a panacea—it will not fix all of your problems or help you sail smoothly through a life free of struggle and suffering—but it will help you find the courage to try new things, build the resilience to bounce back from failure, and make you more susceptible to success.

It is something we have to continually work towards, but it’s absolutely achievable.

Stay committed.

Keep aware of your internal thoughts and external surroundings. Keep focused on your personal goals and all that is possible when self-doubt isn’t holding you back.

What are your thoughts on self-esteem in psychology? Should we be encouraging it more? Less? Is there an “ideal amount” of self-esteem? We’d love to hear from you! Leave your thoughts in the comments below.

You can read more about self-esteem worksheets and exercises for adults and teens here .

Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Self Compassion Exercises for free .

• Adler, N., & Stewart, J. (2004). Self-esteem. Psychosocial Working Group. Retrieved from http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/research/psychosocial/selfesteem.php
• Allegiance Health. (2015). 8 Health benefits of a healthy self-esteem. Health & Wellness Blog. Retrieved from https://www.allegiancehealth.org/blog/women/8-health-benefits-healthy-self-esteem
• Bastianello, M., Pacico, J., & Hutz, C. (2014). Optimism, self-esteem and personality: Adaptation and validation of the Brazilian Version Of The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R). Psico-USF, Bragança Paulista . Retrieved from http://www.scielo.br/pdf/pusf/v19n3/15.pdf
• Branden, N. (1992). The power of self-esteem. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications.
• Branden, N. (2013). What self-esteem is and is not. Retrieved from http://www.nathanielbranden.com/what-self-esteem-is-and-is-not.
• Bingham, W. C. (1983). Problems in the assessment of self-esteem. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 6, 17-22.
• Brockner, J. 1984. Low self-esteem and behavioral plasticity: Some implications for personality and social psychology. In L. Wheeler (Ed.),  Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 : 1732–1741.
• Burton, N. (2015). Self-confidence versus self-esteem. Psychology Today . Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201510/self-confidence-versus-self-esteem
• Chang, H. J., & Suttikun, C. (2017). The examination of psychological factors and social norms affecting body satisfaction and self-esteem for college students. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 45 (4) , 422-437 .
• Chen, S. X., Cheung, F. M., Bond, M. H., & Leung, J. (2006). Going beyond self-esteem to predict life satisfaction: The Chinese case. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 24-35.
• Confidence Coalition. (n.d.). Join KD in the movement to build confidence in girls and women. Kappa Delta Sorority. Retrieved from https://kappadelta.org/initiatives/confidence-coalition/
• Council on Alcoholism and Drug Abuse. (n.d.). Image and self-esteem. Mentor Resource Center. Retrieved from http://mentor-center.org/image-and-self-esteem/.
• Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2003). Seeking self-esteem: Construction, maintenance, and protection of self-worth .
• Davis, W., Gfeller, K., & Thaut, M. (2008). An introduction to music therapy. Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association.
• Demo, D. H. (1985). The measurement of self-esteem: Refining our methods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1490-1502.
• Diener, E. & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 , 653–663.
• Dumont, M. & Provost, M. A,. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28,  343-363.
• Dove Self-Esteem Fund. (2008). Real girls, real pressure: A national report on the state of self-esteem. Dove. Retrieved from http://www.isacs.org/misc_files/SelfEsteem_Report%20-%20Dove%20Campaign%20for%20Real%20Beauty.pdf
• Edberg, H. (2013). How to improve your self-esteem: 12 Powerful tips. The Positivity Blog. Retrieved from https://www.positivityblog.com/improve-self-esteem/
• Ellis, A. (1994). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy . Birch Lane Press.
• Ellis, A. (1976). RET abolishes most of the human ego.  Psychotherapy: Theory, research & practice, 13(4) , 343.
• Friedlander, J. (2016). Why social media is ruining your self-esteem—and how to stop it. Success. Retrieved from https://www.success.com/article/why-social-media-is-ruining-your-self-esteem-and-how-to-stop-it
• Gilbertson, T. (2016). Does therapy for low self-esteem really work? Good Therapy. Retrieved from https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/does-therapy-for-low-self-esteem-really-work-0520164
• Grogan, S. (1999). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children . London, UK: Routledge.
• Grohol, J. M. (2011). 6 Tips to improve your self-esteem. Psych Central. Retrieved from https://psychcentral.com/blog/6-tips-to-improve-your-self-esteem/
• Hibbert, C. (2013). Self-esteem vs. self-worth: Q & A with Dr. Christina Hibbert. Retrieved from http://www.drchristinahibbert.com/self-esteem-vs-self-worth/
• Karatas, Z., & Cakar, F. S. (2011). Self-esteem and hopelessness, and resiliency: An exploratory study of adolescents in Turkey. International Education Studies , 4 (4), 84-91.
• Kernis, M. H., & Lakey, C. E. (2010).  Fragile versus secure high self-esteem: Implications for defensiveness and insecurity . Psychology Press.
• King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., Davis, B., & McClellan, W. (2009). Increasing self-esteem and school connectedness through a multidimensional mentoring program. Journal of School Health, 72 , 294-299.
• Laurinavicius, T. (2017). 11 Research-backed hacks to improve self-confidence. Entrepreneur. Retrieved from https://www.entrepreneur.com/slideshow/302265.
• MacInnes, D. L. (2006). Self‐esteem and self‐acceptance: an examination into their relationship and their effect on psychological health. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 13(5) , 483-489.
• Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4) , 370-396.
• McLeod, S. (2008). Self concept. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html.
• McLeod, S. (2017). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html.
• Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy?.  Psychological science, 6(1) , 10-19.
• Misetich, M., & Delis-Abrams, A. (2003). Your self esteem is up to YOU. Self-Growth. Retrieved from http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Abrams1.html.
• Neff, K. (n.d.). Why self-compassion is healthier than self-esteem. Self-Compassion.org. Retrieved from http://self-compassion.org/why-self-compassion-is-healthier-than-self-esteem/
• Neill, J. (2005). Definitions of various self constructs. Wilderdom. Retrieved from http://www.wilderdom.com/self/.
• Orth, U. (2018). The family environment in early childhood has a long-term effect on self-esteem: A longitudinal study from birth to age 27 years. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114, 637-655.
• Park, K. M., & Park, H. (2014). Effects of self-esteem improvement program on self-esteem and peer attachment in elementary school children with observed problematic behaviors. Asian Nursing Research, 9, 53-59.
• Purkey, W. (1988). An overview of self-concept theory for counselors. ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services. Ann Arbor: MI (An ERIC/CAPS Digest: ED304630).
• Reitzes, D. C., & Mutran, E. J. (1994). Multiple roles and identities: Factors influencing self-esteem among middle-aged working men and women. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57, 313-325.
• Reitzes, D. C., & Mutran, E. J. (2006). Self and health: Factors that encourage self-esteem and functional health. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 61 (1), S44-S51.
• Robinson, J., Shaver, P., & Wrightsman, L. (2010). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Self Esteem Awareness. (n.d.). 1 0 Positive self esteem examples. Retrieved from https://www.selfesteemawareness.com/10-positive-self-esteem-examples/
• Seligman, M. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
• Smith, S. R., & Harte, V. (n.d.). 10 Characteristics of people with high self-esteem. Dummies. Retrieved from http://www.dummies.com/health/mental-health/self-esteem/10-characteristics-of-people-with-high-self-esteem/
• Spencer, J., Zimet, G., Aalsma, M., & Orr, D. (2002). Self-esteem as a predictor of initiation of coitus in early adolescents. Pediatrics, 109, 581-584.
• Von Soest, T., Wagner, J., Hansen, T., & Gerstorf, D. (2018). Self-esteem across the second half of life: The role of socioeconomic status, physical health, social relationships, and personality factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114, 945-958.

Share this article:

Article feedback

What our readers think.

Interesting, and clear and quite precise in this definitions…..definitions are the most important.

Extremely good article addressing the prevalence of low self-esteem in Western society and how to overcome it. But did it consider the possibility self-esteem could ever be too high? I am still influenced by my old-school upbringing, where being labeled as “conceited” was a a thing. I was told that’s only an attempt to compensate for low self esteem, along with “egomania” and other disorders, but perhaps related to the driven personalities that have influenced much of history.

Excellent, Elaborative, Enduring and Eloquent ESSAY 🙂 Loved this article, very clear, very informative, very useful and practically implementable if determined to improve the quality of one’s life. THANK YOU is a small word for the author of this article.

thak you for this good article

Very helpful. Thank you very much

Thanks for sharing it. I’m happy after reading it , please keep continue to enlighten people

Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

Social Identity Theory: I, You, Us & We. Why Groups Matter

As humans, we spend most of our life working to understand our personal identities. The question of “who am I?” is an age-old philosophical thought [...]

Discovering Self-Empowerment: 13 Methods to Foster It

In a world where external circumstances often dictate our sense of control and agency, the concept of self-empowerment emerges as a beacon of hope and [...]

How to Improve Your Client’s Self-Esteem in Therapy: 7 Tips

When children first master the expectations set by their parents, the experience provides them with a source of pride and self-esteem. As children get older, [...]

Read other articles by their category

• Body & Brain (49)
• Coaching & Application (57)
• Compassion (26)
• Counseling (51)
• Emotional Intelligence (24)
• Gratitude (18)
• Grief & Bereavement (21)
• Happiness & SWB (40)
• Meaning & Values (26)
• Meditation (20)
• Mindfulness (45)
• Motivation & Goals (45)
• Optimism & Mindset (34)
• Positive CBT (28)
• Positive Communication (20)
• Positive Education (47)
• Positive Emotions (32)
• Positive Leadership (18)
• Positive Parenting (4)
• Positive Psychology (33)
• Positive Workplace (37)
• Productivity (16)
• Relationships (46)
• Resilience & Coping (36)
• Self Awareness (21)
• Self Esteem (38)
• Strengths & Virtues (31)
• Stress & Burnout Prevention (34)
• Theory & Books (46)
• Therapy Exercises (37)
• Types of Therapy (64)

3 Self-Compassion Tools (PDF)

• Introduction To Self-Esteem

Introduction to Self-Esteem

Ad Disclosure: Some of our MentalHelp.net recommendations, including BetterHelp, are also affiliates, and as such we may receive compensation from them if you choose to purchase products or services through the links provided

Self-esteem refers to the overall sense of self-worth or personal value we attribute to ourselves. It's an internal assessment of how much we value and appreciate ourselves, regardless of external circumstances or others' opinions. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about yourself (for example, "I am competent," "I am worthy") as well as emotional states such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. A healthy level of self-esteem is crucial for overall well-being, influencing decision-making processes, relationships, and the ability to face life's challenges. It forms the foundation of mental and emotional health, enabling us to navigate life with confidence and resilience. Understanding and nurturing our self-esteem can lead to a more fulfilling and balanced life.

The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Well-being

Self-esteem plays a pivotal role in our overall well-being and mental health, acting as both a protective factor against life's stressors and a facilitator of psychological resilience. Healthy self-esteem contributes to a robust mental state, empowering individuals to approach life with optimism and courage. It is intricately linked to how we manage stress, how we relate to others, and our capacity for happiness and contentment.

Here are some ways self-esteem affects different aspects of life: 

• Mental Health : A healthy level of self-esteem is associated with lower rates of mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and stress. When we value ourselves and have confidence in our abilities, we are less likely to succumb to the cognitive distortions that fuel these conditions. Conversely, low self-esteem can be both a cause and a consequence of mental health challenges. However, professional intervention can assist in addressing these. 
• Resilience to Stress : Individuals with high self-esteem often exhibit greater resilience in the face of adversity. Individuals with healthy self-esteem possess a sturdy foundation of self-worth. This resilience enables them to recover more quickly from setbacks and maintain a positive outlook on life.
• Relationships : Self-esteem affects the quality of our relationships. When we feel good about ourselves, we are more likely to engage in positive interactions and establish healthy boundaries. High self-esteem allows us to feel secure in our relationships, reducing the likelihood of developing dependency or tolerating mistreatment.
• Decision-Making and Achievement : Self-belief is crucial for setting and achieving goals. High self-esteem fosters a mindset of growth and possibility, encouraging individuals to pursue ambitions with determination. It enhances our ability to make decisions, face challenges head-on, and seize opportunities for personal and professional growth.
• Happiness and Contentment : At its core, self-esteem influences our capacity for happiness. A positive self-image enhances life satisfaction and joy. People with high self-esteem are more likely to engage in activities that bring them happiness and to forge meaningful connections with others.

Therapists are Standing By to Treat Your Depression, Anxiety or Other Mental Health Needs

Explore Your Options Today

In summary, self-esteem is not just about feeling good about yourself; it's a fundamental aspect of mental and emotional health that influences your interaction with the world. Nurturing self-esteem is essential for a balanced, happy life and forms the basis for strong mental health and enduring well-being.

Negative Self-Concept

Conversely, a negative self-concept is deeply ingrained in the way individuals perceive themselves, marked by a persistent feeling of inadequacy and a lack of self-worth. This perception is more than just occasional self-doubt; it is an enduring view of oneself as unworthy, incompetent, and undeserving. Such a self-concept shapes every aspect of life, from how individuals interact with others to how they face challenges and perceive their place in the world.

Characterized by self-criticism and a focus on perceived faults, a negative self-concept influences emotions, behaviors, and decision-making processes. Individuals may find themselves trapped in a cycle of self-sabotage, avoiding opportunities for fear of failure or withdrawing from social situations due to a fear of judgment or rejection. This constant self-scrutiny not only diminishes a person's capacity to enjoy life but also erects barriers to personal growth and fulfillment.

The ripple effects of a negative self-concept extend into mental health, contributing to conditions such as depression and anxiety. The relentless inner critic amplifies feelings of isolation and despair, making it challenging to seek help or engage in positive self-reflection. What's more, this skewed self-perception can strain relationships, as insecurities may manifest in defensive or withdrawn behaviors, further isolating the individual.

Overcoming a negative self-concept requires a conscious effort to acknowledge and challenge these harmful thought patterns. It involves cultivating self-compassion, seeking supportive relationships, and engaging in activities that reinforce a sense of competence and achievement. Transforming self-esteem is a gradual process, but with patience and persistence, it is possible to develop a healthier, more positive self-concept that enhances well-being and fosters a fulfilling life.

Dr. Brindusa Vanta, MD, says, "What is the difference between self-image and self-concept? A person’s self-image is based on how they see themselves. Self-concept is a more comprehensive concept involving perceptions, values, feelings, and thoughts about oneself, as described by influential psychologist Carl Rogers."

Improving Self-Esteem

Improving self-esteem is a journey that involves both introspection and action. Here are several strategies to help cultivate healthier self-esteem:

• Practice Self-Compassion: Begin by treating yourself with kindness and understanding rather than harsh judgment. Recognize that everyone makes mistakes, and yours do not define you.
• Forgive Yourself. Self-compassion involves acknowledging your emotions and forgiving yourself, which can significantly boost your self-esteem.
• Set Realistic Goals: Setting and achieving realistic goals can greatly enhance your sense of self-worth. Start with small, achievable objectives and gradually work your way up. Celebrate your successes along the way, no matter how small, to build confidence in your abilities.
• Engage in Positive Self-Talk : The dialogue you have with yourself has a profound impact on your self-esteem. Make a conscious effort to replace negative self-talk with positive affirmations. Remind yourself of your strengths, accomplishments, and qualities.
• Surround Yourself with Support : The company you keep can influence how you feel about yourself. Surround yourself with positive, supportive people who uplift you and believe in your worth. A strong support system can provide encouragement and a more positive perspective on your self-image.
• Engage in Activities You Enjoy : Participating in activities you enjoy and are good at can improve your mood and boost your confidence. Whether it's a hobby, sport, or creative pursuit, engaging in these activities regularly can reinforce your sense of competency and self-worth.
• Take Care of Your Physical Health : Physical well-being is closely linked to self-esteem. Regular exercise, a nutritious diet, and adequate sleep can improve your mood, increase your energy levels, and contribute to a more positive self-perception.
• Limit Social Media Comparison : Because people often post about the most positive aspects of their lives and celebrities usually post flawless images of themselves, social media presents unrealistic standards. Limiting your exposure to these platforms or approaching them with a critical eye can help reduce feelings of inadequacy and comparison.
• Seek Professional Help : If low self-esteem is significantly impacting your life, seeking the guidance of a mental health professional can be a valuable step. Therapy can provide strategies to help you challenge negative thought patterns and build a healthier, more positive self-image.

As Dr. Brindusa Vanta, MD, suggests, "Looking to boost your self-esteem? Take time each day to reflect on things you're grateful for. Based on research studies, practicing gratitude offers many health benefits, including improved self-esteem and overall well-being."

Improving self-esteem is not an overnight process, but with persistence and the right strategies, it's possible to cultivate a more positive self-view. By taking steps to appreciate and value yourself, you can build a foundation of self-esteem that supports a fulfilling and resilient life.

Additional Resources

As advocates of mental health and wellness, we take great pride in educating our readers on the various online therapy providers available. MentalHelp has partnered with several thought leaders in the mental health and wellness space, so we can help you make informed decisions on your wellness journey. MentalHelp may receive marketing compensation from these companies should you choose to use their services.

BetterHelp Online Therapy - BetterHelp offers online therapy services from licensed professionals through an easy-to-use website and app. To get matched with a virtual therapist, complete a brief questionnaire online or start get started with a 20% off your first month today .

Talkspace Online Therapy & Psychiatry - Licensed therapists and psychiatrists are available for virtual sessions via Talkspace . From virtual counseling to medication management services, Talkspace online therapy may be covered by your insurance provider. Simply fill out a brief assessment online to save $100 and match with a licensed therapist today .

MentalHelp may receive marketing compensation from the above-listed companies should you choose to use their services.

• Balancing Praise and Criticism
• Benefits of Healthy High Self-Esteem
• Building Self-Esteem by Changing Negative Thoughts
• Building Self-Esteem by Encouraging Children to Take On Challenges
• Building Self-Esteem by Encouraging Socialization (Group Involvement)
• Building Self-esteem by Fostering Individuality
• Building Self-Esteem with Love, Affection and Attention
• Communication Strategies to Build Children’s Self-Esteem
• Factors Influencing the Development of Self-esteem
• Fostering Self-Esteem with Communication
• Guidelines for Correcting or Disciplining Children
• Nurturing Children’s Self-Esteem Introduction
• Things You Can Do Right Away to Improve Self-Esteem
• Why Self-Esteem is Important and Its Dimensions
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder
• Mens Health
• What Is Addiction?
• Signs, Symptoms, & Effects Of Addiction
• What Causes Addiction?
• Mental Health, Dual-Diagnosis, & Behavioral Addictions
• Addiction Treatment
• Addiction Recovery
• Information On Specific Drugs
• Homosexuality And Bisexuality
• Internet Addiction
• Childhood Mental Disorders
• ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Anxiety Disorders
• Bipolar Disorder
• Depression: Major Depression & Unipolar Varieties
• Eating Disorders
• Childhood Mental Disorders And Illnesses
• Dissociative Disorders
• Impulse Control Disorders
• Internet Addiction And Media Issues
• Intellectual Disabilities
• Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Somatic Symptom And Related Disorders
• Tourettes And Other Tic Disorders
• Physical Mental Illness Flipbook
• Suicide Rates Vector Map
• Alzheimers Disease And Other Cognitive Disorders
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
• Colds And Flu
• Crohns Disease / Irritable Bowel
• Heart Disease
• High Blood Pressure
• Memory Problems
• Men's Health
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Sleep Disorders
• Women's Health
• Anger Management
• Mindfulness
• Stress Reduction And Management
• Weight Loss
• Disabilities
• Domestic Violence And Rape
• Family & Relationship Issues
• Grief & Bereavement Issues
• Pain Management
• Relationship Problems
• Self Esteem
• Terrorism & War
• Health Insurance
• Health Policy & Advocacy
• Health Sciences
• Mental Health Professions
• Alternative Mental Health Medicine
• Medications
• Psychological Testing
• Psychotherapy
• Virtual Outpatient Eating Disorder Treatment
• Child Development And Parenting: Infants
• Child Development And Parenting: Early Childhood
• Sexuality & Sexual Problems
• Homosexuality & Bisexuality
• Aging & Geriatrics
• Death & Dying
• Physical Development: Motor Development
• Vygotsky's Social Developmental Emphasis
• Bullying & Peer Abuse
• Family And Relationship Issues
• Grief And Bereavement

Essay on Self Esteem

Students are often asked to write an essay on Self Esteem in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Self Esteem

Understanding self-esteem.

Self-esteem is the opinion we have about ourselves. It’s about how much we value and respect ourselves. High self-esteem means you think highly of yourself, while low self-esteem means you don’t.

Importance of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is important because it heavily influences our choices and decisions. It allows us to live life to our potential. High self-esteem leads to confidence, happiness, fulfillment, and achievement.

Building Self-Esteem

Building self-esteem requires positive self-talk, self-acceptance, and self-love. It’s about focusing on your strengths, forgiving your mistakes, and celebrating your achievements.

250 Words Essay on Self Esteem

Introduction.

Self-esteem, a fundamental concept in psychology, refers to an individual’s overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth. It encompasses beliefs about oneself and emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. It is a critical aspect of personal identity, shaping our perception of the world and our place within it.

The Dual Facet of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem can be divided into two types: high and low. High self-esteem is characterized by a positive self-image and confidence, while low self-esteem is marked by self-doubt and criticism. Both types significantly influence our mental health, relationships, and life outcomes.

Impact of Self-Esteem

High self-esteem can lead to positive outcomes. It encourages risk-taking, resilience, and optimism, fostering success in various life domains. Conversely, low self-esteem can result in fear of failure, social anxiety, and susceptibility to mental health issues like depression. Thus, it’s crucial to nurture self-esteem for psychological well-being.

Building self-esteem involves recognizing one’s strengths and weaknesses and accepting them. It requires self-compassion and challenging negative self-perceptions. Positive affirmations, setting and achieving goals, and maintaining healthy relationships can all contribute to enhancing self-esteem.

In conclusion, self-esteem is a complex, multifaceted construct that significantly influences our lives. It is not static and can be improved with conscious effort. Understanding and nurturing our self-esteem is vital for achieving personal growth and leading a fulfilling life.

500 Words Essay on Self Esteem

Self-esteem, a fundamental aspect of psychological health, is the overall subjective emotional evaluation of one’s self-worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. The importance of self-esteem lies in the fact that it concerns our perceptions and beliefs about ourselves, which can shape our experiences and actions.

The Two Types of Self-esteem

Self-esteem can be classified into two types: high and low. High self-esteem indicates a highly favorable impression of oneself, whereas low self-esteem reflects a negative view. People with high self-esteem generally feel good about themselves and value their worth, while those with low self-esteem usually harbor negative feelings about themselves, often leading to feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, and unlovability.

Factors Influencing Self-esteem

Self-esteem is shaped by various factors throughout our lives, such as the environment, experiences, relationships, and achievements. Positive reinforcement, success, and supportive relationships often help to foster high self-esteem, while negative feedback, failure, and toxic relationships can contribute to low self-esteem. However, it’s important to note that self-esteem is not a fixed attribute; it can change over time and can be improved through cognitive and behavioral interventions.

Impact of Self-esteem on Life

Self-esteem significantly impacts individuals’ mental health, relationships, and overall well-being. High self-esteem can lead to positive outcomes, such as better stress management, resilience, and life satisfaction. On the other hand, low self-esteem is associated with mental health issues like depression and anxiety. It can also lead to poor academic and job performance, problematic relationships, and increased vulnerability to drug and alcohol abuse.

Improving Self-esteem

Improving self-esteem requires a multifaceted approach. Cognitive-behavioral therapies can help individuals challenge their negative beliefs about themselves and develop healthier thought patterns. Regular physical activity, healthy eating, and adequate sleep can also boost self-esteem by improving physical health. Furthermore, positive social interactions and relationships can enhance self-esteem by providing emotional support and validation. Lastly, self-compassion and self-care practices can foster a more positive self-image and promote higher self-esteem.

In conclusion, self-esteem is a critical component of our psychological well-being, influencing our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is shaped by various factors and can significantly impact our lives. However, it’s not a fixed attribute, and with the right strategies and support, individuals can improve their self-esteem, leading to better mental health, relationships, and overall quality of life. Therefore, understanding and fostering self-esteem is essential for personal growth and development.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Self Defence
• Essay on Self Control
• Essay on Secret of Happiness

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Search Menu
• Advance Articles
• Editor's Choice
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• Open Access
• About Health Education Research
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals Career Network
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Introduction, identity development and the sources of negative self-esteem, outcomes of poor self-esteem, mechanisms linking self-esteem and health behavior, examples of school health promotion programs that foster self-esteem, self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion.

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Michal (Michelle) Mann, Clemens M. H. Hosman, Herman P. Schaalma, Nanne K. de Vries, Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion, Health Education Research , Volume 19, Issue 4, August 2004, Pages 357–372, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg041

• Permissions Icon Permissions

Self-evaluation is crucial to mental and social well-being. It influences aspirations, personal goals and interaction with others. This paper stresses the importance of self-esteem as a protective factor and a non-specific risk factor in physical and mental health. Evidence is presented illustrating that self-esteem can lead to better health and social behavior, and that poor self-esteem is associated with a broad range of mental disorders and social problems, both internalizing problems (e.g. depression, suicidal tendencies, eating disorders and anxiety) and externalizing problems (e.g. violence and substance abuse). We discuss the dynamics of self-esteem in these relations. It is argued that an understanding of the development of self-esteem, its outcomes, and its active protection and promotion are critical to the improvement of both mental and physical health. The consequences for theory development, program development and health education research are addressed. Focusing on self-esteem is considered a core element of mental health promotion and a fruitful basis for a broad-spectrum approach.

The most basic task for one's mental, emotional and social health, which begins in infancy and continues until one dies, is the construction of his/her positive self-esteem. [( Macdonald, 1994 ), p. 19]

Self-concept is defined as the sum of an individual's beliefs and knowledge about his/her personal attributes and qualities. It is classed as a cognitive schema that organizes abstract and concrete views about the self, and controls the processing of self-relevant information ( Markus, 1977 ; Kihlstrom and Cantor, 1983 ). Other concepts, such as self-image and self-perception, are equivalents to self-concept. Self-esteem is the evaluative and affective dimension of the self-concept, and is considered as equivalent to self-regard, self-estimation and self-worth ( Harter, 1999 ). It refers to a person's global appraisal of his/her positive or negative value, based on the scores a person gives him/herself in different roles and domains of life ( Rogers, 1981 ; Markus and Nurius, 1986 ). Positive self-esteem is not only seen as a basic feature of mental health, but also as a protective factor that contributes to better health and positive social behavior through its role as a buffer against the impact of negative influences. It is seen to actively promote healthy functioning as reflected in life aspects such as achievements, success, satisfaction, and the ability to cope with diseases like cancer and heart disease. Conversely, an unstable self-concept and poor self-esteem can play a critical role in the development of an array of mental disorders and social problems, such as depression, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, anxiety, violence, substance abuse and high-risk behaviors. These conditions not only result in a high degree of personal suffering, but also impose a considerable burden on society. As will be shown, prospective studies have highlighted low self-esteem as a risk factor and positive self-esteem as a protective factor. To summarize, self-esteem is considered as an influential factor both in physical and mental health, and therefore should be an important focus in health promotion; in particular, mental health promotion.

Health promotion refers to the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their own health ( WHO, 1986 ). Subjective control as well as subjective health, each aspects of the self, are considered as significant elements of the health concept. Recognizing the existence of different views on the concept of mental health promotion, Sartorius (Sartorius, 1998), the former WHO Director of Mental Health, preferred to define it as a means by which individuals, groups or large populations can enhance their competence, self-esteem and sense of well-being. This view is supported by Tudor (Tudor, 1996) in his monograph on mental health promotion, where he presents self-concept and self-esteem as two of the core elements of mental health, and therefore as an important focus of mental health promotion.

This article aims to clarify how self-esteem is related to physical and mental health, both empirically and theoretically, and to offer arguments for enhancing self-esteem and self-concept as a major aspect of health promotion, mental health promotion and a ‘Broad-Spectrum Approach’ (BSA) in prevention.

The first section presents a review of the empirical evidence on the consequences of high and low self-esteem in the domains of mental health, health and social outcomes. The section also addresses the bi-directional nature of the relationship between self-esteem and mental health. The second section discusses the role of self-esteem in health promotion from a theoretical perspective. How are differentiations within the self-concept related to self-esteem and mental health? How does self-esteem relate to the currently prevailing theories in the field of health promotion and prevention? What are the mechanisms that link self-esteem to health and social outcomes? Several theories used in health promotion or prevention offer insight into such mechanisms. We discuss the role of positive self-esteem as a protective factor in the context of stressors, the developmental role of negative self-esteem in mental and social problems, and the role of self-esteem in models of health behavior. Finally, implications for designing a health-promotion strategy that could generate broad-spectrum outcomes through addressing common risk factors such as self-esteem are discussed. In this context, schools are considered an ideal setting for such broad-spectrum interventions. Some examples are offered of school programs that have successfully contributed to the enhancement of self-esteem, and the prevention of mental and social problems.

Self-esteem and mental well-being

Empirical studies over the last 15 years indicate that self-esteem is an important psychological factor contributing to health and quality of life ( Evans, 1997 ). Recently, several studies have shown that subjective well-being significantly correlates with high self-esteem, and that self-esteem shares significant variance in both mental well-being and happiness ( Zimmerman, 2000 ). Self-esteem has been found to be the most dominant and powerful predictor of happiness ( Furnham and Cheng, 2000 ). Indeed, while low self-esteem leads to maladjustment, positive self-esteem, internal standards and aspirations actively seem to contribute to ‘well-being’ ( Garmezy, 1984 ; Glick and Zigler, 1992 ). According to Tudor (Tudor, 1996), self-concept, identity and self-esteem are among the key elements of mental health.

Self-esteem, academic achievements and job satisfaction

The relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement is reported in a large number of studies ( Marsh and Yeung, 1997 ; Filozof et al. , 1998 ; Hay et al. , 1998 ). In the critical childhood years, positive feelings of self-esteem have been shown to increase children's confidence and success at school ( Coopersmith, 1967 ), with positive self-esteem being a predicting factor for academic success, e.g. reading ability ( Markus and Nurius, 1986 ). Results of a longitudinal study among elementary school children indicate that children with high self-esteem have higher cognitive aptitudes ( Adams, 1996 ). Furthermore, research has revealed that core self-evaluations measured in childhood and in early adulthood are linked to job satisfaction in middle age ( Judge et al. , 2000 ).

Self-esteem and coping with stress in combination with coping with physical disease

The protective nature of self-esteem is particularly evident in studies examining stress and/or physical disease in which self-esteem is shown to safeguard the individual from fear and uncertainty. This is reflected in observations of chronically ill individuals. It has been found that a greater feeling of mastery, efficacy and high self-esteem, in combination with having a partner and many close relationships, all have direct protective effects on the development of depressive symptoms in the chronically ill ( Penninx et al. , 1998 ). Self-esteem has also been shown to enhance an individual's ability to cope with disease and post-operative survival. Research on pre-transplant psychological variables and survival after bone marrow transplantation ( Broers et al. , 1998 ) indicates that high self-esteem prior to surgery is related to longer survival. Chang and Mackenzie ( Chang and Mackenzie, 1998 ) found that the level of self-esteem was a consistent factor in the prediction of the functional outcome of a patient after a stroke.

To conclude, positive self-esteem is associated with mental well-being, adjustment, happiness, success and satisfaction. It is also associated with recovery after severe diseases.

The evolving nature of self-esteem was conceptualized by Erikson ( Erikson, 1968 ) in his theory on the stages of psychosocial development in children, adolescents and adults. According to Erikson, individuals are occupied with their self-esteem and self-concept as long as the process of crystallization of identity continues. If this process is not negotiated successfully, the individual remains confused, not knowing who (s)he really is. Identity problems, such as unclear identity, diffused identity and foreclosure (an identity status based on whether or not adolescents made firm commitments in life. Persons classified as ‘foreclosed’ have made future commitments without ever experiencing the ‘crises’ of deciding what really suits them best), together with low self-esteem, can be the cause and the core of many mental and social problems ( Marcia et al. , 1993 ).

The development of self-esteem during childhood and adolescence depends on a wide variety of intra-individual and social factors. Approval and support, especially from parents and peers, and self-perceived competence in domains of importance are the main determinants of self-esteem [for a review, see ( Harter, 1999 )]. Attachment and unconditional parental support are critical during the phases of self-development. This is a reciprocal process, as individuals with positive self-esteem can better internalize the positive view of significant others. For instance, in their prospective study among young adolescents, Garber and Flynn ( Garber and Flynn, 2001 ) found that negative self-worth develops as an outcome of low maternal acceptance, a maternal history of depression and exposure to negative interpersonal contexts, such as negative parenting practices, early history of child maltreatment, negative feedback from significant others on one's competence, and family discord and disruption.

Other sources of negative self-esteem are discrepancies between competing aspects of the self, such as between the ideal and the real self, especially in domains of importance. The larger the discrepancy between the value a child assigns to a certain competence area and the perceived self-competence in that area, the lower the feeling of self-esteem ( Harter, 1999 ). Furthermore, discrepancies can exist between the self as seen by oneself and the self as seen by significant others. As implied by Harter ( Harter, 1999 ), this could refer to contrasts that might exist between self-perceived competencies and the lack of approval or support by parents or peers.

Finally, negative and positive feelings of self-worth could be the result of a cognitive, inferential process, in which children observe and evaluate their own behaviors and competencies in specific domains (self-efficacy). The poorer they evaluate their competencies, especially in comparison to those of their peers or to the standards of significant others, the more negative their self-esteem. Such self-monitoring processes can be negatively or positively biased by a learned tendency to negative or positive thinking ( Seligman et al. , 1995 ).

The outcomes of negative self-esteem can be manifold. Poor self-esteem can result in a cascade of diminishing self-appreciation, creating self-defeating attitudes, psychiatric vulnerability, social problems or risk behaviors. The empirical literature highlights the negative outcomes of low self-esteem. However, in several studies there is a lack of clarity regarding causal relations between self-esteem and problems or disorders ( Flay and Ordway, 2001 ). This is an important observation, as there is reason to believe that self-esteem should be examined not only as a cause, but also as a consequence of problem behavior. For example, on the one hand, children could have a negative view about themselves and that might lead to depressive feelings. On the other hand, depression or lack of efficient functioning could lead to feeling bad, which might decrease self-esteem. Although the directionality can work both ways, this article concentrates on the evidence for self-esteem as a potential risk factor for mental and social outcomes. Three clusters of outcomes can be differentiated. The first are mental disorders with internalizing characteristics, such as depression, eating disorders and anxiety. The second are poor social outcomes with externalizing characteristics including aggressive behavior, violence and educational exclusion. The third is risky health behavior such as drug abuse and not using condoms.

Self-esteem and internalizing mental disorders

Self-esteem plays a significant role in the development of a variety of mental disorders. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV), negative or unstable self-perceptions are a key component in the diagnostic criteria of major depressive disorders, manic and hypomanic episodes, dysthymic disorders, dissociative disorders, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and in personality disorders, such as borderline, narcissistic and avoidant behavior. Negative self-esteem is also found to be a risk factor, leading to maladjustment and even escapism. Lacking trust in themselves, individuals become unable to handle daily problems which, in turn, reduces the ability to achieve maximum potential. This could lead to an alarming deterioration in physical and mental well-being. A decline in mental health could result in internalizing problem behavior such as depression, anxiety and eating disorders. The outcomes of low self-esteem for these disorders are elaborated below.

Depressed moods, depression and suicidal tendencies

The clinical literature suggests that low self-esteem is related to depressed moods ( Patterson and Capaldi, 1992 ), depressive disorders ( Rice et al. , 1998 ; Dori and Overholser, 1999 ), hopelessness, suicidal tendencies and attempted suicide ( Overholser et al. , 1995 ). Correlational studies have consistently shown a significant negative relationship between self-esteem and depression ( Beck et al. , 1990 ; Patton, 1991 ). Campbell et al. ( Campbell et al. , 1991 ) found individual appraisal of events to be clearly related to their self-esteem. Low self-esteem subjects rated their daily events as less positive and negative life events as being more personally important than high self-esteem subjects. Individuals with high self-esteem made more stable and global internal attributions for positive events than for negative events, leading to the reinforcement of their positive self-image. Subjects low in self-esteem, however, were more likely to associate negative events to stable and global internal attributions, and positive events to external factors and luck ( Campbell et al. , 1991 ). There is a growing body of evidence that individuals with low self-esteem more often report a depressed state, and that there is a link between dimensions of attributional style, self-esteem and depression ( Abramson et al. , 1989 ; Hammen and Goodman-Brown, 1990 ).

Some indications of the causal role of self-esteem result from prospective studies. In longitudinal studies, low self-esteem during childhood ( Reinherz et al. , 1993 ), adolescence ( Teri, 1982 ) and early adulthood ( Wilhelm et al. , 1999 ) was identified as a crucial predictor of depression later in life. Shin ( Shin, 1993 ) found that when cumulative stress, social support and self-esteem were introduced subsequently in regression analysis, of the latter two, only self-esteem accounted for significant additional variance in depression. In addition, Brown et al. ( Brown et al. , 1990 ) showed that positive self-esteem, although closely associated with inadequate social support, plays a role as a buffer factor. There appears to be a pathway from not living up to personal standards, to low self-esteem and to being depressed ( Harter, 1986 , 1990 ; Higgins, 1987 , 1989 ; Baumeister, 1990 ). Alternatively, another study indicated that when examining the role of life events and difficulties, it was found that total level of stress interacted with low self-esteem in predicting depression, whereas self-esteem alone made no direct contribution ( Miller et al. , 1989 ). To conclude, results of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have shown that low self-esteem is predictive of depression.

The potentially detrimental impact of low self-esteem in depressive disorders stresses the significance of Seligman's recent work on ‘positive psychology’. His research indicates that teaching children to challenge their pessimistic thoughts whilst increasing positive subjective thinking (and bolstering self-esteem) can reduce the risk of pathologies such as depression ( Seligman, 1995 ; Seligman et al. , 1995 ; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ).

Other internalizing disorders

Although low self-esteem is most frequently associated with depression, a relationship has also been found with other internalizing disorders, such as anxiety and eating disorders. Research results indicate that self-esteem is inversely correlated with anxiety and other signs of psychological and physical distress ( Beck et al. , 2001 ). For example, Ginsburg et al. ( Ginsburg et al. , 1998 ) observed a low level of self-esteem in highly socially anxious children. Self-esteem was shown to serve the fundamental psychological function of buffering anxiety, with the pursuit of self-esteem as a defensive avoidance tool against basic human fears. This mechanism of defense has become evident in research with primary ( Ginsburg et al. , 1998 ) and secondary school children ( Fickova, 1999 ). In addition, empirical studies have shown that bolstering self-esteem in adults reduces anxiety ( Solomon et al. , 2000 ).

The critical role of self-esteem during school years is clearly reflected in studies on eating disorders. At this stage in life, weight, body shape and dieting behavior become intertwined with identity. Researchers have reported low self-esteem as a risk factor in the development of eating disorders in female school children and adolescents ( Fisher et al. , 1994 ; Smolak et al. , 1996 ; Shisslak et al. , 1998 ), as did prospective studies ( Vohs et al. , 2001 ). Low self-esteem also seems predictive of the poor outcome of treatment in such disorders, as has been found in a recent 4-year prospective follow-up study among adolescent in-patients with bulimic characteristics ( van der Ham et al. , 1998 ). The significant influence of self-esteem on body image has led to programs in which the promotion of self-esteem is used as a main preventive tool in eating disorders ( St Jeor, 1993 ; Vickers, 1993 ; Scarano et al. , 1994 ).

To sum up, there is a systematic relation between self-esteem and internalizing problem behavior. Moreover, there is enough prospective evidence to suggest that poor self-esteem might contribute to deterioration of internalizing problem behavior while improvement of self-esteem could prevent such deterioration.

Self-esteem, externalizing problems and other poor social outcomes

For more than two decades, scientists have studied the relationship between self-esteem and externalizing problem behaviors, such as aggression, violence, youth delinquency and dropping out of school. The outcomes of self-esteem for these disorders are described below.

Violence and aggressive behavior

While the causes of such behaviors are multiple and complex, many researchers have identified self-esteem as a critical factor in crime prevention, rehabilitation and behavioral change ( Kressly, 1994 ; Gilbert, 1995 ). In a recent longitudinal questionnaire study among high-school adolescents, low self-esteem was one of the key risk factors for problem behavior ( Jessor et al. , 1998 ).

Recent studies confirm that high self-esteem is significantly associated with less violence ( Fleming et al. , 1999 ; Horowitz, 1999 ), while a lack of self-esteem significantly increases the risk of violence and gang membership ( Schoen, 1999 ). Results of a nationwide study of bullying behavior in Ireland show that children who were involved in bullying as either bullies, victims or both had significantly lower self-esteem than other children ( Schoen, 1999 ). Adolescents with low self-esteem were found to be more vulnerable to delinquent behavior. Interestingly, delinquency was positively associated with inflated self-esteem among these adolescents after performing delinquent behavior ( Schoen, 1999 ). According to Kaplan's self-derogation theory of delinquency (Kaplan, 1975), involvement in delinquent behavior with delinquent peers can increase children's self-esteem and sense of belonging. It was also found that individuals with extremely high levels of self-esteem and narcissism show high tendencies to express anger and aggression ( Baumeister et al. , 2000 ). To conclude, positive self-esteem is associated with less aggressive behavior. Although most studies in the field of aggressive behavior, violence and delinquency are correlational, there is some prospective evidence that low self-esteem is a risk factor in the development of problem behavior. Interestingly, low self-esteem as well as high and inflated self-esteem are both associated with the development of aggressive symptoms.

School dropout

Dropping out from the educational system could also reflect rebellion or antisocial behavior resulting from identity diffusion (an identity status based on whether or not adolescents made firm commitments in life. Adolescents classified as ‘diffuse’ have not yet thought about identity issues or, having thought about them, have failed to make any firm future oriented commitments). For instance, Muha ( Muha, 1991 ) has shown that while self-image and self-esteem contribute to competent functioning in childhood and adolescence, low self-esteem can lead to problems in social functioning and school dropout. The social consequences of such problem behaviors may be considerable for both the individual and the wider community. Several prevention programs have reduced the dropout rate of students at risk ( Alice, 1993 ; Andrews, 1999 ). All these programs emphasize self-esteem as a crucial element in dropout prevention.

Self-esteem and risk behavior

The impact of self-esteem is also evident in risk behavior and physical health. In a longitudinal study, Rouse ( Rouse, 1998 ) observed that resilient adolescents had higher self-esteem than their non-resilient peers and that they were less likely to initiate a variety of risk behaviors. Positive self-esteem is considered as a protective factor against substance abuse. Adolescents with more positive self-concepts are less likely to use alcohol or drugs ( Carvajal et al. , 1998 ), while those suffering with low self-esteem are at a higher risk for drug and alcohol abuse, and tobacco use ( Crump et al. , 1997 ; Jones and Heaven, 1998 ). Carvajal et al. ( Carvajal et al. , 1998 ) showed that optimism, hope and positive self-esteem are determinants of avoiding substance abuse by adolescents, mediated by attitudes, perceived norms and perceived behavioral control. Although many studies support the finding that improving self-esteem is an important component of substance abuse prevention ( Devlin, 1995 ; Rodney et al. , 1996 ), some studies found no support for the association between self-esteem and heavy alcohol use ( Poikolainen et al. , 2001 ).

Empirical evidence suggests that positive self-esteem can also lead to behavior which is protective against contracting AIDS, while low self-esteem contributes to vulnerability to HIV/AIDS ( Rolf and Johnson, 1992 ; Somali et al. , 2001 ). The risk level increases in cases where subjects have low self-esteem and where their behavior reflects efforts to be accepted by others or to gain attention, either positively or negatively ( Reston, 1991 ). Lower self-esteem was also related to sexual risk-taking and needle sharing among homeless ethnic-minority women recovering from drug addiction ( Nyamathi, 1991 ). Abel ( Abel, 1998 ) observed that single females whose partners did not use condoms had lower self-esteem than single females whose partners did use condoms. In a study of gay and/or bisexual men, low self-esteem proved to be one of the factors that made it difficult to reduce sexual risk behavior ( Paul et al. , 1993 ).

To summarize, the literature reveals a number of studies showing beneficial outcomes of positive self-esteem, and conversely, negative outcomes of poor self-esteem, especially in adolescents. Prospective studies and intervention studies have shown that self-esteem can be a causal factor in depression, anxiety, eating disorders, delinquency, school dropout, risk behavior, social functioning, academic success and satisfaction. However, the cross-sectional character of many other studies does not exclude that low self-esteem can also be considered as an important consequence of such disorders and behavioral problems.

To assess the implications of these findings for mental health promotion and preventive interventions, more insight is needed into the antecedents of poor self-esteem, and the mechanisms that link self-esteem to mental, physical and social outcomes.

What are the mechanisms that link self-esteem to health and social outcomes? Several theories used in health promotion or prevention offer insight into such mechanisms. In this section we discuss the role of positive self-esteem as a protective factor in the context of stressors, the developmental role of negative self-esteem in mental and social problems, and the role of self-esteem in models of health behavior.

Positive thinking about oneself as a protective factor in the context of stressors

People have a need to think positively about themselves, to defend and to improve their positive self-esteem, and even to overestimate themselves. Self-esteem represents a motivational force that influences perceptions and coping behavior. In the context of negative messages and stressors, positive self-esteem can have various protective functions.

Research on optimism confirms that a somewhat exaggerated sense of self-worth facilitates mastery, leading to better mental health ( Seligman, 1995 ). Evidence suggests that positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perception of control or mastery and unrealistic optimism are all characteristic of normal human thought, and that certain delusions may contribute to mental health and well-being ( Taylor and Brown, 1988 ). The mentally healthy person appears to have the capacity to distort reality in a direction that protects and enhances self-esteem. Conversely, individuals who are moderately depressed or low in self-esteem consistently display an absence of such enhancing delusions. Self-esteem could thus be said to serve as a defense mechanism that promotes well-being by protecting internal balance. Jahoda ( Jahoda, 1958 ) also included the ‘adequate perception of reality’ as a basic element of mental health. The degree of such a defense, however, has its limitations. The beneficial effect witnessed in reasonably well-balanced individuals becomes invalid in cases of extreme self-esteem and significant distortions of the self-concept. Seligman ( Seligman, 1995 ) claimed that optimism should not be based on unrealistic or heavily biased perceptions.

Viewing yourself positively can also be regarded as a very important psychological resource for coping. We include in this category those general and specific beliefs that serve as a basis for hope and that sustain coping efforts in the face of the most adverse condition… Hope can exist only when such beliefs make a positive outcome seem possible, if not probable. [( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ), p. 159]

Incidence = organic causes and stressors/competence, coping skills, self-esteem and social support

Identity, self-esteem, and the development of externalizing and internalizing problems

Erikson's ( Erikson, 1965 , 1968 ) theory on the stages of psychosocial development in children, adolescents, and adults and Herbert's flow chart ( Herbert, 1987 ) focus on the vicissitudes of identity and the development of unhealthy mental and social problems. According to these theories, when a person is enduringly confused about his/her own identity, he/she may possess an inherent lack of self-reassurance which results in either a low level of self-esteem or in unstable self-esteem and feelings of insecurity. However, low self-esteem—likewise inflated self-esteem—can also lead to identity problems. Under circumstances of insecurity and low self-esteem, the individual evolves in one of two ways: he/she takes the active escape route or the passive avoidance route ( Herbert, 1987 ). The escape route is associated with externalizing behaviors: aggressive behavior, violence and school dropout, the seeking of reassurance in others through high-risk behavior, premature relationships, cults or gangs. Reassurance and security may also be sought through drugs, alcohol or food. The passive avoidance route is associated with internalizing factors: feelings of despair and depression. Extreme avoidance may even result in suicidal behavior.

Whether identity and self-esteem problems express themselves following the externalizing active escape route or the internalizing passive avoidance route is dependent on personality characteristics and circumstances, life events and social antecedents (e.g. gender and parental support) ( Hebert, 1987 ). Recent studies consistently show gender differences regarding externalizing and internalizing behaviors among others in a context of low self-esteem ( Block and Gjerde, 1986 ; Rolf et al. , 1990 ; Harter, 1999 ; Benjet and Hernandez-Guzman, 2001 ). Girls are more likely to have internalizing symptoms than boys; boys are more likely to have externalizing symptoms. Moreover, according to Harter ( Harter, 1999 ), in recent studies girls appear to be better than boys in positive self-evaluation in the domain of behavioral conduct. Self-perceived behavioral conduct is assessed as the individual view on how well behaved he/she is and how he/she views his/her behavior in accordance with social expectations ( Harter, 1999 ). Negative self-perceived behavioral conduct is also found to be an important factor in mediating externalizing problems ( Reda-Norton, 1995 ; Hoffman, 1999 ).

The internalization of parental approval or disapproval is critical during childhood and adolescence. Studies have identified parents' and peers' supportive reactions (e.g. involvement, positive reinforcement, and acceptance) as crucial determinants of children's self-esteem and adjustment ( Shadmon, 1998 ). In contrast to secure, harmonious parent–child relationships, poor family relationships are associated with internalizing problems and depression ( Kashubeck and Christensen, 1993 ; Oliver and Paull, 1995 ).

Self-esteem in health behavior models

Self-esteem also plays a role in current cognitive models of health behavior. Health education research based on the Theory of Planned Behavior ( Ajzen, 1991 ) has confirmed the role of self-efficacy as a behavioral determinant ( Godin and Kok, 1996 ). Self-efficacy refers to the subjective evaluation of control over a specific behavior. While self-concepts and their evaluations could be related to specific behavioral domains, self-esteem is usually defined as a more generic attitude towards the self. One can have high self-efficacy for a specific task or behavior, while one has a negative evaluation of self-worth and vice versa. Nevertheless, both concepts are frequently intertwined since people often try to develop self-efficacy in activities that give them self-worth ( Strecher et al. , 1986 ). Self-efficacy and self-esteem are therefore not identical, but nevertheless related. The development of self-efficacy in behavioral domains of importance can contribute to positive self-esteem. On the other hand, the levels of self-esteem and self-confidence can influence self-efficacy, as is assumed in stress and coping theories.

The Attitude–Social influence–self-Efficacy (ASE) model ( De Vries and Mudde, 1998 ; De Vries et al. , 1988a ) and the Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI) ( Flay and Petraitis, 1994 ) are recent theories that provide a broad perspective on health behavior. These theories include distal factors that influence proximal behavioral determinants ( De Vries et al. , 1998b ) and specify more distal streams of influence for each of the three core determinants in the Planned Behavior Model ( Azjen, 1991 ) (attitudes, self-efficacy and social normative beliefs). Each of these behavioral determinants is assumed to be moderated by several distal factors, including self-esteem and mental disorders.

The TTI regards self-esteem in the same sense as the ASE, as a distal factor. According to this theory, self-efficacy is influenced by personality characteristics, especially the ‘sense of self’, which includes self-integration, self-image and self-esteem ( Flay and Petraitis, 1994 ).

The Precede–Proceed model of Green and Kreuter (Green and Kreuter, 1991) for the planning of health education and health promotion also recognizes the role of self-esteem. The model directs health educators to specify characteristics of health problems, and to take multiple determinants of health and health-related behavior into account. It integrates an epidemiological, behavioral and environmental approach. The staged Precede–Proceed framework supports health educators in identifying and influencing the multiple factors that shape health status, and evaluating the changes produced by interventions. Self-esteem plays a role in the first and fourth phase of the Precede–Proceed model, as an outcome variable and as a determinant. The initial phase of social diagnosis, analyses the quality of life of the target population. Green and Kreuter [(Green and Kreuter, 1991), p. 27] present self-esteem as one of the outcomes of health behavior and health status, and as a quality of life indicator. The fourth phase of the model, which concerns the educational and organizational diagnosis, describes three clusters of behavioral determinants: predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors. Predisposing factors provide the rationale or motivation for behavior, such as knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, values, and perceived needs and abilities [(Green and Kreuter, 1991), p. 154]. Self-knowledge, general self-appraisal and self-efficacy are considered as predisposing factors.

To summarize, self-esteem can function both as a determinant and as an outcome of healthy behavior within health behavior models. Poor self-esteem can trigger poor coping behavior or risk behavior that subsequently increases the likelihood of certain diseases among which are mental disorders. On the other hand, the presence of poor coping behavior and ill-health can generate or reinforce a negative self-image.

Self-esteem in a BSA to mental health promotion and prevention in schools

Given the evidence supporting the role of self-esteem as a core element in physical and mental health, it is recommended that its potential in future health promotion and prevention programs be reconsidered.

The design of future policies for mental health promotion and the prevention of mental disorders is currently an area of active debate ( Hosman, 2000 ). A key question in the discussion is which is more effective: a preventive approach focusing on specific disorders or a more generic preventive approach?

Based on the evidence supporting the role of self-esteem as a non-specific risk factor and protective factor in the development of mental disorders and social problems, we advocate a generic preventive approach built around the ‘self’. In general, changing common risk and protective factors (e.g. self-esteem, coping skills, social support) and adopting a generic preventive approach can reduce the risk of the development of a range of mental disorders and promote individual well-being even before the onset of a specific problem has presented itself. Given its multi-outcome perspective, we have termed this strategy the ‘BSA’ in prevention and promotion.

Self-esteem is considered one of the important elements of the BSA. By fostering self-esteem, and hence treating a common risk factor, it is possible to contribute to the prevention of an array of physical diseases, mental disorders and social problems challenging society today. This may also, at a later date, imply the prevention of a shift to other problem behaviors or symptoms which might occur when only problem-specific risk factors are addressed. For example, an eating disorder could be replaced by another type of symptom, such as alcohol abuse, smoking, social anxiety or depression, when only the eating behavior itself is addressed and not more basic causes, such as poor self-esteem, high stress levels and lack of social support. Although there is, as yet, no published research on such a shift phenomenon, the high level of co-morbidity between such problems might reflect the likelihood of its existence. Numerous studies support the idea of co-morbidity and showed that many mental disorders have overlapping associated risk factors such as self-esteem. There is a significant degree of co-morbidity between and within internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors such as depression, anxiety, substance disorders and delinquency ( Harrington et al. , 1996 ; Angold et al. , 1999 ; Swendsen and Merikangas, 2000 ). By considering the individual as a whole, within the BSA, the risk of such an eventuality could be reduced.

The BSA could have practical implications. Schools are an ideal setting for implementing BSA programs, thereby aiming at preventing an array of problems, since they cover the entire population. They have the means and responsibility for the promotion of healthy behavior for such a common risk and protective factor, since school children are in their formative stage. A mental health promotion curriculum oriented towards emotional and social learning could include a focus on enhancing self-esteem. Weare ( Weare, 2000 ) stressed that schools need to aim at helping children develop a healthy sense of self-esteem as part of the development of their ‘intra-personal intelligence’. According to Gardner (Gardner, 1993) ‘intra-personal intelligence’ is the ability to form an accurate model of oneself and the ability to use it to operate effectively in life. Self-esteem, then, is an important component of this ability. Serious thought should be given to the practical implementation of these ideas.

It is important to clearly define the nature of a BSA program designed to foster self-esteem within the school setting. In our opinion, such a program should include important determinants of self-esteem, i.e. competence and social support.

Harter ( Harter, 1999 ) stated that competence and social support, together provide a powerful explanation of the level of self-esteem. According to Harter's research on self-perceived competence, every child experiences some discrepancy between what he/she would like to be, the ‘ideal self’, and his/her actual perception of him/herself, ‘the real self’. When this discrepancy is large and it deals with a personally relevant domain, this will result in lower self-esteem. Moreover, the overall sense of support of significant others (especially parents, peers and teachers) is also influential for the development of self-esteem. Children who feel that others accept them, and are unconditionally loved and respected, will report a higher sense of self-esteem ( Bee, 2000 ). Thus, children with a high discrepancy and a low sense of social support reported the lowest sense of self-esteem. These results suggest that efforts to improve self-esteem in children require both supportive social surroundings and the formation and acceptance of realistic personal goals in the personally relevant domains ( Harter, 1999 ).

In addition to determinants such as competence and social support, we need to translate the theoretical knowledge on coping with inner self-processes (e.g. inconsistencies between the real and ideal self) into practice, in order to perform a systematic intervention regarding the self. Harter's work offers an important foundation for this. Based on her own and others' research on the development of the self, she suggests the following principles to prevent the development of negative self-esteem and to enhance self-worth ( Harter, 1999 ):

Reduction of the discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self.

Encouragement of relatively realistic self-perceptions.

Encouraging the belief that positive self-evaluations can be achieved.

Appreciation for the individual's views about their self-esteem and individual perceptions on causes and consequences of self-worth.

Increasing awareness of the origins of negative self-perceptions.

Providing a more integrated personal construct while improving understanding of self-contradictions.

Encouraging the individual and his/her significant others to promote the social support they give and receive.

Fostering internalization of positive opinions of others.

Haney and Durlak ( Haney and Durlak, 1998 ) wrote a meta-analytical review of 116 intervention studies for children and adolescents. Most studies indicated significant improvement in children's and adolescents' self-esteem and self-concept, and as a result of this change, significant changes in behavioral, personality, and academic functioning. Haney and Durlak reported on the possible impact improved self-esteem had on the onset of social problems. However, their study did not offer an insight into the potential effect of enhanced self-esteem on mental disorders.

Several mental health-promoting school programs that have addressed self-esteem and the determinants of self-esteem in practice, were effective in the prevention of eating disorders ( O'Dea and Abraham, 2000 ), problem behavior ( Flay and Ordway, 2001 ), and the reduction of substance abuse, antisocial behavior and anxiety ( Short, 1998 ). We shall focus on the first two programs because these are universal programs, which focused on ‘mainstream’ school children. The prevention of eating disorders program ‘Everybody's Different’ ( O'Dea and Abraham, 2000 ) is aimed at female adolescents aged 11–14 years old. It was developed in response to the poor efficacy of conventional body-image education in improving body image and eating behavior. ‘Everybody's Different’ has adopted an alternative methodology built on an interactive, school-based, self-esteem approach and is designed to prevent the development of eating disorders by improving self-esteem. The program has significantly changed aspects of self-esteem, body satisfaction, social acceptance and physical appearance. Female students targeted by the intervention rated their physical appearance, as perceived by others, significantly higher than control-group students, and allowed their body weight to increase appropriately by refraining from weight-loss behavior seen in the control group. These findings were still evident after 12 months. This is one of the first controlled educational interventions that had successfully improved body image and produced long-term changes in the attitudes and self-image of young adolescents.

The ‘Positive Action Program’ ( Flay and Ordway, 2001 ) serves as a unique example of some BSA principles in practice. The program addresses the challenge of increasing self-esteem, reducing problem behavior and improving school performance. The types of problem behavior in question were delinquent behavior, ‘misdemeanors’ and objection to school rules ( Flay and Ordway, 2001 ). This program concentrates on self-concept and self-esteem, but also includes other risk and protective factors, such as positive actions, self-control, social skills and social support that could be considered as determinants of self-esteem. Other important determinants of self-esteem, such as coping with internal self-processes, are not addressed. At present, the literature does not provide many examples of BSA studies that produce general preventive effects among adolescents who do not (yet) display behavioral problems ( Greenberg et al. , 2000 ).

To conclude, research results show beneficial outcomes of positive self-esteem, which is seen to be associated with mental well-being, happiness, adjustment, success, academic achievements and satisfaction. It is also associated with better recovery after severe diseases. However, the evolving nature of self-esteem could also result in negative outcomes. For example, low self-esteem can be a causal factor in depression, anxiety, eating disorders, poor social functioning, school dropout and risk behavior. Interestingly, the cross-sectional characteristic of many studies does not exclude the possibility that low self-esteem can also be considered as an important consequence of such disorders and behavioral problems.

Self-esteem is an important risk and protective factor linked to a diversity of health and social outcomes. Therefore, self-esteem enhancement can serve as a key component in a BSA approach in prevention and health promotion. The design and implementation of mental health programs with self-esteem as one of the core variables is an important and promising development in health promotion.

The authors are grateful to Dr Alastair McElroy for his constructive comments on this paper. The authors wish to thank Rianne Kasander (MA) and Chantal Van Ree (MA) for their assistance in the literature search. Financing for this study was generously provided by the Dutch Health Research and Development Council (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland, ZON/MW).

Abel, E. ( 1998 ) Sexual risk behaviors among ship and shore based Navy women. Military Medicine , 163 , 250 –256.

Abramson, L.Y., Metalsky, G.I. and Alloy, L.B. ( 1989 ) Hopelessness depression: a theory based subtype of depression. Psychological Review , 96 , 358 –372.

Adams, M.J. ( 1996 ) Youth in crisis: an examination of adverse risk factors effecting children's cognitive and behavioral–emotional development, children ages 10–16. Dissertation Abstracts International A: Humanities and Social Sciences , 56 (8-A), 3313 .

Ajzen, I. ( 1991 ) The theory of planned behavior. Organizational and Human Decision Processes , 50 , 179 –211.

Albee, G.W. ( 1985 ) The argument for primary prevention. Journal of primary prevention , 5 , 213 –219.

Alice, E. ( 1993 ) Mediating at risk factors among seventh and eighth grade students with specific learning disabilities using a holistically based model. Dissertation , Nove University.

Andrews, E.J. ( 1999 ) The effects of a self-improvement program on the self-esteem of single college mothers. Dissertation Abstracts International A: Humanities and Social Sciences , 60 (2-A), 0345 .

Angold, A., Costello, E.J. and Erkanli, A. ( 1999 ) Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 40 , 57 –87.

Bandura, A. ( 1977 ) Social Learning Theory . Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Bandura, A. ( 1986 ) Social Foundations of Thought And Action: A Social Cognitive Theory . Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Baumeister, R.F. ( 1990 ) Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review , 97 , 90 –113.

Baumeister, R.F., Bushman, B.J. and Campbell, W.K. ( 2000 ) Self-esteem, narcissism and aggression: does violence result from low self-esteem or from threatened egotism? Current Directions in Psychological Science , 9 , 26 –29.

Beck, A., Steer, R.A., Epstein, N. and Brown, G. ( 1990 ) Beck Self Concept Test. Psychological Assessment , 2 , 191 –197.

Beck, A.T., Brown, G.K., Steer, R.A., Kuyken, W. and Grisham, J. ( 2001 ) Psychometric properties of the Beck Self-Esteem Scales. Behavior Research and Therapy , 39 , 115 –124.

Bee, H.L. ( 2000 ) The Developing Child , 9th edn. Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA.

Benjet, C. and Hernandez-Guzman, L. ( 2001 ) Gender differences in psychological well-being of Mexican early adolescents. Adolescence , 36 , 47 –65.

Block, J. and Gjerde, P.F. ( 1986 ) Distinguishing between antisocial behavior and under control. In Olweus, D., Block, J. and Radke-Yarrow, M. (eds), Development of Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior: Research , Theories and Issues . Academic Press, New York, pp. 117–206.

Bowlby, J. ( 1980 ) Attachment and Loss III: Loss Sadness and Depression . Hogarth Press, London.

Broers, S., Hengeveld, M.W., Kaptein, A.A., Le-Cessie, S., van de Loo, F. and de Vries, T. ( 1998 ) Are pretransplant psychological variables related to survival after bone marrow transplantation? A prospective study of 123 consecutive patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 45 , 341 –351.

Brown, G.W., Bifluco, A. and Andrews, B. ( 1990 ) Self esteem and depression 3. Aetiological issues. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatry Epidemiology , 25 , 235 –243.

Burns, R. ( 1982 ) Self Concept—Developing and Education . Dorset Press, Dorchester.

Campbell, J.D., Chew, B. and Scrathley, L. ( 1991 ) Cognitive and emotional reactions to daily events: the effects of self esteem and self complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 , 473 –505.

Caplan, N. ( 1974 ) Who's to blame? Psychology Today , 8 , 99 –104.

Carvajal, S.C., Clair, S.D., Nash, S.G. and Evans, R.I. ( 1998 ) Relating optimism, hope and self-esteem to social influences in deterring substance use in adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 17 , 443 –465.

Chang, A.M. and Mackenzie, A.E. ( 1998 ) State self-esteem following stroke. Stroke , 29 , 2325 –2328.

Coopersmith, S. ( 1967 ) The Antecedents of Self Esteem . Freeman, San Francisco, CA.

Crump, R., Lillie-Blanton, M. and Anthony, J. ( 1997 ) The influence of self esteem on smoking among African American school children. Journal of Drug Education , 27 , 277 –291.

De Vries, H. and Mudde, A.N. ( 1998 ) Predicting stage transitions for smoking cessation applying the Attitude–Social influence–Efficacy Model. Psychology and Health , 13 , 369 –385.

De Vries, H., Dijkstra, M. and Kuhlman, P. ( 1988 a) Self-efficacy: the third factor besides attitude and subjective norm as predictor of behavioral intentions. Health Education Journal , 3 , 273 –282.

De Vries, H., Mudde, A.N., Dijkstra, A. and Willemsen, M.C. ( 1998 b) Differential beliefs, perceived social influences and self-efficacy expectations among smokers in various motivational phases. Preventive Medicine , 27 , 681 –689.

Devlin, S.D. ( 1995 ) Drug use in rural America: what you can do about it. Conference Proceedings of the American Council of Rural Special Education . ACRES, Las Vegas, NV.

Dori, G.A. and Overholser, J.C. ( 1999 ) Depression, hopelessness and self-esteem: accounting for suicidality in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior , 29 , 309 –318.

Erikson, E.H. ( 1965 ) Childhood and Society . Norton, New York.

Erikson, E.H. ( 1968 ) Youth , Identity and Crisis . Norton, New York.

Evans, D.R. ( 1997 ) Health promotion, wellness programs, quality of life and the marketing of psychology. Canadian Psychology , 38 , 1 –12.

Fickova, E. ( 1999 ) Personality dimensions and self esteem indicators relationship. Studia Psychologica , 41 , 323 –328.

Filozof, E., Albertin, H., Jones, C., Sterne, S., Myers, L. and McDermott, R. ( 1998 ) Relationship of adolescent self esteem to selected academic variables. Journal of School Health , 68 , 68 –72.

Fisher, M., Pastore, P., Schneider, M., Pegler, C. and Napolitano, B. ( 1994 ) Eating attitudes in urban and suburban adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 16 , 67 –74.

Flay, B.R. and Ordway, N. ( 2001 ) Effects of the positive action program on achievement and discipline: two matched- control comparisons. Prevention Science , 2 , 71 –89.

Flay, B.R. and Petraitis, J. ( 1994 ) The theory of triadic influence: a new theory of health behavior with implications for preventive interventions. Advances in Medical Sociology , 4 , 19 –44.

Fleming, J., Mullen, P.E., Sibthorpe, B. and Bammer, G. ( 1999 ) The long-term impact of childhood sexual abuse in Australian women. Child Abuse and Neglect , 23 , 145 –159.

Furnham, A. and Cheng, H. ( 2000 ) Lay theories of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies , 1 , 227 –246.

Garber, J. and Flynn, C. ( 2001 ) Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Theory and Research , 25 , 353 –376.

Garmezy, N. ( 1984 ) The study of stress and competence in children: a building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development , 55 , 97 –111.

Gilbert, S.E. ( 1995 ) Violence in schools: why and what can we do about it? Journal of Health Care , 6 , 205 –208.

Ginsburg, G.S., La Greca, A.M. and Silverman, W.K. ( 1998 ) Social anxiety in children with anxiety disorders: relation with social and emotional functioning. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 26 , 175 –185.

Glick, M. and Zigler, E. ( 1992 ) Premorbid competence and the courses and outcomes of psychiatric disorders. In Rolf, J., Masten, A.S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K.H. and Weintraub, S. (eds), Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Psychopathology . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 497–513.

Godin, G. and Kok, G. ( 1996 ) The Theory of Planned Behavior: a review of its applications to health-related behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion , 11 , 87 –98.

Greenberg, M.T., Domitrovich, C. and Bumbarger, B. ( 2000 ) Preventing Mental Disorders in School-age Children: A Review of the Effectiveness of Prevention Programs . Prevention Research Center for the Promotion of Human Development, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Hammen, C. and Goodman-Brown, T. ( 1990 ) Self schemes and vulnerability in specific life stress in children at risk for depression. Cognitive Theory and Research , 14 , 215 –227.

Haney, P. and Durlak, J.A. ( 1998 ) Changing self-esteem in children and adolescents. A meta analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology , 27 , 423 –433.

Harrington, R., Rutter, M. and Fombonne, E. ( 1996 ) Developmental pathways in depression: multiple meanings, antecedents and points. Development and Psychopathology , 8 , 601 –616.

Harter, S. ( 1986 ) Processes underlying the construction, maintenance and enhancement of the self-concept in children. In Suls, J. and Greenwald, A.G. (eds), Psychological Perspectives on the Self . Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, vol. 3, pp. 137–181.

Harter, S. ( 1990 ) Causes, correlates and functional role of global self worth: a life span perspective. In Kollgian, J. and Sternberg, R. (eds), Perceptions of Competence and Incompetence across Life Span . Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 67–98.

Harter, S. ( 1999 ) The Construction of the Self. A Developmental Perspective . Guilford Press, New York.

Hay, I., Ashman, A.F. and van Kraayenoord, C.E. ( 1998 ) Educational characteristics of students with high or low self concept. Psychology in the Schools , 35 , 391 –400.

Herbert, M. ( 1987 ) Living with Teenagers . Basil Blackwell, Oxford.

Higgins, E.T. ( 1987 ) Self discrepancy; theory relation self and affect. Psychological Review , 94 , 319 –340.

Higgins, E.T. ( 1989 ) Self discrepancy theory: what patters of self beliefs cause people suffer? In Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology . Academic Press, New York, vol. 22, pp. 23–63.

Hobfool, S.E. and Walfisch, S. ( 1984 ) Coping with a threat to life: a longitudinal study of self concept, social support and psychological distress. American Journal of Community Psychology , 12 , 87 –100.

Hoffman, M.L. ( 1999 ) Examining sex differences in adolescent adjustment: the effect of competence on gender role in differences in psychopathology. Dissertation Abstracts international: Section B: Science and Engineering , 59 (9-B), 5086 .

Horowitz, L.A. ( 1999 ) The relationship of childhood sexual abuse to revictimisation: mediating variables and developmental processes. Dissertation Abstracts International B: Sciences and Engineering , 60 (4-B), 1855 .

Hosman, C.M.H. (ed.) ( 2000 ) Naar een Geestelijke Gezonde Samenleving: Inleiding in de Preventieve Geestelijke Gezondheidszorg [Towards a Mentally Healthy Community: Introduction in Prevention in Mental Health]. Kluwer, Dordrecht.

Jahoda, M. ( 1958 ) Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health . Basil Books, New York.

Jessor, R., Turbin, M.S. and Costa, F.M. ( 1998 ) Risk and protection in successful outcomes among disadvantaged adolescents. Applied Developmental Science , 2 , 194 –208.

Jones, S. and Heaven, P. ( 1998 ) Psychosocial correlates of adolescent drug-taking behavior. Journal of Adolescence , 21 , 127 –134.

Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E. and Locke, E.A. ( 2000 ) Personality and job satisfaction: the mediating role of job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology , 85 , 237 –249.

Kashubeck and Christensen. ( 1993 ) Parental alcohol use, family relationship quality, self-esteem end depression in college. Journal of College Student Development , 36 , 431 –343.

Kihlstrom, J.F. and Cantor, N. ( 1983 ) Mental representations of the self. In Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology . Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 17, pp. 1–47.

Kressly, J.C. ( 1994 ) Middle level advisory: targeting potential violence before tragedy strikes. Schools in the Middle , 3 , 27 –30.

Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. ( 1984 ) Coping and adaptation. In Gentry, W.D. (ed.), The Handbook of Behavioral Medicine . Guilford, New York, pp. 282–325.

Macdonald, G. ( 1994 ) Self esteem and the promotion of mental health. In Trent, D. and Reed, C. (eds), Promotion of Mental Health . Avebury, Aldershot, vol. 3, pp. 19–20.

Marcia, J.E., Waterman, A.S., Matteson, D.R., Archer, S.L. and Orlofsky, J.L. ( 1993 ) Ego Identity : A Handbook for Psycho-social Research . Springer, New York.

Markus, H. ( 1977 ) Self schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 35 , 63 –78.

Markus, H. and Nurius, P. ( 1986 ) Possible selves. American Psychologist , 41 , 954 –969.

Marsh, H.W. and Yeung, A.S. ( 1997 ) Causal effects of academic self-concept on academic achievement: structural equation models of longitudinal data. Journal of Educational Psychology , 89 , 41 –54.

Miller, P.M., Kreitman, N.B., Ingham, J.G. and Sashidharan, S.P. ( 1989 ) Self esteem, life stress and psychiatric disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders , 17 , 65 –75.

Muha, D.G. ( 1991 ) Dropout prevention and group counseling. High School Journal , 74 , 76 –80.

Nyamathi, A. ( 1991 ) Relationships of resources to emotional distress, somatic complaints and high risk behaviors in drug recovery and homeless minority women. Research in Nursing and Health , 14 , 269 –277.

O'Dea, J.A. and Abraham, S. ( 2000 ) Improving the body image, eating attitudes and behaviors of young male and female adolescents: a new educational approach that focuses on self-esteem. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 28 , 43 –57.

Oliver, J.M. and Paull, J.C. ( 1995 ) Self-esteem and self-efficacy; perceived parenting and family climate; and depression in university students. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 51 , 467 –481.

Overholser, J.C., Adams, D.M., Lehnert, K.L. and Brinkman, D.C. ( 1995 ) Self esteem deficits and suicidal tendencies among adolescents. Journal of American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 34 , 919 –928.

Patterson, G.R. and Capaldi, D.M. ( 1992 ) Mediational model for boys depressed mood. In Rolf, J., Masten, A.S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K.H. and Weintraub, S. (eds), Risk and Protective Factors in Development of Psychopathology . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 141–163.

Patton, W. ( 1991 ) Relationship between self image and depression in adolescents. Psychological Reports , 68 , 687 –688.

Paul, J.P., Stall, R. and Davis, D.F. ( 1993 ) Sexual risk for HIV transmission among gay/bisexual men in substance-abuse treatment. AIDS Education and Prevention , 5 , 11 –24.

Penninx, B.W., van Tilburg, T., Boeke, A.J.P., Deeg, D.J., Kriegsman, D.M. and van Eijk, J.T. ( 1998 ) Effects of social support and personal coping resources on depressive symptoms: different for various chronic diseases? Health Psychology , 17 , 551 –558.

Poikolainen, K., Tuulio-Henrikkson, A., Aalto-Setaelae, T., Marttunen, M. and Loennqvist, J. ( 2001 ) Predictors of alcohol intake and heavy drinking in early adulthood: a 5-year follow-up of 15–19-year-old Finnish adolescents. Alcohol and Alcoholism , 36 , 85 –88.

Reda-Norton, L.J. ( 1995 ) Elementary school predictors of adolescent adjustment problems. Dissertation Abstracts International B: Science and Engineering , 56 (5-B), 2904 .

Reinherz, H.Z., Giaconia, R.M., Pakiz, B., Silverman, A.B., Farst, A.K. and Lefkowitz, E.S. ( 1993 ) Psychosocial risk for major depression in late adolescence. Journal of American Academy for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 32 , 1155 –1163.

Reston, V. ( 1991 ) HIV Prevention Education for Exceptional Youth: Why HIV Prevention Education is Important. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Washington, DC.

Rice, K.G., Ashby, J.S. and Slaney, R.B. ( 1998 ) Self-esteem as a mediator between perfectionism and depression: A structural equations analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 45 , 304 –314.

Rodney, H.E., Mupier, R. and Crafter, B. ( 1996 ) Predictors of alcohol drinking among African American adolescents: Implications for violence prevention. Journal of Negro Education , 65 , 434 –444.

Rogers, T.B. ( 1981 ) A model of the self as an aspect of the human information processing system. In Canton, N. and Kihlstrom, J.F. (eds), Personality , Cognition and Social Interaction . Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 193–214.

Rolf, J. and Johnson, J. ( 1992 ) The challenges of Aids. In Rolf, J., Masten, A.S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K.H. and Weintraub, S. (eds), Risk and Protective Factors in Development of psychopathology . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 384–404.

Rolf, J., Masten, A.S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K.H. and Weintraub, S. ( 1990 ) Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Psychopathology . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Rouse, K.A. ( 1998 ) Longitudinal health endangering behavior among resilient and nonresilient early adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health , 23 , 297 –302.

Rutter, M. ( 1992 ) Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A.S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K.H. and Weintraub, S. (eds), Risk and Protective Factors in the Development of Psychopathology . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 181–214.

Sartorius, N. ( 1988 ) Health Promotion strategies: Keynote Address. Canadian Journal of Public Health , 79 (Suppl. 2), s3 –s5.

Scarano, G.M., Gina, M., Kaodner, M. and Cynthia, R. ( 1994 ) A Description of the continuum of eating disorders: implications for intervention and research. Journal of Counseling and Development , 72 , 356 –361.

Schoen. ( 1999 ) The etiology of violence and the voice of the perpetrator. Dissertation Abstracts International B: Science and Engineering , 60 (2-B), 0875 .

Seligman, M.E.P. ( 1975 ) Helplessness . Freeman, San Francisco, CA.

Seligman, M.E.P. ( 1995 ) What You Can Change and What You Can't . Knopf, New York.

Seligman, M.E.P. and Csikszentmihalyi, M. ( 2000 ) Positive psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist , 55 , 5 –14.

Seligman, M.E.P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L. and Gillham, J. ( 1995 ) The Optimistic Child . Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.

Shadmon, O. ( 1998 ) Family and non-family supports as contributors to adjustment in school-aged children with employed mothers. Dissertation Abstracts International B: Science and Engineering , 59 (2-B), 0898 .

Shin, K.R. ( 1993 ) Factors predicting depression among Korean-American women in New York. International Journal of Nursing Studies , 30 , 415 –423.

Shisslak, C.M., Crago, M., Gray, N., Estes, L.S., McKnight, K., Parnaby, O.G., Sharpe, T., Bryson, S., Killen, J. and Barr-Taylor, C. ( 1998 ) The prevention of eating disorders. Studies in eating disorders. In Vandereycken, W. and Noordenbos, G. (eds), The McKnight Foundation Prospective Study of Risk Factors for the Development of Eating Disorders. An International Series . New York University Press, New York, vol. xii, pp. 56–74.

Short, J.L. ( 1998 ) Evaluation of a substance abuse prevention and mental health promotion program for children of divorce. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage , 28 , 139 –155.

Smolak, L., Levine, M.P. and Schermer, F. ( 1998 ) A controlled evaluation of an elementary school primary prevention program for eating problems. Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 44 , 339 –353.

Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. and Pysczynski, T. ( 2000 ) Pride and prejudice: fear of death and social behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 9 , 200 –204.

Somali, A., Kelley, J., Heckman, T., Hackl, K., Runge, L. and Wright, C. ( 2001 ) Life optimism, substance use and AIDS-specific attitudes associated with HIV-risk behaviour among disadvantaged inner city women. Journal of Women's Health and Gender-based Medicine , 9 , 1101 –1110.

St Jeor, S.T. ( 1993 ) The role of weight management in the health of women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 93 , 1007 –1012.

Strecher, V.J., DeVillis, B.M., Becker, M.H. and Rosenstock, I.M. ( 1986 ) The role of self-efficacy in achieving health behaviour change. Health Education Quarterly , 31 , 73 –92.

Swendsen, J.D. and Merikangas, K.M. ( 2000 ) The comorbidity of depression and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review , 20 , 173 –189.

Taylor, S. and Brown, J. ( 1988 ) Illusions and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin , 103 , 193 –210.

Teri, L. ( 1982 ) Depression in adolescence: its relationship to assertion and various aspects of self image. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology , 11 , 101 –106.

van der Ham, T., van der Strien, D.C. and van Engelan, H. ( 1998 ) Personality characteristics predict outcomes of eating disorders in adolescents: a 4-year prospective study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 7 , 79 –84.

Vickers, M.J. ( 1993 ) Understanding obesity in woman. Journal of Obesity and Gynecology , 22 , 17 –23.

Vohs, K.D., Voelz, Z.R., Pettit, J.W., Bardone, A.M., Katz, J. and Abramson, L.Y. ( 2001 ) Perfectionism, body dissatisfaction and self-esteem: an interactive model of bulimic symptom development. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 20 , 476 –497.

Weare, K. ( 2000 ) Promoting Mental and Social Health: A Whole School Approach . Routledge, London.

WHO ( 1986 ) Discussion document on the concept and principles of health promotion. Health Promotion , 1 , 73 –76.

Wilhelm, K., Parker, G., Dewhurst-Savellis, J. and Asghari, A. ( 1999 ) Psychological predictors of single and recurrent major depressive episodes. Journal of Affective Disorders , 54 , 139 –147.

Zimmerman, S.L. ( 2000 ) Self-esteem, personal control, optimism, extraversion and the subjective well-being of midwestern university faculty. Dissertation Abstracts International B: Sciences and Engineering , 60 (7-B), 3608 .

Author notes

1Department of Health Education and Promotion, Maastricht University, Maastricht and 2Prevention Research Center on Program Development and Effect Management, The Netherlands

• mental health
• self esteem

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

• Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1465-3648
• Print ISSN 0268-1153
• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

• Type 2 Diabetes
• Heart Disease
• Digestive Health
• Multiple Sclerosis
• COVID-19 Vaccines
• Occupational Therapy
• Healthy Aging
• Health Insurance
• Public Health
• Patient Rights
• Caregivers & Loved Ones
• End of Life Concerns
• Health News
• Thyroid Test Analyzer
• Doctor Discussion Guides
• Hemoglobin A1c Test Analyzer
• Lipid Test Analyzer
• Complete Blood Count (CBC) Analyzer
• What to Buy
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Medical Expert Board

Self-Esteem and How to Improve It

Your Sense of Worth or Value

Role of Self-Esteem

Signs of low self-esteem.

• Associated Conditions
• High Self-Esteem
• Improving Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is how a person thinks and feels about their own qualities and characteristics. A person who has positive thoughts about their qualities and characteristics has high self-esteem. On the other hand, a person with negative thoughts about their qualities and characteristics has low self-esteem.

This is important because higher levels of self-esteem translate into improved mental health, and lower levels of self-esteem are related to mental health conditions such as depression .

This article goes over self-esteem, what it means, and how it affects you. It also offers some advice on how to improve your self-esteem.

People Images / Getty Images

Low self-esteem can impact people of all ages, including children. However, young adults tend to have lower self-esteem than older adults, and women tend to have lower self-esteem than men.

Beyond these trends, many different circumstances, thoughts, and beliefs can impact self-esteem throughout life. A person could have general low self-esteem, or low self-esteem in all areas. It is also possible to have low self-esteem in only some areas, though low self-esteem can carry over into other areas as well.

Self-esteem can be impacted by different areas of a person and their life, and self-esteem affects all areas of life.

Academic or Intelligence

There is a relationship between self-esteem, measured intelligence, perceived intelligence, and academic performance. Higher levels of both perceived and measured intelligence and academic achievement have been linked to higher levels of self-esteem.

This relationship has been shown to go further with higher levels of general, educational, social, and public self-esteem all being linked to increased academic achievement. This means that high self-esteem in specific areas is related to positive outcomes in those areas. In fact, high general self-esteem provides benefits in a variety of areas.

Self-esteem can play a role in career progression. Low self-esteem can compromise belief in the ability to make decisions related to careers and the intensity of searching for jobs. Additionally, high levels of self-esteem are linked to being more likely to apply for jobs, more likely to receive job offers, and greater career advancement.

Physical Abilities

Low self-esteem in the area of physical ability is something that can begin in childhood with physical education in schools, extracurricular sports, and activities with peers. It can also continue into adulthood. This may become related to low self-esteem in the area of physical appearance with weight gain associated with avoidance of physical activity.

Those who are more physically active have been found to have higher self-esteem, higher levels of perceived physical fitness, and a more positive body image.

Physical Appearance

Physical appearance, body image, and weight are all linked to self-esteem. Low self-esteem in these areas impacts many teens and adults.

More positive body image is associated with higher self-esteem and decreased risk of harmful effects such as eating disorders. Higher weight is associated with more negative body image, lower self-esteem, and an increased risk of turning to cigarettes and other unhealthy coping behaviors.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Concept

Self-concept is a broad description of how you see yourself. It's everything you know about who you are as a person. Self-esteem, on the other hand, is how you evaluate yourself.

The specific signs of low self-esteem depend on the type of low self-esteem, or the area of self-concept or life related to the negative beliefs. However, some signs can help to identify general low self-esteem.

Someone may have low self-esteem if they are experiencing:

• An inner voice of self-talk that is negative
• Difficulty accepting or responding to compliments
• Difficulty accepting or responding to constructive criticism or feedback
• Unhealthy methods of coping, such as overeating, drinking, or smoking
• Avoidance of social gatherings or situations
• Avoidance of challenges or difficult situations
• Focus on what is unwanted more than what is wanted
• Hesitance to try new things
• Low level of confidence
• Excessive sensitivity
• Intense focus on personal problems
• Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, or eating disorders

The earlier signs of low self-esteem, if not addressed, could lead to more serious concerns, including mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety , harmful habits such as smoking or drinking, or other negative effects on health and life.

Conditions Associated With Low Self-Esteem

Low self-esteem is linked to many mental health concerns. An increased risk of anxiety, depression, and addiction is seen with low self-esteem, as well as poor relationships and decreased overall quality of life.

Low self-esteem is also a common component of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa , and binge eating disorder .

Signs of High Self-Esteem

High self-esteem can help you succeed in many different areas of life, such as school, career, relationships, and mental health. Students with high self-esteem tend to be more engaged in school and more successful at work. They are also more likely to be in stable romantic relationships.  

People with high self-esteem have certain qualities that help them excel in these areas. For example:

• They have confidence in their abilities.
• They show resiliency in times of stress.
• They are comfortable with expressing their opinions.
• They aren't afraid to ask for what they want or need.
• They tend to have realistic expectations of others.
• They aren't overcritical of themselves or other people.
• They are comfortable discussing relationship problems and/or ending relationships that aren't working.

Causes of Low Self-Esteem

Low self-esteem often has external causes. People tend to develop low self-esteem as a result of something that has happened to them in the past or because of unhealthy relationships with others. Some common causes of low self-esteem include:

• Physically or emotionally abusive relationships
• Authority figures or caregivers who are constantly disapproving or emotionally detached
• Feeling judged by religious doctrine or religious authority
• Bullying in any context, including in person or on social media
• Difficulties at work or school
• Unmet standards of "perfection" from media or social media

How to Improve Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is something that changes over time. Some strategies that can help improve self-esteem include:

• Challenge negative thinking
• Use positive affirmations
• Exercise to release "happy" hormones like dopamine and serotonin
• Surround yourself with supportive people
• Focus on the positives
• Connect with friends and family
• Make time for the activities you enjoy

Additionally, there are things that can be done intentionally to increase self-esteem, such as working with a mental health professional who uses a type of talk therapy called cognitive behavioral therapy, or CBT. This may include focusing on specific areas where self-esteem is particularly low or working on general self-esteem.

Self-esteem can have a profound impact on your happiness and success. Self-esteem can be associated with many different areas of your life, including work or school, your physical abilities, and your appearance. 

Low self-esteem is associated with problems like anxiety, depression, and addiction. It is also strongly correlated with eating disorders like anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

Self-esteem can be improved with deliberate changes in the way you think and by surrounding yourself with supportive people. You can also improve your self-esteem with the help of a mental health care professional.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. Self-esteem .

Helwig NE, Ruprecht MR. Age, gender, and self-esteem: a sociocultural look through a nonparametric lens . Arch Sci Psychol . 2017;5(1):19-31. doi:10.1037/arc0000032

Bleidorn W, Arslan RC, Denissen JJ, et al. Age and gender differences in self-esteem—a cross-cultural window .  J Pers Soc Psychol . 2016;111(3):396-410. doi:10.1037/pspp0000078

Dufner M, Reitz AK, Zander L. Antecedents, consequences, and mechanisms: On the longitudinal interplay between academic self-enhancement and psychological adjustment . J Pers . 2015;83(5):511-22. doi:10.1111/jopy.12128

Pushkarna M. Factors of self-esteem contributing to academic performance in adolescents . Indian J Youth Adolesc Health . 2017;4(2):17-25. doi:10.24321/2349.2880.201712

Viola MM, Musso P, Ingoglia S, Lo Coco A, Inguglia C. Relationships between career indecision, search for work self-efficacy, and psychological well-being in Italian never-employed young adults . Eur J Psychol . 2017;13(2):231-250. doi:10.5964/ejop.v13i2.1277

Zamani Sani SH, Fathirezaie Z, Brand S, et al. Physical activity and self-esteem: testing direct and indirect relationships associated with psychological and physical mechanisms .  Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat . 2016;12:2617-2625. doi:10.2147/NDT.S116811

National Eating Disorder Collaboration. Body image .

Murphy CM, Janssen T, Colby SM, Jackson KM. Low self-esteem for physical appearance mediates the effect of body mass index on smoking initiation among adolescents .  J Pediatr Psychol . 2019;44(2):197-207. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsy070

National Health Service. Raising low self-esteem .

National Alliance on Mental Health. Why self-esteem is important for mental health .

Orth U, Robins RW. Is high self-esteem beneficial? Revisiting a classic question . Am Psychol . 2022;77(1):5-17. doi:10.1037/amp0000922

Berber Çelik Ç, Odacı H. Does child abuse have an impact on self-esteem, depression, anxiety and stress conditions of individuals? Int J Soc Psychiatry . 2020;66(2):171-178. doi:10.1177/0020764019894618

Stern S, Wright AJ. Discrete effects of religiosity and spirituality on gay identity and self-esteem . J Homosex . 2018;65(8):1071-1092. doi:10.1080/00918369.2017.1368769

Choi B, Park S. Bullying perpetration, victimization, and low self-esteem: Examining their relationship over time . J Youth Adolesc . 2021;50(4):739-752. doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01379-8

Da Silva HM, Vilarim JR, da Silva Lorena JS, et al. Social networks, appearance and self-esteem: a literature review from 2002 to 2021 . Int J Sci . 2021;2(3):112-6.

By Ashley Olivine, Ph.D., MPH Dr. Ashley Olivine is a health psychologist and public health professional with over a decade of experience serving clients in the clinical setting and private practice. She has also researched a wide variety psychology and public health topics such as the management of health risk factors, chronic illness, maternal and child wellbeing, and child development.

• Essay Editor

Self Esteem Essay Examples & Topics

• Adolescence
• Childhood Trauma
• Children Observation
• Cognitive Psychology
• Communication
• Criminal Psychology
• Critical Thinking
• Growth Mindset
• Human Development
• Human Nature
• Interpersonal Communication
• Metacognition
• Nonverbal Communication
• Personality
• Psychoanalysis
• Self Assessment
• Self Concept
• Social Psychology
• Socialization
• Stereotypes

High Self-Esteem Development Towards Self-Image

1. Introduction Self-esteem is a core value to everyone, and it is important to boost or maintain at a high level. Life is a continuing journey and it is better to learn how to build a high self-esteem now than to struggle with remedying a depleted one later. During those life experiences, this work will help your self-esteem become the best it can be. An understanding of the internal operations of your self-esteem and how to challenge the negative thoughts and build a realistic positive approa ...

Beauty Standards and Their Impact Essay

1. Introduction Introduction is a part of every book, essay, research paper or a separate text about its beginning. As a rule, the introduction is the first part of the work. However, initially, the final of your writing. That is the purpose where the author is trying to summarize his subject to finally state how precise he is going to be and how he'll prove his concepts. In the essay named "Beauty Standards and Their Impact" I decided to investigate the topic of beauty standards and the reason ...

Peer Pressure: Positive and Negative Effects Essay

1. Introduction When individuals are pressured by their peers, the term "peer pressure" is employed. It could be either bad or good. While some adolescents are able to resist negative peer influence, some are more susceptible. However, peer pressure can be a positive effect, too. For young teenagers, peer pressure is a significant influence. If three or four friends tell them that smoking is cool, they will almost certainly attempt to smoke, even if they are aware of the danger of doing so. Thi ...

106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem

🏆 best research title about self esteem, 💡 interesting self-esteem topics for discussion, 📌 good self-esteem research topics, 🔎 simple & easy research titles about low self-esteem, ❓ research questions about self-esteem.

• Self Concept and Self Esteem in Interpersonal Communication Low self-esteem is associated with a person’s emotional response to self-perception and social expectation. Low-self esteem is associated with the feeling of failure to meet social expectation.
• Self-Esteem and Confidence in the Workplace Secondly, gradual learning and improvement of job skills will help to feel more confident and show management that the employee is ready to learn and develop. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Facebook Effects on Our Self-Esteem The title of the article “Facebook envy: how the social network affects our self-esteem” speaks for itself: the author Andrea Shea reflects on the impact that the social media has on its users, and in […]
• Effects of Self-Esteem and Gender on Goal Choice The paper contains a discussion about the relationship between self esteem and gender to the type of goals that people make. Therefore, there is a link between high self-esteem and the behavior to make difficult […]
• Self-Esteem and Students’ Health More so, life satisfaction is closely connected with the concept of self-esteem, and mental health also depends on proper development of self-esteem. It is also necessary to remember that a number of factors influence development […]
• The Effects of the Media on Creativity and Self-Esteem The controversy surrounding British sprinter Linford Christie and the British tabloid press in the mid nineties illustrates a crucial and heart breaking example of the media’s might in the area of self esteem.
• Instagram Addiction and Impact on Self-Esteem The effect of social media use is reported to have a mixed effect on the user. First, social media addiction may have a varying effect on self-esteem depending on the type of use.
• Instagram Addiction and Self-Esteem in Kuwaiti High School Students Besides, the study will explore the impact of social media and reveal the possible ways to resolve the social media addiction issues affecting the youth.
• Instagram Addiction and Self-Esteem in High School Students To test the relationship between social media Instagram addiction and self-esteem in American high school students, a descriptive survey where students will be enrolled in an online, blinded survey will apply.
• Case Study of LY LY: Building Self-Esteem At the same time, I would try to build trust and respect between the teacher and Ly Ly. I would also create the learning program according to Ly Ly and her classmates’ abilities and interests.
• Child Neglect Might Affect a Child’s Self-Esteem in Adulthood Three situations in different locations are to be thoroughly discussed to illustrate the issue of the research. Indeed, the observation at the chosen playground seemed to be fruitful because of children of different ages.
• Self-Handicapping, Self-Esteem, and Self-Compassion The higher the level of stress tolerance, the more successfully a person copes with anxiety, and, on the contrary, the lower the level, the more challenging it is for one to handle an unusual situation. […]
• Promoting Self-Esteem in School-Age Children During the early school-age period, self-esteem concerns the way children accomplish set academic tasks and their performance in extracurricular activities.
• The Relationship Between Polygamy and Self-Esteem in Children in Saudi Arabia Family cohesion in polygamous families is crucial for exploring in the context of this study because it directly involves the psychological well-being of children as well as the subsequent development of their self-esteem and adaptation […]
• The Role of Self-Esteem in Education Speaking about practice, it is also possible to note the ambiguous nature of schools that promote self-esteeming by constantly saying to children that they can do anything, while teachers manipulate them by means of rewards […]
• Psychology. “Self-Esteem” Book by Dr. Matthew McKay Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem is the book which teach people to live in piece with our society and with oneself.
• The Increasing of Self-Esteem Importance This is part of a consciousness process in which one goes beyond what comes to be recognized as the illusion of separate selfhood.
• Fathers’ Work, Conflicts and Children’s Self-Esteem On the other hand, the active involvement of the mother in the child’s life as well as the nature of the father’s occupation were found to act as mitigating factors to the quality of the […]
• The Self Esteem: Scientific Approach In this respect the reliability of the research props up against the analysis of what is known at the time. The thing is that it is really the better predictor of high results compared to […]
• Concept of the Self and Self-Esteem Among the most common and widely used ways of self, the approach is self-esteem and self-concept.self-esteem refers to how an individual views himself from an emotional or affective aspect.
• Concept Analysis of Loneliness, Depression, Self-esteem The purpose of this direct study was to look at levels of depression, self-esteem, loneliness, and communal support, and the relationships stuck between these variables, in the middle of teenage mothers participating in the New […]
• Evaluating the Self-Esteem of the Homeless The mission statement of the program indicates the central role played by the agency to the welfare of the society.”The Doe Fund’s mission is to develop and implement cost-effective, holistic programs that meet the needs […]
• Relationships Between Anxiety, Perceived Support and Self-Esteem In particular, it sought to determine whether there is a relationship between anxiety, perceived support from friends, and self-esteem whereby anxiety and perceived support from friends act as predictors of the level of self-esteem.
• Self-Esteem and Rejection: It Is Not Personal Taking things personally is problematic for many reasons, one of which is the bias connected to the perception of a situation.
• Striving for Self-Esteem in Business The learning points from these articles are that self-assessment is only possible in the latter stages of business development and not the beginning, all businesses must go through ISO 9000 certification series and excellence models […]
• Social Psychology Role: Self-Esteem and Human Development The relation between the concepts and the response is closely analyzed to determine the most important criteria people’s actions can be judged by. A person is stereotyped and the thinking leads to over-generalize towards others.
• Mean Self-Esteem Scores for Boys and Girls The aim of this study was to determine if there was any difference in mean self-esteem scores for boys and girls.
• Counseling Low Self-Esteem and Decision Making John was allowed to go out and meet with his friends, and the aunt was less concerned about the kind of company that he kept.
• Women with Low Self-Esteem – Psychology Despite the fact that the given study is focused on the effects of separation on the women formerly engaged into relationships, it will still be necessary to consider certain issues concerning childhood; however, in the […]
• The Link Between Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy In explaining the dynamics of how self-esteem affects self-efficacy, it is important to note that low sense of self-worth will incapacitate the ability of an employee to succeed in specific situations due to lack of […]
• Effects on Psychological Growth and Self-Esteem In 2007, approximately 794,000 cases of child maltreatment and abuse were reported in the US, translating to a maltreatment rate of 11 in every 1000 children.
• Psychology Issues: Self-Esteem and Violence In my opinion, the argument by Boden, Fergusson, and Horwood is sociological since its main aim is to test the link between our self-esteem and later hostility and violent behavior.
• High Self-Esteem Development Towards Self-Image People’s health and appearance have to be satisfactory and correspond to people’s idea of ‘a norm’ as it has been proven that the better a person’s health is the higher self-esteem he/she has.
• Concept of Self, Self-Esteem, and Behavior The concept of the self According to McLeod self concept is the perception that an individual holds about him or herself.
• Women, Alcohol, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem: A Qualitative Study of the Experience of Person-Centred Counselling This essay discusses the research setting and sample, the selection of the setting and the data collection procedure to be used during the project.
• Raising a Child With High Self Esteem A good illustration of this is can be observed early on in babyhood growth of children who act in response and connect themselves to the adults or caregivers who show utmost love and care and […]
• Social Networks and Self-Esteem Due to this fact, the main aim of this paper it to determine the impacts that social networks have on people and the role they play in the determination of the self-esteem of an individual.
• Self Esteem and Culture in a Learning Environment Reflectively, the conceptual idea of this treatise is an in-depth analysis of the aspects of social environment and objective and their influence on quality of learning, self-evaluation, goal setting, decision making, and inclusive education as […]
• The Connection Between Low Self-Esteem and Abusive Relationships
• Adolescence and Impact of Self-Esteem Factors
• Building Student Self-Esteem and Feelings of Security
• Understanding Teenagers With Low Self-Esteem
• The Connection Between Self-Esteem and Income
• Bullying and Its Relationship to Self-Esteem
• The Correlation Between Self-Esteem and Competition for Grades
• Being Healthy Can Help With Self-Esteem and the Brain
• Anticipated Regret and Self-Esteem in the Allais Paradox
• Linking of Self-Esteem With the Tendency to Engage in Financial Planning
• Linking of Alcohol Abuse, Self-Esteem, and Teenage Pregnancy Among Adolescents
• Alcoholism and Its Link to Poor Self-Esteem
• How Low Self-Esteem Predicts Future Unemployment
• Impact of Social Media on One’s Self Esteem
• Beauty Pageants Promote Self-Esteem and Confidence
• Low and Decreasing Self-Esteem During Adolescence
• Using Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem
• Authenticity and Its Influence on Psychological Well-Being and Contingent Self-Esteem of Leaders
• Womanhood and Failures Through the Burden of Self-Esteem
• Understanding Children’s Self-Esteem Development
• Boost Your Self-Esteem With Acne Treatment
• The Cause and Effects of Low Self-Esteem
• Anxiety and Self-Esteem Among Undergraduate Students
• The Factors That Affect the Self-Esteem of Women
• Why Women Have Lower Self-Esteem
• Linking of The Collective Self-Esteem and Social Identity Theory
• Self Esteem Among Working and Non Working Woman
• Self-Esteem: How It Is Built and Different Influencing Factors
• The Connection Between Body Image, Self-Esteem, and the Fashion Industry
• The Dark Side: Inflated Self-Esteem Is the Culprit of Negative Results
• The Connection Between Low Self-Esteem and Depression in the Elderly
• The Differences Between the Self-Esteem of Boys and Girls During Puberty
• Discussion About Self-Esteem, It’s Differences and Relation to Sociology
• Achieving Increased Self-Esteem Through Adaptive Sports
• Building Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents
• The Different Causes and Effects of Low Self-Esteem
• Impact of Makeup on the Self-Esteem of Young Girls
• The Benefits and Importance of Boosting Self-Esteem in Children
• The Adolescent’s Search for Self-Esteem and the Role of Professors in the Search
• Social Phobia and Low Self-Esteem as Factors Behind Unhealthy Eating Behavior
• How Do Bad Habits Affect People’s Self-Esteem and Self-Worth?
• What Are Some Tips and Tools for Building Your Self-Esteem?
• Can Positive Self-Esteem Lead to Positive Interactions and Connections with Others?
• Does Divorce Cause Low Self-Esteem in Children?
• What Is the Relationship Between Self-Reinforcement and Self-Esteem?
• Are Media Images Harmful to Young People’s Bodies and Self-Esteem?
• Does Yoga Increase Subjective Energy and Self-Esteem?
• What Are the Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem?
• Is Self-Esteem or Self-Confidence More Important?
• What Are the Differences Between Happiness and Self-Esteem?
• How Do Peers and Media Influence the Development of Body Satisfaction and Self-Esteem?
• What Is the Interrelated Role of Self-Esteem and Interpersonal Stressors in Predicting Adolescent Depression?
• Do Social Phobia and Low Self-Esteem Cause Unhealthy Eating Behaviors?
• Is There a Relationship Between Adolescent Plastic Surgery and Self-Esteem?
• What Is the Correlation Between Self-Esteem and Competition for Grades?
• Does Social Media Reduce the Self-Esteem of Young Girls?
• What Are the Differences Between Boys’ and Girls’ Self-Esteem During Puberty?
• How Does Our Self-Esteem Affect Interpersonal Communication?
• Is There a Link Between Low Self-Esteem and Depression?
• How Does Self-Esteem Relate to Our Level of Confidence?
• Do School Uniform Policies Increase Student Self-Esteem and Improve Learning?
• What Factors Contribute to Low Self-Esteem?
• Has the Self-Esteem Movement Caused Young People to Overestimate Their True Skills and Disillusioned Many of Them?
• Are Self-Esteem and Satisfaction in Romantic Relationships Related?
• What Can Trigger Depression and Low Self-Esteem?
• Does Physical Activity Affect Self-Esteem?
• Are Self-Esteem and Impulsive Buying Behavior Related?
• How Do Fashion Magazines and Television Affect Girls’ Self-Esteem?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 30). 106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/self-esteem-essay-topics/

"106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem." IvyPanda , 30 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/self-esteem-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2023) '106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem'. 30 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/self-esteem-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/self-esteem-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/self-esteem-essay-topics/.

• Happiness Research Ideas
• Depression Essay Topics
• Self-Concept Questions
• Cognitive Dissonance Research Topics
• Adolescence Questions
• Cognitive Psychology Topics
• Puberty Titles
• Critical Thinking Essay Ideas
• Mental Illness Research Topics
• Personal Growth Research Ideas
• Moral Development Essay Topics
• Narcissism Essay Titles
• Personal Identity Paper Topics
• Personality Development Ideas
• Self-Awareness Research Topics

Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

Mind & Body Articles & More

The power of self-compassion, kristin neff discusses how self-compassion differs from self-esteem, why self-compassion can be hard for americans, and the transformative effect it had on her own life-- part of greater good 's podcast series..

Are you your own worst critic?

It’s common to beat ourselves up for faults big and small. But according to psychologist Kristin Neff, that self-criticism comes at a price: It makes us anxious, dissatisfied with our life, and even depressed.

For the last decade, Neff has been a pioneer in the study of “self-compassion,” the revolutionary idea that you can actually be kind to yourself, accept your own faults—and enjoy deep emotional benefits as a result. Last year, she distilled the results of her research in the popular book Self-Compassion . (A Greater Good essay we adapted from the book is the most popular piece we’ve ever published.)

Neff, an associate professor in human development and culture at the University of Texas, Austin, will present highlights from her work at a Greater Good Science Center seminar at UC Berkeley next Friday, March 23, called “Self-Compassion and Emotional Resilience” —part of our “Science of a Meaningful Life” seminar series. The event will be webcast live, so anyone around the world can participate.

As part of our “ Greater Good Podcast ” series, she recently spoke with Greater Good Editor-in-Chief Jason Marsh about how self-compassion differs from self-esteem, why self-compassion can be hard for Americans, and the transformative effect it had on her own life.

You can listen to the interview here , and we encourage you to subscribe to the podcast series through iTunes .

Below we present a condensed version of the discussion.

Jason Marsh: So please start by telling us: What is self-compassion?

Kristin Neff: The quick version is that it’s treating yourself with the same type of kind, caring support and understanding that you would show to anyone you cared about. In fact, most of us make incredibly harsh, cruel self-judgments that we would never make about a total stranger, let alone someone we cared about.

JM: In your work you’ve identified three core components of self-compassion. Could you please tell us what they are?

KN: Right, the first one is self-kindness, as opposed to self-judgment. A lot of times when we suffer, we just take a very cold attitude toward ourselves. So self-compassion involves being warm and supportive—actively soothing ourselves—as opposed to being cold and judging ourselves.

The second part is remembering that imperfection is part of the shared human experience—that you’re not alone in your suffering. Often, when something goes wrong, we look in the mirror and don’t like what we see—we feel very isolated in that moment, as if everyone else has these perfect lives and it’s just us who’s flawed and defective. When we remember that imperfection is part of the shared human experience, you can actually feel more connected to people in those moments.

The third component is mindfulness. If you aren’t mindfully aware that you’re suffering, if you’re just repressing your pain or ignoring it or getting lost in problem solving, you can’t give yourself compassion. You have to say, “Wait a second. This hurts. This is really hard. This is a moment where I need compassion.” If you don’t want to go there, if it’s too painful or you’re just too busy to go there, you can’t be compassionate.

JM: When I hear you describe it like that, it seems so obvious that this is something we should all try to practice. Yet the truth of the matter, which you explain in your book, is that a lot of us, most of us perhaps, are really bad at practicing self-compassion. Why do you think that is? And why is that such a bad thing?

KN: It’s very interesting because in our culture, we value compassion for others. We see clearly that it’s good to be a supportive friend and be kind to others, to help those in need.

We treat ourselves very differently than we treat other people. And I think there are several reasons why.

One of the big reasons is that people feel that they need to be self-critical in order to motivate themselves. We think we need to beat ourselves up if we make mistakes so that we won’t do it again. It’s a convoluted form of self-care: I criticize myself because I don’t want to keep engaging in this behavior that’s problematic.

More on Self-Compassion

Register for Neff's upcoming Greater Good Science Center seminar (which includes a live webcast), "Self-Compassion and Emotional Resilience."

But that’s completely counterproductive. Self-criticism is very strongly linked to depression. And depression is antithetical to motivation: You’re unable to be motivated to change if you’re depressed. It causes us to lose faith in ourselves, and that’s going to make us less likely to try to change and conditions us for failure. If every time you fail or make a mistake you beat yourself up, you’re going to very quickly try to avoid failure at all costs. It’s a natural survival instinct. Which means you may not take risks—maybe you take the course that’s an easy A [instead of a more challenging one].

Maybe the biggest problem with using self-criticism as a motivator is that if it’s really painful to be honest with yourself about your weaknesses—because you know you’re going to tear yourself to shreds with self-criticism—your subconscious pulls every trick in the book to not have to own up to your weaknesses.

The easiest trick is to blame someone else. Think about fights you have with your significant other—“You did it!” “No, you did it!” Each one’s trying to defend their ego, blaming the other person. But when you have self-compassion, it actually gives you the courage and the emotional safety you need to say, “Mea culpa—I did do that, I was out of line.” And that clarity actually gives you not only the wisdom to see what needs changing but the emotional strength and courage to go ahead and change it.

JM: So what what’s the difference between self-esteem and self-compassion?

KN: Self-compassion and self-esteem both involve positive emotions toward the self. But self-esteem is about judging yourself positively: I am good. Or, unfortunately, if you can’t keep up that self-definition: I am bad.

Self-compassion does not involve judgment or evaluation. It’s not about, “What type of person am I?” It’s just about: I’m suffering—can I respond to my suffering with kindness, understanding, caring, and concern?

Self-esteem is present when we succeed. Self-compassion is a way of relating to ourselves kindly when we fail. Self-esteem is all about being special and above average. You subtly try to position yourself above other people so you can maintain your self-esteem. But self-compassion is about shared humanity—it’s all about being average. It’s about being a human: We have strengths and beautiful qualities, and we have weaknesses; we succeed and we fail and it’s all part of this shared human condition.

JM: I want to talk a little bit about your personal experience with self-compassion, how you really came to embrace it both personally and scientifically. How did you personally come to believe in the importance of self-compassion?

KN: I had a hippie, New-Agey childhood. But when I got to Berkeley for grad school, I decided I had to reject all that. And then what happened was—if you read my book, I tell my dirty laundry—but basically I was going through a very messy divorce, and I was stressed about finishing my dissertation and finding a job. There was a lot going on in my life. And I realized that when I just went for the intellect and tried to reject all my spirituality, I was shutting myself down. So I decided to give Buddhism a try.

I started meditating. And the lady teaching the meditation class talked a lot about self-compassion, and I just thought, “Oh my god, not only is this what I need, but this makes so much sense. Why has no one ever just said before, ‘You really should be kind to yourself, and it’ll actually be really healthy if you are?’” It immediately changed my life, so much so that when I got remarried shortly thereafter, we ended our marriage vows with the vow to help each other be more self-compassionate. We were both so moved by the concept.

After doing my post-doc and getting the job at UT-Austin, it was kind of scary because no one knew how to even define self-compassion, let alone conduct research on it in academia, although a lot of people had written about it in other circles. But I just knew that this was so important, I wanted it to be my life’s work. I started doing research on it, and I continued to practice it—going on retreats, practicing in my daily life, etc. But when it really saved me was when my son was diagnosed with autism in 2004.

I can’t even imagine how I would have coped if I didn’t have my self-compassion practice. I was able to fully accept my grief, not feel guilty for grieving, which a lot of autism parents do: “How can I be grieving for my child who I love so much?” I was able to accept all my complex, intense emotions, to really soothe and comfort myself for what I was going through.

With autism, you are powerless. When my son used to have tantrums in public, there was nothing I could do.  I was completely powerless. I could try to keep him safe and that’s about it.  So self-compassion allowed me to accept that, and open my heart to it—he’d be throwing a tantrum, and I would just be saying, “Let me be kind to myself right now, let me be kind to myself, let me…” I would actually focus on myself rather than him, after making sure he was safe. I couldn’t help him, but I could help myself in that moment.

Self-compassion gave me the emotional stability I needed to help him, and then ultimately to embrace him, with a much more open heart and open mind than I would have been able to—to not try to fix him or control him but to celebrate who I was and kind of follow his lead. I won’t go into it here, but my husband wrote a book, and we made a documentary, called The Horse Boy , which is really about what happens if you open your heart and your mind to a child with autism or special needs.

JM: So it sounds like self-compassion was a revelation for you in your personal life and your family life. But why study it? Why would it necessarily follow that you should study it scientifically, especially given that there was a chance you could find no measurable benefits?

KN: Well, to be totally honest, I was convinced of the benefits and felt that what I wanted to do was demonstrate empirically that there were benefits. I don’t know what I would’ve done if there were no benefits. I probably would’ve still practiced self-compassion because it worked for me, but I would’ve been a bit flabbergasted if the data didn’t come out. Although I must admit, I was surprised by how strongly the links were between self-compassion and well-being—they’re really strong, robust associations. I thought, “Wow, we’re onto something here.”

JM: Looking back over the last decade or so of research, what are the findings that you think really attest to the benefits of self-compassion? KN: Well, there’s the data supporting the fact that self-compassion has the same mental health benefits as self-esteem: less depression, more optimism, greater happiness, more life satisfaction. But self-compassion offers the benefits without the drawbacks of self-esteem. Self-esteem is associated with narcissism; self-compassion isn’t. It’s self-compassion, not self-esteem, that predicts stability of self-worth—a type of self-worth that isn’t contingent on outcomes—as well as less social comparison, less reactive anger.

Now a lot of research is coming out around health behaviors, showing that people who practice self-compassion make really wise health choices. They exercise more for intrinsic reasons, they can stick to their diets, they go to the doctor more often, they practice safer sex. All this research is coming out showing that self-compassion is not just a good idea, and it doesn’t just make you feel good, it makes you act in healthier ways.

Also, people who are self-compassionate are kinder, more giving, and supportive to their relationship partners.

JM: Those research results sound encouraging, but could they just reflect that people who are self-compassionate also have these other traits and practice these other behaviors? Or is there research suggesting that self-compassion can actually be taught, and that by learning self-compassion, those other benefits will follow?

KN: Yeah, the research is already there, and it’s going to continue. There’s a lot of research on MBSR—Jon Kabat-Zinns’ Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program—and all the benefits that accrue from that. Well, it turns out that self-compassion increases through participation in the course; in fact, it may be that self-compassion is perhaps even the most powerful outcome of MBSR training that enhances well-being.

Some of the studies I’m talking about are based on short-term interventions, training people over four weeks. But my colleague Chris Germer and I have developed an eight-week program, very similar in structure to mindfulness-based stress reduction, where two hours a week for eight weeks, we talk about self-compassion, we teach exercises, we do self-compassion meditations, interpersonal exercises. I’ll have the data very soon to see if it does increase well-being. We’ve done pilot testing without a control group and the results were really good.

I could see this going into the schools. Already, people are starting to talk about teaching compassion in the schools, so I’d like to add this piece of having compassion for yourself as well.

JM: That brings up a point you mentioned earlier. When you talk about teaching self-compassion in schools, I think that might raise some red flags in some people’s minds.  I’m thinking of the concern I’ve heard before: Is self-compassion going to make people complacent and unmotivated to improve themselves and accomplish more?

KN: Yeah, that is a very common concern. It’s actually, I think, the number one block to self-compassion: the fear that if I’m too kind to myself, I’ll be complacent.

The research doesn’t show that.  The research really supports that people who are self-compassionate, their standards are just as high for themselves, but they don’t get as upset when they fail to meet their goals—they cope with it more productively. And as a result, when self-compassionate people don’t reach a goal, they’re much more likely to pick themselves up, dust themselves off, and re-engage in a new goal.

Self-compassion is associated with what’s called “learning goals” rather than “performance goals.” So people who are self-compassionate, they want to learn and grow for its own sake, not because they want to impress other people. There is a huge body of research showing that if your goal is to learn as opposed to just impress others, that’s a much more sustainable way of learning and growing.

JM: So if you could engineer our society in a way that fosters more self-compassion, how would you do that?

KN: I think our obsession with self-esteem and competition does mean that we’d have to engineer things differently here. Is that what we want to be promoting in the schools?  Is that what parents want to be promoting?

We don’t want kids to hate themselves, we want them to feel worthy, but is life all about being better than others?  Is it all about being special and above average? Or is about being a human being as happy and healthy as you possibly can be, about reaching your own potential? And I think if we made that type of cultural shift, at the level of parenting and education, I think we’d have a real chance of shifting things at the larger macro level.

About the Author

Jason Marsh

Jason Marsh is the executive director of the Greater Good Science Center and the editor in chief of Greater Good .

You May Also Enjoy

Self-compassion is something that I am learning about after coming out of a life-altering depression. I realize that I need to be gentler and more supportive of myself, and to tell you the truth, it can be hard to remember to do. But as I practice, it becomes easier, and it is allowing me to see the world around me differently as well. It permits me to be more open and vulnerable, realizing that the harshest judgments often came from myself.

Faith | 2:04 pm, March 25, 2012 | Link

This idea that we must be critical of ourselves lest we lapse into undesirable behavior is critical. In my own - sadly extensive - experience with this tendency, I have found the concern with avoiding mistakes to be not just a source of depression, as Dr. Neff rightly points out, but actually a self-fulfilling prophecy. I am far more likely to get things wrong when I am beating myself up for getting something wrong (or, more often, just thinking that I got something wrong). That observation has led to a more compassionate attitude toward myself, and a wider understanding of this vicious circle would help overcome the larger, social resistance to self-compassion that Dr. Neff describes.

Jeffrey Thompson | 6:11 pm, March 31, 2012 | Link

Wow!  Just as I was beating myself up again for not handling my financial life better and for continually repeating the same mistakes,  I stumbled on this article.  I can’t wait to read the book.

Sandra Rosen | 5:33 am, April 7, 2012 | Link

This also dovetails very nicely with Brene Brown’s work on shame.

Terri | 7:12 am, April 7, 2012 | Link

This article — and everything on this site — is funded by readers like you.

Become a subscribing member today. Help us continue to bring “the science of a meaningful life” to you and to millions around the globe.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Psychol Belg
• v.56(2); 2016

The Pursuit of Self-Esteem and Its Motivational Implications

Jolene van der kaap-deeder.

1 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Department of Developmental, Social, and Personality Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Sofie Wouters

2 Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, School Psychology and Child and Adolescent Development, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Karine Verschueren

Veerle briers, bram deeren.

3 VCLB Oostkust, Blankenberge, Belgium

Maarten Vansteenkiste

Although recent studies have found contingent self-esteem (CSE) to be negatively related to individuals’ well-being, research concerning its implications for motivation and engagement is scarce. In two studies, we investigated the relation between CSE, motivation, and engagement in achievement-related situations. A first cross-sectional study among second year high school students ( N = 641; 54.1% female) confirmed the hypothesized motivational ambiguity associated with academic CSE. Beyond the contribution of academic self-esteem, academic CSE was positively related to behavioral and emotional engagement, but also to emotional disaffection and test anxiety. These associations could partially be explained by motivational quality, as CSE was also positively related to both autonomous and controlled types of motivation. In a second experimental study among university students ( N = 72; 70.8% female), who participated in a tangram puzzle task under varying feedback circumstances, global CSE related to more tension, while predicting less behavioral task perseverance. These effects were not moderated by the type of feedback provided (i.e., positive vs. negative). Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Research on self-esteem has mainly focused on people’s level of self-esteem, which entails the overall positivity or negativity towards the self ( Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995 ). Increasingly, however, other aspects of individuals’ self-esteem, including its contingency, have been found to relate to adjustment ( Heppner & Kernis, 2011 ; Zeigler-Hill, 2013 ). Contingent self-esteem (CSE) denotes the extent to which people base their self-worth on meeting certain internal or external standards ( Deci & Ryan, 1995 ) and has been studied as both a global (e.g., Kernis, 2003 ) and domain-specific (e.g., Crocker, Luhtanen, Cooper, & Bouvrette, 2003 ) characteristic. Although several studies found CSE to relate positively to maladjustment (e.g., Burwell & Shirk, 2006 ; Lakey, Hirsch, Nelson, & Nsamenang, 2014 ; Lawrence & Williams, 2013 ; Neighbors, Larimer, Geisner, & Knee, 2004 ), important gaps remain. For instance, research concerning the motivational correlates of CSE is scarce. Yet, this may be particularly interesting, as students with elevated levels of CSE may be highly motivated to do well, yet at the same time their motivation may be fraught with feelings of inner tension, anxiety, and compulsion. Hence, the present contribution aims to explore in greater detail the hypothesized motivational ambiguity comprised in CSE and whether such ambiguity would also be reflected in individuals’ emotional and behavioral engagement and disaffection in achievement settings. Specifically, Study 1 focused on the motivational, engagement and disaffection correlates of academic CSE in a sample of high school students. Study 2 sought to complement Study 1 by examining the main effect of global CSE and its interaction with type of feedback in the prediction of several motivational and engagement-related outcomes during a specific experimental task in a sample of university students.

Contingent Self-esteem

CSE refers to individuals’ global or domain-specific tendency to hinge their self-esteem upon meeting certain internal or external standards ( Deci & Ryan, 1995 ). Global CSE is only moderately negatively correlated with global self-esteem (e.g., Wouters, Duriez, et al., 2013 ). This negative interrelation suggests that individuals with lower self-esteem levels are more likely to have their self-worth interwoven with the attainment of specific standards. Paralleling this negative relation, self-esteem level and self-esteem contingency were found to yield opposite associations with adjustment, including well-being ( Zeigler-Hill, 2013 ; Zeigler-Hill, Besser, & King, 2011 ), anxiety and eating disorder symptoms ( Bos, Huijding, Muris, Vogel, & Biesheuvel, 2010 ), substance abuse ( Chen, Ye, & Zhou, 2013 ; Tomaka, Morales-Monks, & Shamaley, 2013 ) and suicidal behavior (e.g., Lakey et al., 2014 ).

Although increasing research has indicated the detrimental effects of CSE for individuals’ adjustment, far less is known about the motivational implications of CSE. To perceive themselves as good and worthy, individuals with higher levels of CSE constantly need to reach certain goals ( Zeigler-Hill, Stubbs, & Madson, 2013 ). However, as everyone else, they will sometimes experience failure. Because failure with regard to self-related goals is closely tied to one’s worth as a person among individuals with a high level of CSE, such failure may not be easily dismissed ( Crocker & Wolfe, 2001 ). Hence, individuals high in CSE may be highly motivated (i.e., quantity of motivation) to pursue success (and to avoid failure) in domains in which their self-esteem is invested ( Lawrence & Williams, 2013 ). However, the type of reasons (i.e., quality of motivation) underlying their efforts may not be completely positive as individuals high in CSE may strive to perform well for pressured reasons. In the current contribution, grounded in Self-Determination Theory ( SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), we sought to shed a nuanced light on the different types of motives underlying the motivational functioning of individuals high in CSE.

The Motivational Ambiguity Associated with Contingent Self-esteem

SDT distinguishes between different types of motives that fall along a continuum of increasing self-endorsement or autonomy ( Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006 ). First, individuals may be motivated out of external pressures, such as meeting demanding expectations, garnering social approval and controlling rewards or avoiding criticism. As the reason for activity engagement is situated completely outside the individual, external regulation is characterized by a complete lack of self-endorsement. For instance, individuals might put effort in their studies merely to please their parents. Yet, the pressure may also come from internal forces, including the avoidance of feelings of shame, guilt, and anxiety, as well as the attainment of esteem. This form of motivation has been labeled introjected regulation and seems especially characteristic of individuals high in CSE. Individuals who strive for an A+ to feel worthy and esteemed display introjected regulation. Although the motive is now internal to the person, the activity engagement goes along with feelings of inner conflict and compulsion as the reason for performing the activity is not fully congruent with the person’s values and convictions. Although CSE and introjected regulation are conceptually related, CSE is considered to be a relatively stable personality characteristic ( Deci & Ryan, 1995 ) and focuses more on the link between self-esteem and performance-outcomes (i.e., success versus failure). In contrast, introjected regulation is a motivational subtype that focuses on the activity itself (i.e., why does a person undertake a certain activity?) and, although introjected regulation can be concerned with self-esteem attainment, it also includes other feelings that are more loosely related to the self (e.g., the avoidance of guilt). As both external as well as introjected regulation are characterized by pressure, these are often combined under the label of controlled motivation (e.g., Vansteenkiste, Lens, Dewitte, De Witte, & Deci, 2004 ).

Controlled motivation is contrasted with autonomous motivation, which also consists of at least two subtypes. Identified motivation denotes the extent to which individuals identify with the self-importance of the behavior and consider it as congruent with their own inner values. Individuals who put effort in their school work as they perceive their studies to contribute to their professional and personal development exhibit identified regulation . While the activity is instrumental to achieve innerly held values in the case of identified regulation, the activity constitutes a source of enjoyment and interest in itself in the case of intrinsic motivation . When students make their homework out of pure interest and curiosity, they are said to be intrinsically motivated. Both identified regulation and intrinsic motivation represent indicators of autonomous motivation as the reasons for engaging in the activity are fully endorsed by the individual’s self.

These different types of motives can be situated and studied at three distinct levels, that is, in relation to a specific activity at a specific moment (i.e., situational level), in a more global life domain, such as school (i.e., contextual level), or towards life in general (i.e., global level) ( Vallerand, 1997 ). In this study, we focused on motivation at the situational and contextual level. Previous research has provided evidence for the beneficial effects of autonomous study motivation and the fairly detrimental effects of controlled study motivation among diverse populations, differing in age, gender, and cultural background ( Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Lens & Vansteenkiste, 2006 ; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013 ). Specifically, both intrinsic motivation ( Taylor et al., 2014 ) and identified motivation ( Burton, Lydon, D’Alessandro, & Koestner, 2006 ) have been found to relate positively to school performance and persistence, while relating to less procrastination among (pre-)college students ( Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens, & Soenens, 2005 ). In contrast, controlled motivation has been found to relate negatively to persistence and efficacious time planning among high school and college students (e.g., Michou, Vansteenkiste, Mouratidis, & Lens, 2014 ; Ratelle, Guay, Vallerand, Larose, & Senecal, 2007 ), while being positively related to test anxiety among high school students ( Vansteenkiste, Sierens, Soenens, Luyckx, & Lens, 2009 ).

Theoretically, CSE is assumed to relate primarily to introjected regulation ( Crocker & Wolfe, 2001 ; Deci & Ryan, 1995 ; Kernis, 2003 ), although evidence for this claim is scarce and rather indirect. Specifically, previous experimental work on the effect of task- versus ego-involvement on autonomy and intrinsic motivation (e.g., Ryan, 1982 ) is relevant. In these studies, participants’ ego or self-esteem was primed prior to engaging in a specific task by suggesting the task is indicative of their creative or social intelligence. In doing so, participants’ task-specific CSE was temporarily activated. Ryan, Koestner, and Deci ( 1991 ) found that the induction of ego-involvement relative to task-involvement undermined college students’ sense of choice and autonomy. Moving beyond past work, the present study investigated the relation between CSE and the various types of motives as discerned within SDT by directly assessing these constructs. Although individuals high in CSE would regulate their learning behavior primarily on the basis of introjection, the attachment of their self-worth to the outcome of their functioning may also lead them to value the learning more (i.e., identified regulation). At the same time, the tension underlying their function may shift away their focus from the learning itself and preclude them to fully enjoy and get interested in the learning, thus potentially undermining their intrinsic motivation. Finally, Wouters, Doumen, Germeijs, Colpin, and Verschueren ( 2013 ) found that psychologically controlling parenting (i.e., characterized by pressure from parents on children to think, feel, or act in certain ways) related to higher levels of CSE among early adolescents. Therefore, individuals high in CSE may be motivated more out of perceived external pressure.

The Engagement Ambiguity Associated with Contingent Self-esteem

In analogy to the presumed motivational ambiguity characteristic of CSE, we expected a similar mixed pattern for engagement. In line with the multidimensional nature of engagement ( Fredericks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004 ; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008 ), this study focused on four important dimensions of classroom engagement: (1) behavioral engagement, (2) emotional engagement, (3) behavioral disaffection, and (4) emotional disaffection. Engagement refers to adaptive motivational states with behavioral engagement referring to effort exertion and persistence during learning, on-task behavior and participation in learning activities and emotional engagement referring to positive and energized emotions during learning (e.g., enthusiasm, interest and enjoyment; Skinner, Kindermann, & Furrer, 2009 ). Disaffection, on the contrary, reflects the presence of maladaptive motivational states and, as such, this concept is broader than the sheer absence of engagement. Analogous with engagement, disaffection also consists of two components: behavioral disaffection (e.g., passive behavior during learning activities) and emotional disaffection (e.g., negative emotions such as anxiety; Skinner et al., 2008 ). Previous research has found engagement and disaffection to yield, respectively, a positive and negative relation to school success ( Skinner et al., 2008 ).

To the best of our knowledge, there are currently no studies directly linking CSE to behavioral or emotional engagement and disaffection. However, there is some research pointing to links between CSE and variables related to engagement. Concerning behavioral engagement, the higher students’ levels of academic CSE the more hours they spent studying and looking at solutions to analytical problems they had to solve ( Crocker, Brook, Niiya, and Villacorta, 2006 ; Crocker, Luhtanen, et al., 2003 ). Yet, the perseverance of individuals high in CSE may be shaky and conditional. Indeed, the experimental induction of ego-involvement (i.e., a momentary state of CSE), only resulted in continued behavioral persistence during a free-choice period if participants received no or non-confirmative feedback, while the persistence faded if they had received positive feedback ( Ryan et al., 1991 ). Presumably, prompting participants’ ego only fosters persistence when participants’ desired outcome (i.e., performing successfully as indicated by positive feedback) is not yet achieved, while their persistence wanes quickly if they do achieve their desired outcome, underscoring its conditional character. Consistent with this interpretation, Van Wijhe, Peeters, and Schaufeli ( 2014 ) showed that individuals whose self-esteem highly depends on work achievements, felt compelled by themselves to work hard, being indicative of persistence, yet of the internally pressuring sort (see also Van den Broeck, Schreurs, De Witte, Vansteenkiste, Germeys, & Schaufeli, 2011 ). Overall then, individuals high in CSE would display a mix of both behavioral engagement and disaffection.

Furthermore, with regard to emotional disaffection, Lawrence and Williams ( 2013 ) demonstrated that, in an evaluative setting, undergraduate students with higher levels of academic CSE reported higher levels of test anxiety. Further, students high on academic CSE were found to suffer more from bad grades in terms of self-esteem and positive affect than they benefitted from good grades, indicating that these students are more sensitive to failure in the academic domain and thus may be more anxious in an achievement setting ( Crocker, Karpinski, Quinn, & Chase, 2003 ).

The Present Research

The primary aim of the present contribution was to examine the motivational and engagement correlates of CSE. Overall, because individuals high in CSE would be highly committed to the activity yet also emotionally more tense and conflicted about their activity engagement, we expected CSE to relate to a mixed pattern of motivational and engagement outcomes. An additional aim was to explore the conditions under which CSE would especially yield a harmful or rather benign effect by examining whether (a) there is an optimal point in CSE (i.e., curvilinear relation), (b) effects of CSE would depend on level of self-esteem (i.e., an interaction effect), and (c) the harmful correlates of CSE would especially become salient under negative feedback circumstances.

To this end, a cross-sectional and an experimental study were conducted among, respectively, high school and university students. Whereas Study 1 focused on the contextual level of CSE, motivation, and engagement (i.e., school) and focused on a variety of engagement and disaffection indicators, Study 2 focused on the situational level (i.e., task-specific) with regard to motivation and engagement, involved an experimental manipulation of feedback type (i.e., positive or negative), and included an objectively recorded indicator of behavioral engagement. Further, while Study 1 focused on academic CSE, Study 2 included a measure of global CSE. We chose to assess global CSE in Study 2, as the task (i.e., puzzle task) did not directly relate to a specific domain (e.g., academic, social).

Study 1 was conducted among a large sample of high school students in their second year. We chose to focus on these students as they need to make important track and subject choices when transitioning from Grade 8 to Grade 9. Apart from including diverse motivational and engagement subtypes, we also included a separate measure for test anxiety, which has been found to yield various negative consequences for students’ learning and performance ( Zeidner & Matthews, 2005 ). The following set of three hypotheses and two research questions was formulated. First, the hypothesized motivational ambiguity of CSE would manifest through its positive relation with introjected, identified regulation and external regulation, and a negative relation with intrinsic motivation (Hypothesis 1). That is, while CSE would relate primarily to an internally pressuring form of regulation (i.e., introjected), it would also relate to identified regulation, as CSE goes together with a high commitment to the activity ( Crocker, Luhtanen, et al., 2003 ; Lawrence & Williams, 2013 ). Further, as CSE is characterized by the feeling that one’s worth is at stake in achievement-settings, we expected that this tension may preclude individuals from fully enjoying learning (i.e., a negative relation between CSE and intrinsic motivation). Finally, as CSE has been found to relate to controlling parenting, individuals high in CSE may pursue academic goals more out of perceived external pressures (i.e., external regulation).

Second, the hypothesized engagement ambiguity of CSE would manifest itself through its positive relation with behavioral engagement and emotional disaffection, and a negative relation with emotional engagement (Hypothesis 2). That is, although individuals high in CSE would be inclined to display a high level of behavioral engagement to preserve or increase their self-worth, their activity engagement would come with feelings of pressure, (test) anxiety, and frustration, thus coming along with emotional disaffection. We further expected that these negative feelings would be so heavily present that individuals high in CSE would fail to display any emotional engagement. It is unclear whether these dynamics would also apply to individuals’ behavioral disaffection. Hence, the relation with behavioral disaffection was examined exploratively.

Third, the simultaneous inclusion of both motivational and engagement variables allowed us to examine whether motivation would account for (i.e., mediate) the relation between CSE and engagement (Hypothesis 3). For instance, the hypothesized positive relation between CSE and emotional disaffection may be carried by introjected regulation, while the hypothesized positive relation with behavioral engagement may be carried by identified regulation. Finally, we explored whether CSE would be less harmful when individuals experienced a moderate level of CSE (as opposed to a low or high level) (Research Question 1). More specifically, a low level of CSE could be regarded as an indicator of a careless attitude, whereas a high level of CSE might cause an overdose of internal pressure. In other words, a moderate level of CSE would represent the ideal point. Further, we explored whether the link between CSE and motivation/engagement was moderated by the level of self-esteem (Research Question 2). Some previous studies found evidence for this notion with the detrimental effects of CSE being especially pronounced when combined with low levels of self-esteem (e.g., Bos et al., 2010 ), whereas others did not (e.g., Wouters, Duriez, et al., 2013 ). To investigate the unique effects of CSE above and beyond the level of self-esteem, we always controlled for level of self-esteem in both studies.

Participants and Procedure

Several high schools in the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium were invited to participate in a study examining students’ transition from Grade 8 to Grade 9. Seventy schools were chosen to ensure representativeness with regard to educational network (private (mainly Catholic) versus public education), geographical location and educational level; 35 schools eventually agreed to participate. From each school, one class was randomly selected to participate. Before students filled out the questionnaire, they signed a standard consent form which informed them that they could refuse or discontinue participation at any time. A total of 641 students agreed to participate; passive parental consent for all these students was obtained a few weeks prior to the study. Students completed online questionnaires in the computer room of their school during a collective session supervised by Psychology bachelor students. The survey was divided into two parts, which were presented in random order to students belonging to the same class as to avoid order effects. The mean age in this sample was 14.06 years ( SD = 0.64; range 10 to 17 years; 11.1% missing values), with most participants being female (54.1% female and 2.3% missing values).

All items were answered in Dutch on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 ( Does not apply to me at all ) to 5 ( Completely applies to me ), unless indicated otherwise.

Academic Contingent Self-Esteem. Academic CSE was measured with four items from the academic subscale of the Self-Worth Contingency Questionnaire ( Burwell & Shirk, 2003 ; Wouters, Doumen, et al., 2013 ). We selected these four items from the total 8-item subscale because they had the highest loadings on the factor academic CSE in another dataset consisting of adolescents ( Wouters, Doumen, et al., 2013 ). A sample item is: “Whether or not I reach my goals in school strongly affects my feelings of worth”. Internal consistency of the scores was good (α = .87).

Academic Self-Esteem. To measure academic self-concept, students filled out three items from an adapted subscale of the Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II ( Marsh, 1992 ). A sample item is: “Most school subjects are just too hard for me”. Internal consistency was sufficient (α = .66).

Motivation. The quality of students’ motivation in the academic domain (i.e., their motives for studying) was assessed with the Dutch adapted version ( Vansteenkiste et al., 2009 ) of the Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ-A) developed by Ryan and Connell ( 1989 ). This questionnaire measures four motivational types with each four items: intrinsic motivation (“I’m studying because I enjoy doing it”; α = .86), identified regulation (“I’m studying because this is an important life goal to me”; α = .79), introjected regulation (“I’m studying because I would feel guilty if I wouldn’t do so”; α = .70), and external regulation (“I’m studying because others (parents, friends, etc.) force me to do this”; α = .68).

Engagement. Students’ levels of behavioral and emotional engagement and disaffection were measured with the Dutch translated version ( Verschueren & Wouters, 2012 ) of the engagement scales developed by Skinner et al. ( 2008 ). Sample items are “I try hard to do well in school” (behavioral engagement; 5 items; α = .83), “I enjoy learning new things in class” (emotional engagement; 5 items; α = .83), “In class, I do just enough to get by” (behavioral disaffection; 5 items; α = .80), and “When I’m doing work in class, I feel bored” (emotional disaffection; 12 items; α = .82). Items were rated on a scale ranging from 1 ( Not true at all ) to 4 ( Completely true ). All subscales were internally consistent.

Test anxiety. Test anxiety was assessed with a subscale consisting of eight items from a Dutch questionnaire concerning study management abilities ( Depreeuw & Lens, 1998 ). A sample item is “During the school year, I feel very tense when I study”. This scale was internally consistent (α = .81).

Plan of Analyses

For the present set of main variables, only 2.79% of the data at the scale level were missing. Participants with and without complete data were compared using Little’s ( 1988 ) Missing Completely At Random (MCAR) test. This resulted in a normed chi square (i.e., χ²/ df ) of 1.69, which suggests that values were missing at random. Hence, we used the Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) procedure ( Schafer & Graham, 2002 ) in Mplus 6.1 ( Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2010 ). Standard fit indices were used to evaluate all models. For adequate fit, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and the Standardized Root Mean square Residual (SRMR) less than or equal to .08, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) equal to or larger than .90; acceptable fit was also indicated by a χ²/ df ratio of 2 or below ( Hu & Bentler, 1999 ; Kline, 2005 ). To test the significance of indirect effects, we used bootstrapping (using 1,000 draws), a nonparametric resampling procedure that is highly recommended ( Preacher & Hayes, 2008 ). We did not consider multilevel modeling or controlling for clustering in schools for several reasons: (1) the average ICC was very small .03 (ICC’s ranged from .00 to .06) 1 , (2) all design effects were below 2, and (3) we had no variables available at the school level ( Peugh, 2010 ).

Descriptive Statistics and Preliminary Analyses

Table ​ Table1 1 presents all means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations. The level and the contingency of self-esteem were slightly positively correlated and they were positively related to all types of motivation, except for the negative correlation between academic self-esteem and external regulation. Further, contingency and level of SE were both positively related to behavioral and emotional engagement, while being negatively related to behavioral disaffection. Additionally, academic CSE was positively related to emotional disaffection and test anxiety, whereas academic self-esteem was negatively related to these outcomes. As for the motivational variables, their intercorrelations followed a simplex pattern, with motivational subtypes being closer to each other on the continuum of increasing autonomy (e.g., intrinsic and identified) being more strongly correlated than subtypes being positioned further away (e.g., intrinsic and external). This simplex pattern was also evident in the pattern of correlations between the motivational subtypes and the various engagement indicators and text anxiety: The two autonomous forms of regulation were similarly related to engagement (positively) and disaffection (negatively), whereas external regulation was only positively related to disaffection. The correlates of introjection, the subtype situated between identified and external regulation, sometimes mirrored those of autonomous regulations and sometimes those of external regulation. Although all motivational subtypes related positively to test anxiety, this relation was stronger for the two controlled forms of regulation.

Descriptives of and Correlations between the Variables (Study 1).

Note. CSE = Contingent self-esteem, SE = Self-esteem.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

Finally, significant sex differences were found with an independent samples t -test (with Levene’s test for testing the equality of the variances) for academic CSE, t (616.72) = –2.47, p < .05, identified regulation, t (624) = –2.47, p < .05, behavioral disaffection, t (602) = 2.91, p < .01, and test anxiety, t (620) = –2.67, p < .01. More specifically, girls reported more academic CSE ( M = 3.06, SD = 1.09), more identified regulation ( M = 3.48, SD = 0.94), more test anxiety ( M = 2.84, SD = 0.81), and less behavioral disaffection ( M = 2.10, SD = 0.60) than boys ( M = 2.86, SD = 0.98, M = 3.30, SD = 0.93, M = 2.67, SD = 0.83, and M = 2.25, SD = 0.67 respectively). In light of these gender effects, gender was controlled for in all models (only significant gender effects were retained).

Primary Analyses

In a first model 2 , we looked at the unique contribution of academic CSE and academic self-esteem in the prediction of all four motivation types (all motivation types were allowed to correlate). The fit of this model was excellent (χ²/ df = 6.23/5 = 1.25, p = .28, RMSEA = .02, 90% CI RMSEA [.00–.06], CFI = 1.00, SRMR = .01, N = 626). Controlling for academic self-esteem level, results showed that academic CSE was positively related to all types of motivation (β intrinsic = .33, p < .001; β identified = .37, p < .001; β introjected = .40, p < .001; β external = .20, p < .001).

In two following models, we investigated the unique contribution of academic CSE and academic self-esteem to indicators of, respectively, engagement and disaffection (all outcomes were allowed to correlate in each model). Model fit was good in both models (engagement model: χ²/ df = 2.49/3 = 0.83, p = .48, RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA [.00–.06], CFI = 1.00, SRMR = .01, N = 626; disaffection model: χ²/ df = 3.72/2 = 1.86, p = .16, RMSEA = .04, 90% CI RMSEA [.00–.10], CFI = 1.00, SRMR = .01, N = 626). Controlling for self-esteem level, CSE was positively related to behavioral (β = .28, p < .001) and emotional engagement (β = .19, p < .001). Further, CSE was unrelated to behavioral disaffection (β = –.07, p = .06), but positively related to emotional disaffection (β = .22, p < .001) and test anxiety (β = .44, p < .001).

In a third step, we estimated two mediational models with the four types of motivation mediating the effect of both self-esteem aspects on engagement and disaffection respectively; direct paths from the self-esteem aspects on engagement and disaffection were added in block and only retained if they were significant. This resulted in the two final models as shown in Figures ​ Figures1 1 and ​ and2. 2 . The fit of these models was excellent (engagement model: χ²/ df = 9.95/8 = 1.24, p = .27, RMSEA = .02, 90% CI RMSEA [.00–.05], CFI = 1.00, SRMR = .02, N = 626; disaffection model: χ²/ df = 12.95/8 = 1.62, p = .11, RMSEA = .03, 90% CI RMSEA [.00–.06], CFI = 1.00, SRMR = .02, N = 626). The associations between CSE and motivation were similar to those in Model 1: All relations were significantly positive. The direct relations between CSE and engagement and disaffection were also similar to those in Models 2 and 3, except for the direct association between academic CSE and emotional engagement which was no longer significant when the mediators were added. 3

Structural Model Depicting the Relation between Contingent Self-esteem, Motivation, and Engagement (Study 1).

Note. Standardized path coefficients are shown. Only significant paths are shown. Direct relations of self-esteem level with mediators and outcomes, covariances between self-esteem level and contingency, covariances between our 4 mediators, covariances between our outcomes and significant gender effects were estimated, but not shown for clarity purposes. * p < .05.** p < .01.*** p < .001.

Structural Model Depicting the Relation between Contingent Self-esteem, Motivation, and Disaffection (Study 1).

Next, we performed bias corrected bootstrapping in Mplus with 1,000 draws and controlling for self-esteem level, we found several significant indirect relations between CSE and engagement and disaffection in the final models. These indirect relations are summarized in Table ​ Table2. 2 . Results yielded a positive indirect relation between academic CSE and engagement through its positive association with identified regulation and/or intrinsic motivation. Indirect relations with disaffection were more inconsistent in that negative relations were found through identified regulation, positive relations via external regulation, and both positive and negative relations through introjected regulation.

Overview of all Significant Indirect Effects from Academic Contingent Self-Esteem to all Outcomes in Models 4 and 5 (Study 1).

Note. ACSE = Academic contingent self-esteem.

Supplementary Analyses

Finally, in a set of supplementary analyses (in which both self-esteem aspects were standardized), we tested for quadratic effects of academic CSE in Models 1 to 3. Results showed that only 2 out of 9 quadratic terms related significantly to the outcomes (βs ranged from –.16 to .00). Additionally, we tested for significant interaction effects between academic CSE and academic self-esteem in Models 1 to 3. Results showed that only 1 out of 9 interactions was significant (βs ranged from –.10 to .07) 4 . Hence, we did not include any of these effects in our final models.

Brief Discussion

In Study 1, we found that CSE related to all types of motivation, indicating that individuals with CSE are strongly motivated to put effort in their studies. Yet, this undifferentiated pattern of correlates equally points to the ambiguous character of CSE. Although academic CSE was positively related to both intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, it was also positively related to introjected and external regulation, beyond any effects of academic self-esteem. Similarly, results showed that academic CSE related to more behavioral and emotional engagement, but also to more emotional disaffection and test anxiety. Furthermore, the significant direct contribution of CSE to emotional engagement was fully explained by the quality of students’ motivation, whereas motivational processes could only partially explain the contribution of CSE to the other engagement indicators. Specifically, academic CSE yielded an indirect positive contribution to engagement via identified regulation and/or intrinsic motivation, but was also characterized by a mixed set of positive and negative indirect effects on disaffection via a combination of different motivational types. Finally, no systematic evidence was obtained for quadratic effects or moderation by level of self-esteem.

Study 2 aimed to extend Study 1 in three significant ways. First, instead of investigating the role of CSE at the contextual level, we examined its role in a specific achievement-related situation, that is, when university students were working on a puzzle task during which their ego-involvement was primed. We aimed to explore whether the hypothesized motivational and engagement ambiguity, for which we found evidence in Study 1, would also manifest itself when participants completed a specific activity. Second, while Study 1 was limited to self-reports, Study 2 included an unobtrusive measure of behavioral engagement. That is, participants were given the choice to (dis)continue their participation during a free-choice period ( Deci, 1971 ). In addition, we tapped their reasons for continuing to spent time on the target activity during this period. Third, Study 2 was experimental in nature as type of feedback (i.e., positive or negative) was varied. This allowed us to explore whether the hypothesized ambiguity of CSE would be limited to a circumstance of negative feedback or would appear across types of feedback. Apart from behavioral engagement, Study 2 also included an assessment of tension, reflecting emotional disaffection, and enjoyment, constituting emotional engagement.

We formulated the same set of hypotheses and research questions as in Study 1. During the experimental phase, we expected that higher levels of CSE would relate to more felt tension (as an indicator of emotional disaffection) as experienced during a puzzle task. Although we found a positive relation between CSE and emotional engagement in Study 1, we anticipated that CSE would relate negatively to enjoyment when individuals’ ego would be prompted (which was the case in this study) as this would foster a focus on gaining self-approval instead of enjoying the task. Further, although CSE was found to relate to greater behavioral engagement in Study 1, it remains to be seen whether this effect would get replicated when using an objective parameter, which was gathered when the experimental task was completed. That is, there was no obligation to continue with the target activity. To the extent that CSE would relate to more time spent on puzzling during a free-choice period, we expected that their persistence would be driven mainly by introjection and, in line with the results of Study 1, identification. Finally, in analogy with Study 1, in an explorative way we examined whether the proposed relations between CSE and the outcomes was moderated by the level of self-esteem and whether these relations were purely linear or rather quadratic in nature. Moreover, the experimental variation of type of feedback allowed us to examine whether the effects of CSE would be feedback-dependent or not.

Individuals were invited via an online participant panel system to participate in this study in return for course credits. In total, 72 individuals (of which 51 were female) participated. Participants were aged between 17 and 50 years ( M age = 19.54; SD = 3.92) and were mostly first year bachelor students in psychology ( N = 59). Furthermore, participation was voluntary and all data were processed confidentially. At the start of the study, participants gave their written consent. The study consisted of five consecutive parts: (1) filling out questionnaires concerning demographics, global CSE, and global self-esteem; (2) performing a puzzle task in either a success or failure condition; (3) filling out puzzle task-related questionnaires (i.e., felt tension, competence, and enjoyment during the puzzle task); (4) a free-choice period; and (5) filling out questionnaires concerning the motives underlying their persistence in the free-choice period. With respect to the puzzle task, participants were randomly assigned to either the success condition or the failure condition. In both conditions, ego-involvement was induced at the beginning of the activity by describing the puzzle task as a test of competence with regard to visual information processing (which resembles the ego-involvement induction as used by Ryan et al., 1991 ). In doing so, participants’ task-specific CSE was temporarily activated. Next, the Tangram Puzzle Task (TPT) was introduced.

The Tangram Puzzle Task. The TPT consists of seven geometrically different pieces that need to be correctly assembled to form specific homogeneous black figures. First, the experimenter informed participants about the puzzle task and demonstrated how to assemble the pieces to form a specific figure. Then, all participants started with the practice phase in which they were given four minutes to assemble two figures (one easy and one fairly difficult figure). This was followed by the test phase, during which participants needed to solve five puzzles. A success and failure condition were created by varying the standard of success and the level of difficulty of the figures. Specifically, in the success and failure condition, individuals were informed that 50% of their peers could, respectively, correctly assemble two and four figures. Additionally, the figures of individuals in the failure condition were more difficult, further increasing the likelihood of failing to attain the provided standard. During both the practice and test phase, participants were instructed to write down whether they had successfully assembled the puzzle before continuing with the next puzzle. After the practice phase, but before the test phase, the experimenter left the room to go to the adjacent room to observe participants through a one-way mirror. After the test phase, the experimenter reentered the room and provided the participants with the condition-specific feedback. After completing a set of questionnaires, the experimenter informed the participants that the next participant was waiting for her in the adjacent room. She asked the participants to wait a few minutes till she got back. The experimenter also explained that during this free-choice period the participants were free to do whatever they wanted, including solving some of the unresolved puzzle tasks of the experimental phase (to which we will refer as ‘old puzzles’), reading a magazine (which the experimenter was previously reading while the participant filled out questionnaires), or doing some new puzzle tasks (to which we will refer as ‘new puzzles’), which were already on the table and were said to be from another study. Subsequently, the experimenter went to the adjacent room to observe (through the one-way mirror) whether the participants continued to spent time on the puzzles or on another activity. After seven minutes, the experimenter returned to the room. If participants worked on puzzles during the free-choice period, they were provided with a questionnaire assessing the motivation for doing so. Finally, participants were debriefed and asked not to discuss the content of the study with fellow students.

Global Contingent Self-Esteem. Global CSE was assessed with the Dutch version ( Soenens & Duriez, 2012 ) of the Contingent Self-esteem Scale ( CSS; Paradise & Kernis, 1999 ). We chose to assess global CSE (as opposed to academic CSE) as the experimental task related to achievement in a broad sense (broader than the academic domain). The CSS consists of 15 items (e.g., “I consider performing well as important for my self-esteem”) which were rated on a scale from 1 ( Not at all true ) to 5 ( Completely true ). The scores for this scale were internally consistent (α = .87).

Global Self-Esteem. The Dutch version ( Franck, De Raedt, Barbez, & Rosseel, 2008 ) of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1979 ) was used to assess global self-esteem. This scale consists of 10 items (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”) that were rated on a scale ranging from 0 ( strongly disagree ) to 3 ( strongly agree ). The internal consistency of the scores was good (α = .83).

Puzzle Task-related Outcomes. Three subscales of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory ( Ryan, 1982 ; Ryan et al., 1991 ) were employed, that is, (a) felt tension (2 items; e.g., “I felt very tense when making the puzzles”; α = .79), which served as an indicator of emotional disaffection, (b) perceived competence (2 items; e.g., “I think I knew well how I could make the puzzles” α = .84), which was used as a manipulation check, and (c) experienced enjoyment (5 items; e.g., “Making the puzzles was fun” α = .83) while performing the puzzle task, which served as an indicator of emotional engagement. All items were rated on a scale from 1 ( Not at all true ) to 7 ( Completely true ).

Persistence during the Free-choice Period. Persistence was conceptualized as the time participants spent on puzzling during the free-choice period which was recorded and expressed in seconds.

Motivation during the Free-choice Period. Because participants could have various motives to continue working on the puzzles during the free-choice period, their reasons for continued perseverance at both the old puzzles (i.e., those being provided during the experimental phase) and new (i.e., newly offered at the beginning of the free-choice period) were assessed. Specifically, adapting a previously used questionnaire ( Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon, & Deci, 2004 ) to assess motivation for reading a text, participants rated reasons for puzzling with 4 items assessing each type of motivation: intrinsic motivation (e.g., “Because I found this activity enjoyable”), identified regulation (e.g., “Because I found this useful”), introjected regulation (e.g., “Because I had to prove to myself that I am a good puzzler”) and external regulation (e.g., “Because I felt that others obliged me to do so”). All items were rated on a scale from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 5 ( strongly agree ). As the subscales of the questionnaire referring to the old puzzles were highly correlated with the corresponding subscales of the questionnaire referring to the new puzzles ( r ranging between .85 and 1.00), responses across the two questionnaires were averaged. All subscales were found to be internally consistent (intrinsic motivation: α = .86; identified regulation: α = .79; introjected regulation: α = .78; external regulation: α = .86).

Descriptives of and bivariate correlations among the study variables are displayed in Table ​ Table3. 3 . CSE was negatively related to self-esteem. Whereas CSE related positively to tension, self-esteem was negatively related to this construct. Both were unrelated to felt competence and enjoyment during task execution and did not correlate with the time spent puzzling during the free-choice period. To the extent individuals high in CSE were persistent, they did so for a combination of introjected and identified reasons. In contrast, self-esteem related negatively to both introjected and identified regulation. As for the background variables, age was not related to any of the study variables, whereas gender was significantly related to CSE and time spent on puzzling during the free-choice period: men ( M = 3.40; SD = .45) reported less CSE than women ( M = 3.68; SD = .52); t (70) = 2.29; p < .05, while they ( M = 301.86; SD = 154.98) persisted longer than women ( M = 166.82; SD = 187.90); t (44.95) = –3.15; p < .01 (the df were adapted as Levene’s test indicated unequal variances between the conditions). Therefore, when predicting persistence we controlled for gender in all subsequent analyses.

Descriptives of and Correlations between the Variables (Study 2).

Note. CSE = Contingent self-esteem, SE = Self-esteem. Correlational analyses pertaining to the free-choice period variables are based on a subset of the data, as only a limited number of participants persevered (i.e., 45/72).

Subsequently, we employed the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which is mainly suitable for small samples, to investigate whether the scores on the study variables were not significantly different from a normal distribution (i.e., the null hypothesis). The results indicated that the distribution of the scores on self-esteem ( D (72) = .13), competence (success condition: D (36) = .16; failure condition: D (36) = .25), persistence (success condition: D (36) = .19; failure condition: D (36) = .32), and external regulation (success condition: D (27) = .22; failure condition: D (18) = .25) were significantly non-normal (all p s < .05). Scores on other variables were normally distributed.

To examine the condition-effects we performed two sets of MANOVAs (see Table ​ Table4), 4 ), one involving the task-related outcomes and another involving participants’ reasons for persisting during the free-choice period as only a limited number persevered (i.e., 45/72). As MANOVAs are rather robust with respect to non-normality, we employed parametric MANOVAs. Individuals in the failure condition solved fewer test puzzles, reported less competence (which indicates that the manipulation was effective) as well as less enjoyment, and felt more tense than individuals in the success condition. Although condition did not affect participants’ degree of persistence, it did impact the number of individuals engaging in the puzzle activity, with fewer participants in the failure condition (50% vs. 75% in the success condition) getting engaged in the puzzling at all; c 2 (1, N = 72) = 4.80, p = .05. The second MANOVA indicated that the success-failure manipulation did not relate to participants’ motives for persisting during the free-choice period.

Comparison of the Means between the Success Condition and the Failure Condition (Study 2).

Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

We examined whether CSE and condition would predict enjoyment of and tension during the puzzle task and degree of persistence in a structural model. To do so, we allowed paths from CSE and condition to these three outcomes, while controlling for the level of self-esteem. This model was tested using MPlus 7 ( Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012 ). We corrected for the non-normality observed in some of the variables through robust maximum likelihood estimation (MLR). The model showed an excellent fit (χ²/ df = .91/ 2 = .46; CFI = 1.00; SRMR = .02; RMSEA = .00, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .19]). More specifically, as can be noticed in Figure ​ Figure3, 3 , CSE related positively to tension during task execution, yet it related negatively to behavioral persistence during the free choice period. Additionally, condition related positively to both enjoyment and persistence, while being negatively related to tension.

Structural Model Depicting the Relation between Contingent Self-esteem, Condition, Engagement and Disaffection (Study 2).

Note. Standardized path coefficients are shown. Direct effects of self-esteem level on outcomes were estimated, but not shown for clarity purposes. Condition was coded as ‘0’ for the failure condition and as ‘1’ for the success condition. PT = Puzzle task; FCP = Free-choice period. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.

To gain insight into the relation between CSE and the reasons for continued persistence we ran a second structural model with CSE predicting the different motives, while controlling for the level of self-esteem. This model had a perfect fit because it was fully saturated. Results showed that CSE related to introjection (β = .32, p < .01) and identified regulation (β = .29, p < .05), but was unrelated to intrinsic motivation (β = .12, p > .05) and external regulation (β = –.06, p > .05).

To explore whether CSE related in a quadratic way to all outcomes, regression analyses were run wherein we controlled for a linear effect of CSE. Results showed that none of the quadratic terms related significantly to the outcomes (βs ranged from –.13 to .18; all p s > .05). We also examined whether the interactions between CSE and self-esteem and between CSE and condition were significant predictors of all outcomes in our main analyses. Results showed that none of the interactions were significant (βs ranged from –.06 to .23; all p s > .05), indicating that the effects of CSE on the outcomes were not moderated by condition and level of self-esteem.

Brief discussion

The findings of Study 2 are partially consistent with those of Study 1, in spite of the use of an experimental rather than a correlation design and the study of the motivation and engagement dynamics at the situation instead of the domain level. Specifically, consistent with Study 1, individuals high in CSE reported more emotional disaffection during task execution, as reflected in their elevated tension. Different from Study 1, once the task was completed and participants were left by themselves, those high in CSE spent significantly less time on the puzzles, reflecting reduced behavioral engagement. Interestingly, to the extent individuals high in CSE did persist, they did so mostly for introjected (but also identified) rather than intrinsic reasons. So, in general, the pattern of findings associated with CSE was more pronounced negative and less ambiguous in Study 2, a pattern that was not altered depending on individuals’ level of self-esteem or the type of feedback they received (i.e., lack of interaction). Also, similar to Study 1, the effects of CSE on all outcomes were linear (instead of quadratic).

General Discussion

Although an increasing number of studies has indicated the detrimental effects of CSE for individuals’ well-being (e.g., Lakey et al., 2014 ), less is known about the motivational correlates of CSE. Therefore, the general aim of this study was to examine the motivational and engagement correlates of CSE in achievement-related situations. Based on theoretical and limited empirical evidence, we hypothesized that individuals high in CSE would be highly committed to activities that signal high importance for their self-worth; yet, at the same time they may also feel emotionally more tense and conflicted about this activity which could hinder them in developing interest in the activity at hand. Therefore, we expected CSE to relate to a mixed pattern of motivational and engagement outcomes. Additionally, we explored whether CSE would be less harmful under certain conditions. To investigate these aims, we used data from both a cross-sectional and an experimental study.

Contingent Self-esteem and Motivation

We first investigated the relation between CSE and a diversity of motivational subtypes. Although CSE related to all types of motives, the association with introjected regulation was most pronounced. This is consistent with previous theorizing (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1995 ) asserting that individuals who hinge their self-esteem on achieving particular standards (e.g., achieving academically) are mainly carrying out the activity to comply with internal pressures. This effect emerged in Study 1, in which students’ “naturally occurring” motives for their school work were assessed as well as in Study 2 in which students engaged in a specific activity that was portrayed as carrying high diagnostic value for their competencies. Besides a link with introjection, we also found – at least in Study 1 – that students with higher academic CSE studied more out of external pressure. This is not surprising in light of the finding that CSE relates to psychologically controlling parenting ( Wouters, Doumen, et al., 2013 ): Parents who are perceived to exert psychological control are assumed to make their children’s self-esteem and motivation more vulnerable for external and controlling influences.

Further, emphasizing the hypothesized motivational ambiguity of CSE, we also found that students who reported higher levels of academic CSE studied more because they found the study material to be personally relevant and even interesting and fun. Yet, the latter finding with respect to intrinsic motivation was not replicated in Study 2, as students with higher levels of global CSE did not persevere at the activity during the free-choice period out of sheer interest, but because they felt internally pressured or experienced the activity as personally relevant.

Contingent Self-esteem and Engagement

As individuals high in CSE hinge their self-esteem on obtaining certain standards, it is reasonable to assume that they are highly committed and engaged to obtain these standards (Crocker, Luhtanen, et al., 2013; Lawrence & Williams, 2013 ). Nevertheless, we also hypothesized that these high levels of behavioral engagement would be accompanied by feelings of tension and reduced enjoyment. The relation between CSE and behavioral disaffection was examined in an explorative fashion, as it was unclear whether these feelings of tension would foster disaffection from activities at some moments. Results partially confirmed our hypotheses.

First, in both studies, CSE related positively to emotional disaffection, as indexed by a general measure of emotional disaffection and test anxiety in Study 1 and more felt tension during the puzzle task in Study 2. So, both studies clearly indicate that CSE is associated with maladaptive emotional states in achievement situations. This is important considering that maladaptive emotions in an achievement context, such as test anxiety, may have debilitating effects on students’ performance and learning, resulting in poor achievement or underachievement ( Zeidner & Matthews, 2005 ).

Second, such a pattern did not occur for emotional engagement. Whereas individuals high in CSE did not report greater emotional engagement (as reflected by their enjoyment) during the execution of the puzzle task, in Study 1, CSE related positively to emotional engagement. This discrepancy may be explained by the context. In Study 1, students were asked about their emotional engagement with regard to learning, whereas in Study 2 emotional engagement pertained to the enjoyment of a task under pressuring circumstances. Possibly, individuals high in CSE enjoy learning in general, but this enjoyment may wane when learning is not the end-goal but achieving is. Future studies could further investigate the link between CSE and emotional engagement under diverse conditions, such as an evaluative (e.g., test) and non-evaluative environment. At least, the overall pattern with respect to emotional engagement and disaffection is an ambiguous one, as CSE related positively to emotional disaffection and, if anything, also positively to emotional engagement.

Third, with respect to behavioral indicators of engagement, whereas CSE related to more self-reported behavioral engagement in Study 1, it led to less observed behavioral engagement in Study 2. Future studies could further investigate this discrepant finding. We speculate on two possible explanations. First, it may be the case that persistence is inhibited for individuals high in CSE when they are confronted with a challenging task (such as the Tangram puzzle task) in an ego-involving situation, which may also trigger feelings of failure. Indeed, in both conditions participants were generally unable to perform the task successfully (average was about 3 and 1 for the success and failure condition, respectively). Thus, although individuals high in CSE may persist when they expect success, they may persist less when failure seems likely ( Crocker & Park, 2003 ). Indeed, students who hinge their self-esteem on their academic achievements are more inclined to avoid challenges, especially if failure would come with a blow for their self-worth ( Covington, 1984 ). Second, we should note that persistence in Study 2 was assessed during a free-choice period, while behavioral engagement in Study 1 pertained to the effort invested in school-related tasks. Perhaps, individuals high in CSE might especially disengage from the activity if they have the free choice to do so, that is, when nothing can be gained anymore.

Furthermore, Study 1 showed that the ambiguous effect of academic CSE on engagement runs at least partially through motivation. For instance, our results indicate that students who hinge their self-worth on their academic performance are more likely to study because they find it personally relevant which, in turn, makes them more likely to be academically engaged as well as less likely to be academically disaffected. However, we also found that students whose self-esteem is more dependent on how they perform academically were more likely to study because they felt pressured to study by their parents or other significant others which, in turn, was related to higher levels of behavioral and emotional disaffection.

Additional Findings

Two additional findings deserve being highlighted. First, with regard to our explorative research question, results across both studies showed that the effect from CSE to the outcomes is linear and is not moderated by the level of self-esteem or the type of experience (i.e., success or fail experience). Taken together, this indicates that CSE relates to individuals’ functioning in an achievement-related situation independent of the general level of self-esteem or the valence of the situation (success or failure).

Second, at least in Study 1, identified regulation was more strongly related to engagement than intrinsic motivation. This finding is in line with previous studies showing a more pronounced role of identification for certain outcomes. Burton et al. ( 2006 ), for instance, examined the relation between intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, well-being, and academic performance among elementary school children. They found that intrinsic motivation for learning was the stronger correlate of well-being, whereas identified regulation was the stronger correlate of better grades. These and the current findings may be specifically due to the school context. Because many aspects and tasks in an educational context are not inherently interesting or enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000), it would be more critical for children to come to fully endorse these non-interesting tasks, that is, to identify with its self-importance, which would then carry greater explanatory power for children’s school functioning.

Limitations and Directions for Future Studies

This study had several limitations. First, although the sample size of Study 1 was sufficient, the sample size was relatively small in Study 2 which may have reduced the power of especially our interaction analyses. Second, although Study 2 employed a behavioral measure to assess persistence, all other constructs were assessed via self-reports. Future studies could assess the study variables in a broader sense, for example through assessing engagement in class as observed by the teacher. It would also be important to assess the relations between CSE, engagement, and motivation more dynamically with a longitudinal design as these relations could be reciprocal. Additionally, as we found some inconsistencies between the results of Study 1 and 2, more research is needed to determine why this was the case, for example by investigating both objective indicators and self-reports of behavioral engagement measured at the same level in one single study, or by assessing CSE at both the general and domain-specific level.

Second, especially with regard to Study 1, it seems that we are dealing with rather proximal mediators (Kenny & Judd, 2013): Our mediators are more closely related to CSE than to engagement outcomes. Hence, it may be interesting to identify other psychological mechanisms, such as the experience of psychological need satisfaction and need frustration ( Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan, Bosch, & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2011 ), in future studies. Additionally, in Study 2, we only focused on motivation for persevering, thereby neglecting the diversity of reasons for not persevering ( Green-Demers, Legault, Pelletier, & Pelletier, 2008 ). For example, participants could have stopped working on the puzzles to avoid failure and associated feelings of shame or because they found the puzzle task to be boring or not personally relevant.

Third, future studies could examine the generalizability of the current findings. For instance, the question can be raised whether a different experimental method to induce feelings of failure and success or threat versus non-threat, or the use of a different experimental task than the one used in Study 2 (i.e., Tangram Puzzle Task) may interact with CSE in the prediction of motivational and engagement dynamics. Further, the question can be raised whether observed correlates of CSE hold across different cultures. In this regard, Chen, Soenens, Vansteenkiste, Van Petegem, and Beyers ( this issue ) showed that parental guilt-induction (a facet of controlling parenting) was associated with less detrimental effects among Chinese adolescents compared to Belgian adolescents, although guilt-induction carried less desirable effects when compared to autonomy support among both groups of adolescents. As controlling parenting is positively related to CSE ( Wouters, Doumen, et al., 2013 ), it might be the case that individuals from a collectivistic culture may be less negatively affected by higher levels of CSE.

A final issue that deserves further attention is the relation between CSE and level of self-esteem. Whereas level of self-esteem and CSE in the academic domain were slightly positively correlated in Study 1, level of self-esteem and CSE at the global level were moderately negatively associated in Study 2, with the latter finding being in line with previous studies (e.g., Wouters, Duriez, et al., 2013 ). Indeed, children or adolescents with lower global self-esteem may be more vulnerable to develop a fragile self-esteem which depends heavily on success and failure in general. However, our results also suggest that students who perceive themselves as less academically competent, are less likely to let their self-esteem depend on their achievements in the academic domain, as compared to students who feel more competent in this domain. Perhaps, when students feel less competent in a specific domain, they gradually devalue the domain or shift their attention to another domain to protect their self-esteem from failure in that domain ( Crocker & Wolfe, 2001 ). Such strategies, however, may not apply when feeling unworthy in general. Future research is needed to explore these discrepant associations between level of self-esteem and CSE, depending on the level of assessment.

Across two studies, CSE related to an ambiguous pattern of motivation and engagement. Although individuals high in CSE displayed higher levels of motivation in general, they were especially motivated because of introjected reasons. Further, CSE related positively to behavioral and emotional engagement in the domain of schooling in general, but to less behaviorally recorded persistence during a specific challenging situation. Across both studies, CSE was also associated with feelings of tension and anxiety. Overall, these findings highlight the ambiguity that characterizes the functioning of individuals high in CSE, both in terms of their engagement and motivational functioning.

Twenty-nine students did not provide the name of their school or provided an incomplete name. Consequently, ICCs could only be calculated for maximum 612 students from 34 schools.

Testifying to the distinctiveness of the measures for academic CSE and introjection, the two-factor model ( N = 626, χ² (19) = 152.88, RMSEA = .11, CFI = .93, SRMR = .07) showed a better fit than the one-factor model ( N = 626, χ² (20) = 444.21, RMSEA = .18, CFI = .78, SRMR = .11; Δχ² (1) = 291.33, p < .001).

Based on the suggestion of a reviewer, we also analyzed a more general model by averaging across intrinsic motivation and identified regulation and across introjected and external regulation to generate two composite scores of, respectively, autonomous and controlled motivation. Additionally, we only focused on indicators of engagement and test anxiety in this model, thus omitting behavioral and emotional disaffection. In line with the results from our more specific models, academic CSE related positively to both autonomous and controlled motivation and, in turn, autonomous motivation related positively to both engagement indicators whereas controlled motivation related positively to test anxiety. Significant positive direct effects were found from academic CSE to behavioral and emotional engagement and test anxiety, but the direct effect on emotional engagement became non-significant when including both motivation types.

More specifically, in a parallel version of Model 1 with standardized continuous predictors, the interaction between academic CSE and academic SE on external regulation was significant. The interaction showed that the significant positive effect of academic CSE on external regulation was more pronounced for individuals scoring low on academic SE.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors Contribution

Jolene van der Laap-Deeder and Sofie Wouters are considered joint first author and contributed equally to this paper.

Author Information

Sofie Wouters is a Postdoctoral Fellow of the Research Foundation – Flanders.

Building Self-Esteem

13 February, 2020

8 minutes read

Author:  Donna Moores

Evidently, self-esteem is seen as a personal trait which tends to be enduring and stable, the one that encompasses within itself a host of beliefs about oneself. In reality, self-esteem means different things to diverse people. To some it means feeling good and loving yourself unconditionally. To others it is a feeling which is at the center of one's being of self-confidence, self-worth and respect. Therefore, it is vital for one to have high self-esteem since it paves the way for love and success in life (Bruceeisner, 2012).

Certainly, people often overlook the importance for individuals to have a healthy or positive self-esteem. On the very basic level, a positive self-esteem is delineated by various qualities. They include being able to accept responsibilities for one’s own actions, respect and tolerance for others, being able to handle criticisms, and of course, being able to take charge of one’s own life. Also, it’s about taking a great pride in your own achievements, possessing a great level of integrity and loving others while being loved. The majority of people in the community, especially those in the business and entrepreneurial sectors, believe that possessing a healthy or positive self-esteem will aid in being a successful professional in your field of work.

In the medical field of the economy, for example, doctors, nurses and other people working in the medical community have a belief that possessing a positive self-esteem is very crucial in the maintenance of a healthy life by individuals. In contrast to the thought that a positive or healthy self-esteem is vital in an individual’s professional life, it also plays a very important role in alleviating psychological disorders.

Don’t hesitate and buy your term paper at Handmade Writing !

What Are the Effects of Underappreciation?

When an individual possesses a low self-esteem, he or she tries to impress others or prove others a focal point in their lives. However, this is deemed to be a total waste of one’s time and energy and can even result in psychological issues. In particular, a person without a healthy or positive self-esteem tends to have contempt towards people and usually acts arrogantly. They usually blame themselves for their actions and failures, lack confidence in themselves and mostly doubt their acceptability and self-worth (Reasoner, 2012).

These elements do not only show the negative part of an individual’s life. They are also quite unhealthy to the emotional well-being of an individual. This is because an unhealthy or negative self-esteem is damaging to an individual’s emotional health. This backs the fact that a healthy or positive self-esteem indeed can aid in alleviating psychological disorders.

The Relation of Self-Esteem to Science

One of the peculiar psychological disorders that are mostly stroked by self-esteem is known as Borderline Personality Disorder. Individuals are not willing to validate their feelings for other people or trust others when they usually do not feel well about themselves. People who suffer from borderline personality disorder coupled with a poor self-esteem can exasperate the anger which is mostly present in this type of psychological issue. More often than not, a burst of angry tirade is as a result of a lot of unresolved matters which have been posponed for later. Hence, the only way a person with borderline personality can assert his or her feelings or thoughts is through anger. In addition, having a healthy or positive self-esteem can help alleviate this issue and curtail the feeling of anger associated with borderline personality.

In particular, an individual who experiences borderline personality psychological disorder most often associates some form of suspicion to people who want to be their friends. A person with this kind of issue has a feeling that their friendship with others will end as the time goes on. This is because they think they have nothing to offer in the new friendship, which is actually wrong. Therefore, possessing a healthy or positive self-esteem can aid an individual who has a psychological disorder like the borderline personality to comprehend the fact that they deserve to be happy and achieve success in everything they do. Specifically, this is linked to their professional life or personal life, and also to the sense of self-worth.

A typical example of it is when an individual gets a job that he or she has always wanted, let say a dream job. A person possessing a psychological disorder like borderline personality will position himself or herself for failure. Meanwhile, the staff may use the opportunity given a mistake and can even flare up at the employer for placing them in a position to fail. On the other hand, an individual with a healthy or positive self-esteem will realize that he or she indeed deserves the job. In addition, they’ll recognize and appreciate the opportunity given to him or her to achieve success. A person with a healthy self-esteem will thank and respect the one who gave him that opportunity.

Problems with writing Your Paper? Try our Essay Writer Service!

The Importance of Rational Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is significant to an individual’s well-being and mental health since it has the capability of leading him or her to a more deserving social behavior and better health. Obviously, low self-esteem is often characterized with a range of broad social problems and mental disorders like eating disorders, depression, suicidal tendencies and anxiety. Notably, some schools of thought in the field of medicine, most often in the field of psychological disorders, believe that healthy physical and mental health are a result of comprehending the development of self-esteem and its outcomes.

Self-esteem can, therefore, be explained as the sum of a person’s knowledge and beliefs about his or her personal qualities and attributes. It is a cognitive composition that combines the concrete and abstract views about oneself and also controls the possession of information of self-relevance. Moreover, an individual who possesses suicidal tendencies has the urge or feeling of hurting himself or herself as he/she is feeling unhappy and unworthy.

Consequently, having a healthy or positive self-esteem alleviates any negative emotions and feelings an individual with any form of suicidal tendencies might go through. In addition, research has proven that self-esteem is a crucial psychological factor which contributes to quality and healthy life. It has also been proven with research that subjective well-being extremely corresponds with high self-esteem (Zimmerman, 2000). Therefore, it plays a major role in the mental well-being and happiness of individuals.

Overall, self-esteem and mental well-being of an individual are directly related. Any alteration in a person’s self-esteem, be it high self-esteem or low self-esteem, will affect the psychology of that person. Likewise, a healthy or positive self-esteem definitely helps in alleviating psychological disorders and puts an individual on the pedestal of high belief and confidence in him or herself.

• Bruceeisner, D. (2012). Meaning of Self-Esteem. Squidoo Journal Website Retrieved from: http://www.squidoo.com/self_esteem
• Reasoner, R. (2012). The True Meaning of Self-Esteem. National Association for Self-Esteem Website Retrieved from:http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/what.php
• Zimmerman, S.L. (2000). Self-Esteem, Personal Control and Optimism. Midwestern University. Dissertation Abstract. Retrieved from:http://her.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/4/357.full#ref-123

A life lesson in Romeo and Juliet taught by death

Due to human nature, we draw conclusions only when life gives us a lesson since the experience of others is not so effective and powerful. Therefore, when analyzing and sorting out common problems we face, we may trace a parallel with well-known book characters or real historical figures. Moreover, we often compare our situations with […]

Ethical Research Paper Topics

Writing a research paper on ethics is not an easy task, especially if you do not possess excellent writing skills and do not like to contemplate controversial questions. But an ethics course is obligatory in all higher education institutions, and students have to look for a way out and be creative. When you find an […]

Art Research Paper Topics

Students obtaining degrees in fine art and art & design programs most commonly need to write a paper on art topics. However, this subject is becoming more popular in educational institutions for expanding students’ horizons. Thus, both groups of receivers of education: those who are into arts and those who only get acquainted with art […]