ancient egypt history essay

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Ancient Egypt

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

Ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world for almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology. The main sources of information about ancient Egypt are the many monuments, objects and artifacts that have been recovered from archaeological sites, covered with hieroglyphs that have only recently been deciphered. The picture that emerges is of a culture with few equals in the beauty of its art, the accomplishment of its architecture or the richness of its religious traditions.

Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)

Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Did you know? During the rule of Akhenaton, his wife Nefertiti played an important political and religious role in the monotheistic cult of the sun god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her famous beauty and role as a living goddess of fertility.

Neolithic (late Stone Age ) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).

Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent , an area home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.

In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.

Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid -building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)

On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)

After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria , Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

Second Intermediate Period (c. 1786-1567 B.C.)

The 13th dynasty marked the beginning of another unsettled period in Egyptian history, during which a rapid succession of kings failed to consolidate power. As a consequence, during the Second Intermediate Period Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, seems to have existed at the same time as the 13th.

Around 1650 B.C., a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s instability to take control. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty adopted and continued many of the existing Egyptian traditions in government as well as culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict eventually flared between the two groups, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 B.C., driving them out of Egypt.

New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in  Palestine , clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.

The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)

The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire . Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus ) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

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AP®︎/College Art History

Course: ap®︎/college art history   >   unit 4, ancient egypt, an introduction.

• Ancient Egyptian art
• Palette of King Narmer
• Seated Scribe
• The Great Pyramids of Giza
• Pyramid of Khufu
• Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx
• Pyramid of Menkaure
• King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen
• Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
• Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Large Kneeling Statue, New Kingdom, Egypt
• Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (UNESCO/TBS)
• Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
• Tutankhamun’s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)
• Last Judgement of Hunefer, from his tomb
• Hunefer, Book of the Dead

Consistency and stability

Time—cyclical and linear, the pharaoh—not just a king, the development of ancient egypt, want to join the conversation.

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The world of ancient Egypt

Few civilizations have enjoyed the longevity and global cultural reach of ancient Egypt. Their distinct visual expressions, writing system, and imposing monuments are instantly recognizable by viewers all around the world even today—put simply, their branding was on point. 

Pyramid of Khafre, Egypt (photo: MusikAnimal, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Despite portraying significant stability over a vast period of time, their civilization was not as static as it may appear at first glance, particularly if viewed through our modern eyes and cultural perspectives . Instead, the culture was dynamic even as it revolved around a stable core of imagery and concepts. The ancient Egyptians adjusted to new experiences, constantly adding to their complex beliefs about the divine and terrestrial realms, and how they interact. This flexibility, wrapped around a base of consistency, was part of the reason ancient Egypt survived for millennia and continues to fascinate.  

Read an introductory essay about ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt: an introduction

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The Natural World of Egypt

View of the Nile River, Egypt (photo: Badics, CC BY-SA 3.0)

With the blazing sun above, flanked by vast seas of shifting sand, and fed by the life-giving Nile River (which hid frightening creatures beneath its dark waters), the natural world of Egypt was inherently beautiful but also potentially deadly. Outside the lush river valley, there was little protection from the ever-dominant sun, whose intensity was both feared and revered. The deserts were home not only to many dangerous creatures, but the sands themselves were also unpredictable and constantly shifting. The clear night skies dazzled with millions of stars, some of which seemed to move of their own accord while others rose and fell at trackable intervals. The Nile, with its annual floods, brought fertility and renewal to the land, but could also overflow and wreak havoc on the villages that lined its banks. Careful observers of their environment, the Egyptians perceived divine forces in these phenomena and many of their deities, such as the powerful sun god Ra, were connected with elements from the natural world.

Hieroglyphs, detail from the White Chapel, Karnak (photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

The perception of divine powers existing in the natural world was particularly true in connection with the animals that inhabited the region. There was an array of creatures that the Egyptians would have observed or interacted with on a regular basis and they feature heavily in the culture. One of the most distinctive visual attributes of Egyptian imagery is the myriad deities that were portrayed in hybrid form, with a human body and animal head. In addition, a wide range of birds, fishes, mammals, reptiles, and other creatures appear prominently in the hieroglyphic script —there are dozens of different birds alone.

Nebamun fowling in the marshes, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, 83 x 98 cm, Thebes (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The Nile was packed with numerous types of fish, which were recorded in great detail in fishing scenes that became a fixture in non-royal tombs. Most relief and painting throughout Egypt’s history was created for divine or mortuary settings and they were primarily intended to be functional. Many tomb scenes included the life-giving Nile and all it’s abundance with the goal of making that bounty available for the deceased in the afterlife. In addition to the array of fish, the river also teemed with far more dangerous animals, like crocodiles and hippopotami. Protective spells and magical gestures were used from early on to aid the Egyptians in avoiding those watery perils as they went about their daily lives.

Hunefer (center) flanked by two deities: the ibis-headed Thoth (left) and the falcon-headed Horus (right), from Hunefer’s Judgement in the presence of Osiris, Book of the Dead of Hunefer, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus, Thebes, Egypt (British Museum)

The desert, likewise, was full of potentially dangerous creatures. Lions, leopards, jackals, cobras, and scorpions were all revered for their attributes and feared for their ferocity. Soaring above were birds of prey, like falcons who were sharp-eyed hunters, and massive vultures that consumed decaying flesh and fed it to their young. Scarab beetles also seemingly brought new life from decay and the sacred ibis with their curved beaks found sustenance hidden in the muddy banks of the Nile. All of these creatures (and many others) became closely associated with different deities very early in Egyptian history. The Egyptians did not worship animals; instead, certain animals were revered because it was believed that they were related to particular gods and thus served as earthly manifestations of those deities.

Model scene of workers ploughing a field, Middle Kingdom, late Dynasty 11, 2010–1961 B.C.E., wood, 54 cm (MFA Boston)

Even domesticated animals, such as cows, bulls, rams, and geese, became associated with deities and were viewed as vitally important. Cattle were probably the first animals to be domesticated in Egypt and domesticated cattle, donkeys, and rams appear along with wild animals on Predynastic and Early Dynastic votive objects , showing massive herds that were controlled by early rulers, demonstrating their wealth and prestige. Pastoral scenes of animal husbandry appear in numerous private tomb chapels and wooden models, providing detailed evidence of their daily practices. Herdsmen appear caring for their animals in depictions that include milking, calving, protecting the cattle as they cross the river, feeding, herding, and many other aspects of their day-to-day care.

The Battlefield Palette , c. 3100 B.C.E., mudstone, found at el-Amarna, Egypt, 19.6 x 32.8 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Already in the Predynastic period the king was linked with the virile wild bull, an association that continues throughout Egyptian history—one of the primary items of royal regalia was a bull tail, which appears on a huge number of pharaonic images. An early connection between the king and lions is also apparent. One scene on a Predynastic ceremonial palette ( The Battlefield Palette), shows the triumphant king as a massive lion devouring his defeated foes. First Dynasty kings appear to have kept lion cubs as pets.

The Great Sphinx (photo: superblinkymac, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

In addition, lions (among other animals) were associated with the burials of some early rulers. One of the most iconic images from ancient Egypt is the massive Great Sphinx at Giza, which was sculpted from the living rock of the plateau. This fused form, with the body of a lion and the head of the king, became a common visual expression of royal power. 

Historical Setting

While many of the religious and cultural characteristics of ancient Egypt were evident from very early on and continued all the way through the Roman era (contributing to overall cultural stability), sweeping conceptual developments and adoptions of external elements are also evident. Throughout ancient Egypt’s long history, periods of unified control were interspersed with moments of instability where parts of the country were controlled by different authorities. These repeated waves of political and cultural development create a decidedly complex history that  spans thousands of years.

Read essays to understand the historical setting and basic characteristics of each era

Ancient Egyptian chronology and historical framework: an introduction

Predynastic and Early Dynastic:  an introduction

Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period: an introduction

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period: an introduction

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period: an introduction

Late Period and the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: an introduction

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Social Organization

Conceptually, the Egyptian state was an absolute monarchy where the office of pharaoh itself was considered divine. The pharaoh (king) was viewed as the earthly manifestation of the god Horus, and was responsible as the supreme commander for making all decisions affecting the nation. In reality, the king stood at the head of a hierarchical administrative structure with layers of civil officials that oversaw various systems and were responsible to the king for their success. 

Seated Scribe​ , c. 2500 B.C.E., c. 4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom, painted limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, and copper/arsenic inlay for the eyes and wood for the nipples, found in Saqqara (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Most Egyptians followed the careers of their fathers and were taught by apprenticeship. Only the children of the higher classes, destined to become officials, were taught in schools and learned to read and write. Money in the modern sense did not exist in Egypt until the mid-fourth century B.C.E., so wages were usually paid in grain that could then be exchanged for copper or silver. Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy and the foundation of the state, and produce was delivered to central storehouses to be administered and distributed.

Read essays about the various social strata in Egyptian society

Egyptian Social Organization: The Pharaoh

Egyptian Social Organization: Administrative officials, priests, ranks of the military, and the general population

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Art and Function

Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut , c. 1479–1458 B.C.E., Dynasty 18, New Kingdom (Deir el-Bahri, Upper Egypt), granite, 261.5 x 80 x 137 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Egyptian art is sometimes viewed as static and abstract when compared with the more naturalistic depictions of other cultures (ancient Greece for example). Much of Egyptian imagery—especially royal imagery—was governed by decorum (a sense of what was appropriate), and remained extraordinarily consistent throughout its long history. This is why their art may appear unchanging—and this was intentional. For the ancient Egyptians, consistency was a virtue and an expression of political stability, divine balance, and clear evidence of ma’at and the correctness of their culture. The Egyptians even had a tendency, especially after periods of disunion, towards archaism where the artistic style would revert to that of the earlier Old Kingdom which was perceived as a “golden age.”

Read essays about art and function

Ancient Egyptian art: an introduction its function and basic characteristics

Materials and techniques in ancient Egyptian art: an introduction

Consistency and balance

The canon of proportions grid is clearly visible in the lower, unfinished register of the Stela of Userwer, and the use of hieratic scale (where the most important figures are largest) is evident the second register that shows Userwer, his wife and his parents seated and at a larger scale than the figures offering before them. Detail of the stela of the sculptor Userwer, 12th dynasty, limestone, from Egypt, 52 x 48 cm wide (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Consistency in representation was closely related to a fundamental belief that depictions had an impact beyond the image itself. This belief led to an active resistance to changes in codified depictions. Even the way that figures were planned and laid out by the artists was codified. During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians developed a grid system, referred to as the canon of proportions, for creating systematic figures with the same proportions. Grid lines aligned with the top of the head, top of the shoulder, waist, hips, knees, and bottom of the foot (among other body joints). 

King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and Queen, 2490–2472 B.C.E., Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, greywacke, Menkaura Valley Temple, Giza, Egypt, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm, 676.8 kg (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The grid aided the artist in ensuring that the proportions of their figures were correct, but those proportions shifted over time. For example, although 18 squares was the standard used for much of Egypt’s history, in the Amarna period 20 squares were used, resulting in figures with more elongated proportions. 

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti , c. 1340 BCE, limestone and plaster, New Kingdom, 18th dynasty, Amarna Period (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection/Neues Museum, Berlin)

Below are several examples of Egyptian art that demonstrate their primary stylistic characteristics. These include:

• the use of hierarchical scale
• the use of registers
• use of the canon of proportions (described above)
• a preference for balance
• the integration of perspectives.  

Read essays and watch videos about consistency and balance

Stela of the sculptor Userwer: The lower part is still covered with the grid used for ensuring that the proportions of the figures were correct.

King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen: They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever.

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti : This stunning bust exemplifies a change in style.

The Seated Scribe: This painted statue differs from the ideal statues of pharaohs.

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Creative details

Nude figure of the Seal Bearer Tjetji, 2321 B.C.E.–2184 B.C.E. (6th Dynasty), from Akhmim, Upper Egypt, wood, obsidian, limestone, and copper, 75 cm high (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Although much Egyptian art is formal, many surviving examples of highly expressive depictions full of creative details prove that the ancient Egyptian artists were fully capable of naturalistic representations. Note, for example, the sensitive modeling of the musculature and close attention paid to realistic physical detail evident in a wood statue of a high official (the Seal Bearer Tjetji) from a Late Old Kingdom tomb. These very unusual and enigmatic statuettes of nude high officials, which are depicted in a standard pose of striding forward with left leg advanced and holding a long staff, were often painted and had eyes of inlaid stone set in copper. 

Musicians and dancers (detail), A feast for Nebamun, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, whole fragment: 88 x 119 cm, Thebes © Trustees of the British Museum

Nebamun’s tomb, with its spectacular paintings, includes several examples that demonstrate a careful observation of the natural world—especially notable in the energetic hunting cat and the sinuous dancing of the entertainers at the banquet. A marvelous wooden head of Queen Tiye presents a woman of strong personality with details that hint at her formidable character. 

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye with a Crown of Two Feathers , c. 1355 B.C.E., Amarna Period, Dynasty 18, New Kingdom, Egypt, yew wood, lapis lazuli, silver, gold, faience, 22.5 cm high (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection at the Neues Museum, Berlin)

Read essays about creative details

Wooden tomb statue of Tjeti: T he sculptor of this example has carefully modeled the muscles on the torso and legs, and paid close attention to the detail of the face.

Paintings from the Tomb-chapel of Nebamun: He is shown hunting birds from a small boat in the marshes of the Nile with his wife Hatshepsut and their young daughter.

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye: She was a powerful figure, but her royal life was complicated, as demonstrated through this changing statue.

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Metalworking Traditions

Scene showing the manufacture of valuable items, such as jewelry. Wall-painting, probably from the tomb of Sobekhotep, Thebes, c. 1400 B.C.E., New Kingdom, reign of Thutmose IV, painted stucco, 60 x 58.5 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Egyptian artisans were highly skilled metalworkers from early times; although few metal sculptures have survived, those that are preserved show an incredible level of technical achievement. As with other types of craft, like woodworking, preserved images of artisans in their workshops found in private tombs provide information about the processes of production For instance, we can see a group of jewelers at work in a painting from the tomb of Sebekhotep.

Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet with the Name of Senwosret II, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Senwosret II, c. 1887–1878 B.C.E., Egypt, Fayum Entrance Area, el-Lahun (Illahun, Kahun; Ptolemais Hormos), Tomb of Sithathoryunet (BSA Tomb 8), EES 1914, Gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, lapis lazuli

The most beautifully crafted pieces of jewelry display elegant designs, incredible intricacy, and astonishingly precise stone-cutting and inlay, reaching a level that modern jewelers would be hard-pressed to achieve. The jewelry of a Middle Kingdom princess, found in her tomb at el-Lahun in the Fayum region is one spectacular example.  

Statuette of Thutmose IV, 1400–1390 B.C.E., 19th Dynasty, ancient Egypt, bronze, silver, calcite, 14.7 x 6.4 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The metal statues that survive demonstrate a high level of skill in both sheet working/metal forming and casting in copper and bronze. This marvelous hollow-cast bronze statuette of a kneeling Thutmosis IV, presenting an offering of wine, provides a peek into the abilities of Egypt’s craftsmen. Note that the arms were created separately and joined to the body on tenons and the eyes were originally inlaid.

Read essays and watch a video about metalworking traditions

Paintings from the tomb of Sebekhotep: Images show jewelers at work.

Pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet: Fashioned delicately in gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, and lapis lazuli.

Bronze statuette of Thutmose IV:  Very few metal statues survive that date from before the Late Period, though the Egyptians did have the technology to make large copper statues as early as the Old Kingdom.

This brief glimpse at the world of ancient Egypt is just a springboard for gaining an understanding of this compelling and complex culture. 

A final note

The wonder of the internet is the astonishing access to information; one of the big problems with the internet is that anyone, regardless of knowledge or training, can post whatever they like and that information is presented at the same level as content put out by the experienced and trained. Information about ancient Egypt should always come from a well-vetted source, as there is a great deal of misinformation. The culture is astonishing enough on its own. Egypt remains highly influential across different areas of culture and vast swaths of time and space—Egyptian glass beads have been excavated in Viking tombs and revivals of Egyptian style still happen on an almost cyclical basis, even millenia later. We are surrounded by Egyptian imagery and concepts even if we don’t realize it; those emojis we use with such abandon are decidedly hieroglyphic. The more we know about what came before, the better we can grasp everything that has happened since. Only by understanding the past can we really envision the possibilities of the present and plan for the future.   

Key questions to guide your reading

How did the annual flooding of the nile help form the egyptian view of the world, how might the regular behavior of certain animals—like falcons, vultures, snakes, and scarab beetles— suggest "heavenly wisdom" to the careful observer, how would you want to be depicted for eternity what identifying symbols would you want to include, terms to know and use.

canon of proportions

hierarchical scale

Need teaching images?  Here is a  Google Slideshow with many of the primary images in this chapter

Read a chapter about Ancient Egyptian religious life and afterlife

Collaborators

Dr. Amy Calvert

Dr. Beth Harris

Dr. Steven Zucker

The British Museum

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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The Oxford History Of Ancient Egypt

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The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt is the only up-to-date, single-volume history of ancient Egypt available in English. The accessible essays and attractive illustrations portray the emergence and development of the distinctive civilization of the ancient Egyptians, from their prehistoric origins to their incorporation into the Roman Empire, covering the period from c. 700,000 BC to AD 311. The authors - all experts working at the cutting edge of their particular fields - outline the principal sequence of political events, including detailed examinations of the three so-called 'intermediate periods' which were previously regarded as 'dark ages' and are only now beginning to be better understood. Against the backdrop of the rise and fall of ruling dynasties, this Oxford History also examines cultural and social patterns, including stylistic developments in art and literature. The pace of change in such aspects of Egyptian culture as monumental architecture, funerary beliefs, and ethnicity was not necessarily tied to the rate of political change. Each of the authors of this history has therefore set out to elucidate, in both words and pictures, the underlying patterns of social and political change and to describe the changing face of ancient Egypt, from the biographical details of individuals to the social and economic factors that shaped the lives of the population as a whole.

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Ancient Egypt

Uncover the secrets of one of the world’s oldest civilizations.

It’s the year 2490 B.C. Wooden boats cruise along the Nile River in Egypt as thousands of workers stack giant stone blocks into a pyramid. This 200-foot-tall structure honors a pharaoh named Menkaure. This pharaoh’s father, Khafre, ordered construction of a 450-foot-high pyramid nearby, and his grandfather Khufu built the Great Pyramid at Giza—the largest of the three—at about 480 feet. Covered in polished white limestone, the pyramids seem to glow in the sunlight.

The Egyptians working on the pyramids are helping create a culture that will last more than 3,000 years—it will be one of the longest-lasting civilizations in the world. During that time, ancient Egyptians created works of art and engineering that still amaze us today.

History of ancient Egypt

People settled in Egypt as early as 6000 B.C. Over time, small villages joined together to become states until two kingdoms emerged: Lower Egypt, which covers the Nile River Delta up to the Mediterranean Sea in the north, and Upper Egypt, which covers the Nile Valley in the south. (The Nile River flows from south to north, so for the ancient Egyptians, the southern part of the country was "up.")

Around 3100 B.C., a king (later called a pharaoh) united these two lands to be one country, and so historians begin the long history of ancient Egypt here, dividing it into different periods. (They don’t always know the exact date of historical events. So that’s why you’ll see a "ca" next to some of the years. It stands for "circa" meaning "around.")

Early Dynastic Period, about 525 years (ca 3100 B.C. to ca 2575 B.C.): These early pharaohs worked to keep the two lands under their control. To do this, they claimed they were being watched over by the falcon god Horus, and so the people of Egypt should respect them. They also used record keeping in the form of hieroglyphic writing to record things like royal decrees and the taxes that the people paid in the form of grain. (A dynasty is a series of rulers from the same family.)

Old Kingdom, about 425 years (ca 2575 B.C. to ca 2150 B.C.): By this time, the pharaohs had enough power and wealth to build pyramids in their honor; that’s why the Old Kingdom is sometimes called the “Age of the Pyramids.” The pharaohs at this time were mostly associated with the sun god Ra, a tradition that would remain for much of Egypt’s history.

First Intermediate Period, about 200 years (ca 2130 B.C. to ca 1938 B.C.): These pharaohs lost power after drought hit Egypt. Instead, local leaders took control of their own communities, and they stopped passing along grain to the central government. Eventually, these local rulers formed independent states.

Middle Kingdom, about 300 years (ca 1938 B.C. to ca 1630 B.C.): Around 1938 B.C., Mentuhotep II reunited the country and began an era known for producing some of Egypt’s greatest pieces of art. For the first time, Egyptians wrote stories for entertainment, and pharaohs started construction of Karnak Temple in the modern-day city of Luxor.

Second Intermediate Period, about 90 years (ca 1630 B.C. to ca 1540 B.C.):  Weak pharaohs again lost control. Invaders from western Asia called Hyksos ruled in the north; people from Kush, a kingdom south of Egypt, took control in Upper Egypt.

New Kingdom, about 465 years (ca 1540 B.C. to 1075 B.C.): Egyptians took back control and crowned some of Egypt’s most well-known rulers: The female pharaoh Hatshepsut ruled for 21 years; Akhenaten tried to start a new religion, and his son, the boy king Tutankhamun , reigned for 10 years. Ramses II built more monuments to himself than any other pharaoh. This was ancient Egypt's most prosperous and powerful period.

Third Intermediate Period, about 420 years (ca 1075 B.C. to ca 656 B.C.): This was a time of drought, famine, and foreign invasions. But some pharaohs thrived. Although King Taharqa was a foreign ruler from Kush, a kingdom south of Egypt, he repaired crumbling temples and even began building pyramids again for the first time in about 800 years.

Late Period, about 300 years (ca 656 B.C. to 332 B.C.): This period marks the last time that ancient Egypt was ruled by native Egyptians. Leading an army from Persia (what is now Iran), King Darius I took control.

Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt, about 300 years (332 B.C. to 30 B.C.): In 332 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the ruling Persians, then gave control to the Greek general Ptolemy I Soter. From then on, Egypt was ruled by Greek pharaohs. The last one, Cleopatra VII, lost a war to the Roman ruler Octavian . Egypt would be under Roman rule for the next 600 years.

Life in ancient Egypt

Most people in ancient Egypt were farmers. They lived with their families in houses made of mud bricks that were near the Nile River.

The Nile flooded each year, leaving behind fertile soil for planting crops like wheat, barley, lettuce, flax, and papyrus. As the Egyptians learned how to move river water to their fields, they were able to grow more food, including grapes, apricots, olives, and beans.

During flood season, farmers couldn’t tend their crops. So instead, some worked building pyramids, tombs, and monuments. Other people worked as scribes (people who recorded events), priests, and doctors.

Women in ancient Egypt had more freedom than those in other ancient cultures. Like men, they could be scribes, priests, and doctors, and they usually had the same rights as men. Women could own their own homes and businesses.

Ancient Egyptians also like to have fun! They swam and canoed in the Nile, played board games, and they enjoyed making music and dancing.

The afterlife

In fact, Egyptians enjoyed life so much that they believed that the afterlife would be almost exactly the same—except without things like sadness, illness, or pesky mosquitoes. Even pets like cats, dogs, or monkeys would join them there.

Being mummified—the process of preserving a body—was an important part of how Egyptians believed their soul would enter the afterlife. So were tombs. These burial chambers were filled with things a person would need there: food, games, and even underwear!

According to legend, ancient Egyptian gods also helped people in the afterlife. Some, like the jackal-headed god Anubis, helped guide people to the underworld, where they would be judged by its ruler, the god Osiris.

Egyptians believed other gods helped them in real life, too. For instance, Osiris’s wife, the goddess Isis, helped cure human sickness, and the goddess Tefnut caused the rain to fall.

Pyramid power

Click through this gallery to see how the pyramid developed over time.

Why ancient Egypt still matters

Today, millions of tourists visit the country of Egypt each year to see the pyramids, tombs, and temples. But these monuments aren’t all this ancient culture left behind.

Ancient Egyptian astronomers created a calendar much like ours—based on the sun’s rotation—and are thought to be the first civilization to measure a year using 365 days. They were also math geniuses: Historians think that division and multiplication were first developed by these people. (Plus, how else would they have figured out how to build pyramids without a lot of math?)

This was also one of the first civilizations to have a written language using a system called hieroglyphic writing, in which symbols—not letters—represent words or sounds. (These people even created writing sheets out of a plant called papyrus.) Hieroglyphs are carved into most temples and tombs to record names and dates, describe events like battles, and give instructions for passing on to the afterlife.

• The ancient Egyptians worshipped over 2,000 gods and goddesses.
• Cleopatra, Egypt’s last pharaoh, lived closer to our time than to the building of the Pyramids at Giza.
• Ancient Egyptian bakers sometimes kneaded bread dough with their feet.
• These ancient people often referred to their pet cats as miu. (Sound familiar?) 
• Ancient Egyptians called their homeland Kemet, meaning “black land.” It refers to the dark, fertile soil left behind after flooding from the Nile River.  

Read This Next

Ancient rome, the discovery of king tut’s tomb, maze: egypt.

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115 Ancient Egypt Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Ancient Egypt is one of the most fascinating civilizations in history, with a rich culture, impressive architecture, and numerous achievements that still amaze us today. If you're studying this ancient civilization or simply have a keen interest in it, you may find yourself needing essay topic ideas. To help you out, here are 115 Ancient Egypt essay topic ideas and examples that cover various aspects of this captivating civilization:

• The significance of the Nile River in Ancient Egypt's development.
• The role of pharaohs in Ancient Egypt's political structure.
• Comparing and contrasting the roles of men and women in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The construction and purpose of the pyramids.
• The religious beliefs and practices of Ancient Egyptians.
• The process of mummification and its importance in Ancient Egypt.
• The significance of hieroglyphics in Ancient Egyptian communication.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian art on other civilizations.
• The impact of trade and commerce on Ancient Egypt's economy.
• Exploring the social hierarchy in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The role of priests and temples in Ancient Egyptian religious life.
• The importance of the afterlife in Ancient Egyptian beliefs.
• The contributions of Ancient Egyptian mathematics and astronomy.
• The role of women in religion and worship in Ancient Egypt.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian medicine on modern practices.
• The cultural significance of Ancient Egyptian jewelry.
• The process of deciphering hieroglyphics and its impact on our understanding of Ancient Egypt.
• The role of animals in Ancient Egyptian religion and symbolism.
• The impact of the annual flooding of the Nile on Ancient Egyptian agriculture.
• The evolution of Ancient Egyptian architecture over time.
• The use of magic and amulets in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The significance of the Rosetta Stone in decoding Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
• The role of music and dance in Ancient Egyptian culture.
• The impact of foreign invasions on Ancient Egypt's decline.
• The portrayal of Ancient Egypt in popular culture and media.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian literature and storytelling.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian fashion on later civilizations.
• The role of scribes in Ancient Egyptian society.
• The impact of climate change on Ancient Egypt's civilization.
• The significance of obelisks in Ancient Egyptian architecture.
• The role of Nubia in Ancient Egypt's trade and cultural exchange.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian festivals and celebrations.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian beliefs and practices on modern spirituality.
• The significance of the Book of the Dead in Ancient Egyptian funerary rituals.
• The role of women as rulers in Ancient Egypt.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian inventions on later civilizations.
• The process of creating papyrus and its importance in Ancient Egyptian writing.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses in everyday life.
• The impact of the Hittite-Egyptian peace treaty on Ancient Egypt's foreign relations.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian tombs and burial rituals.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian education and learning.
• The impact of natural resources on Ancient Egypt's economy.
• The development of Ancient Egyptian military strategies and weapons.
• The significance of the Valley of the Kings in Ancient Egyptian history.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens in the royal family.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian agriculture on food production.
• The significance of the Sphinx in Ancient Egyptian mythology.
• The role of magic and spells in Ancient Egyptian daily life.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian architecture on Greek and Roman structures.
• The significance of the Amarna Period in Ancient Egyptian history.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian trade routes on cultural exchange.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in maintaining social order.
• The significance of the Great Sphinx in relation to pharaohs.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles and cosmetics on fashion trends.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian astronomy on navigation.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian chariots in warfare.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in healing and medicine.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics on writing systems.
• The significance of the Temple of Luxor in Ancient Egyptian religion.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens as regents.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian architecture on modern-day buildings.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian amulets in protection and symbolism.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian textiles on fashion and design.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian pharaohs as divine rulers.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian animal mummies in religious rituals.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian musical instruments on later civilizations.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian irrigation systems on agriculture.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian artisans in creating beautiful artwork.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian boats in trade and transportation.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors and cosmetics in daily life.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian temples on tourism today.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in performing rituals and ceremonies.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian board games in leisure activities.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on beauty standards.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian jewelry on fashion trends.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian scribes in record-keeping and administration.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian canopic jars in mummification.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian perfume on the fragrance industry.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian courtship and marriage rituals.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian dancers in religious ceremonies.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian wall paintings in tombs.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian ophthalmology in eye treatments.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian boats on maritime navigation.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian musicians in entertainment.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian love poetry in literature.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on modern hairdressing.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian pottery on ceramics.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian embalmers in the mummification process.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian scarab beetles in symbolism.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian tattoos in body art.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian agricultural practices on sustainable farming.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian architects in city planning.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian animal worship in religion.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian fashion on costume design.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian musical notation on music composition.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian dancers in storytelling.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian magical spells in daily life.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors in personal grooming.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian naval warfare on maritime history.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian queens as political advisors.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian funeral processions in honoring the deceased.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian hairstyles on modern hair accessories.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian pottery on trade and cultural exchange.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian embalmers in preserving the dead.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian scarab amulets in protection.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian tattoos in social status.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian agricultural techniques on modern farming.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian architecture on urban planning.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian priests in animal worship.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian fashion in expressing identity.
• The role of Ancient Egyptian musicians in religious ceremonies.
• The impact of Ancient Egyptian magical spells on daily life.
• The significance of Ancient Egyptian mirrors in reflecting beauty ideals.
• The importance of Ancient Egyptian naval technology in maritime exploration.
• The influence of Ancient Egyptian queens on political decision-making.

These essay topic ideas provide a broad range of choices for exploring various aspects of Ancient Egypt. Whether you're interested in its art, religion, social structure, or technological advancements, there's a topic here to suit your interests. Dive into the enchanting world of Ancient Egypt and discover the wonders of this ancient civilization through your essays.

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Civilization in Ancient Egypt Essay

The basic element of ancient civilization in Egypt besides its geography is religion. The government, literature, astronomy, medicine and arts formed their basis on religion.

It is therefore justified to say that religion was integral to the Egyptians way of life. Since the earliest beginnings of religion in Egypt, changes in religious themes, way of worship and how the worship was conducted have been observed as will be explored in this essay.

People in ancient Egypt ranging from the peasants, merchants, priests, workers, to individual kings worshipped their own gods formulated in the pre-dynastic Egypt and expressed in pictures.

Initially, animals were included in the Egyptian religious cults. That is perhaps why archeologist found preserved graves where cats, gazelles, bulls and sheep were carefully buried (Patricia 112). The worship of pictures did not last for long as they were turned into human portraits.

This, also referred to as anthropomorphism, was unique in the sense that the pictures took human form but retained an animal’s body or head. The Egyptians believed that these gods had human emotions, drank, ate, gave birth, went into battle, lived among people and died.

The reigns of these gods were believed to merge at times and in other instances overlap. In fact, their reign during this time in ancient Egypt did not have an organized hierarchy structure. The power of their gods relied on the power of the reigning king. A powerful king would imply a powerful god and so it was also with the name, location and dominance of the kings (Rosalie 1803).

Additionally, religious names were believed to be very powerful and full of mystery. For instance, in the normal society, people would die or get afflicted when certain traditional rituals were done to their names. In the same respect, certain names were used to express or describe phenomenon that were good and beneficial.

In religion, the Egyptians gave to their gods’ names that were descriptive or qualities such as majestic, virile or strong. Each god had five names and as aforementioned, was worshipped at different times, for different purposes and in different locations depending on the myth.

Examples of gods who were worshipped at that time included Ptah and Osiris the earth gods, Horus, Bat and Hathor were gods of the heaven and Amaunet, amon and Antaios were examples of gods that were worshipped depending on the location (Patricia 111).

In ancient Egypt, the kings played an integral part in religion by connecting the gods and Egyptians. Until around the third dynasty, the kings were believed to be a bridge crossing over the chasm that divided gods and men.

Besides, the priests’ roles were equally important in ancient Egypt and included reading scrolls before religious events, preparing images and statutes, caring for the image gods, and acting as voice of the oracles, stewards of granaries and temple riches and being pinnacles of decisions of their gods.

Furthermore, the ancient religion allowed the use of magic that was commonplace. Warding of evil was done through wearing of amulets, magical texts, spells, concoctions and rituals were used and their successes and their failures were attributed to the gods.

It is important to understand that the ancient religion in Egypt was centralized despite the hierarchy of deities. This indicates a sharp contrast between Egypt and Mesopotamia where in the latter, religion was decentralized. Also, the focus of Egyptian temple was for worship unlike in Sumer where it was for religious, economic and political functions.

The civilization of ancient Egypt happened at the same time Mesopotamian civilization was taking place in other areas in the nations of the Akkadians, Babylonians and the Sumerians (Rosalie 1802). Hence, most other parts of the world were also going through major revolutions in the religious spheres.

For instance, the Egyptian civilization is believed to have originated from the west and other neighboring nations as well as some internal influences. As mentioned before, civilization in ancient religious practices saw the worship of animals turned into the worship of image and pharaoh’s role as a mediator between gods and people changing to a position where he considered himself a divine being.

The rule of pharaoh which was believed to have a qualities such as righteousness, order, justice and truth brought stability and harmony which earlier on was not manifested in image worship (Oesterdiekhoff 103). Due to this and other related factors, religion created optimism, confidence and acted as a unifying factor.

It is important to note that Egyptians believed in life after death and judging by the continuous rhythmic cycle of life and death and their unchanging universe, sought to change their lifestyle in order to meet the predictable patterns of life. In this sense, they began farming, built irrigation canals and pyramids that today give a reflection of extreme centralization created by religion and which brought a significant change in Egypt.

The Hebrews also played a significant role in the civilization of ancient Egypt. The influence exerted by the Hebrews on the western intellectual tradition and the western society was so immense that affected the patterns and activities of other great institutions.

According to the Hebrews, there is only one God to whom they are committed to worship and follow his laws as stated in the Old Testament. The heroes of the Jews unlike the Egyptians were men and women and not gods and goddesses. These heroes represented both the strong and the weak men and women.

The Egyptians and the Sumerians had adopted the worship of many gods also referred to as polytheism and as mentioned earlier on, the dominance of the gods depended on the kings. The Hebrews on the other hand, believed their God was sovereign and practiced monotheism.

The Hebrews believed that the worship of idol gods that like in the case of ancient Egypt was not ideal as it represented an incapable god put in images making them less sovereign. Further, the Hebrews believed that the Egyptians could not obtain freedom from idol worship.

The arrival of the Hebrews into Egypt brought a different influence to the ancient Egyptian way of worship. Their belief system and the sovereign expression of their God in the rescue mission of the Israelites from Egypt played a key role in creating change in the religious atmosphere in Egypt (Oesterdiekhoff 108-109).

The reactions from various circles concerning civilization of ancient Egypt display a mixture of feelings. Some scholars believe that ancient Egypt before civilization was of a unique distinction. Actually, according to history, it is believed that they were the first people to create a state embodying aspiration of the Egyptian race and the spiritual beliefs in the nation-state.

The ancient state of Egypt which lasted for up to 3000 years showed a determined durability, assurance and extraordinary strength demonstrated by its framework of culture and an unmistakable purity of style. The indisputable unity that existed between culture, state and religion fell and what is seen to have remained is its peculiar geographical setting (Rosalie 1803).

Indeed, religion in ancient Egypt led to myriad of other changes that impacted the society politically, socially and economically. For instance, early developments in religion shaped the political systems and structures in ancient Egypt. Most of the rules and leadership dynamics used by Egypt rulers were largely borrowed from religion. The religiously-influenced political and social structures created other avenues and modalities on how people interacted.

The sharing of religious activities in ancient Egypt has offered the world a broad perspective in understanding early social developments in Egypt. Contemporary life would have been rather blank in terms of rich history and perhaps, it would have been cumbersome to comprehensively bridge the past and modern history on religion and worse still, connect the future history with that of the past.

Works Cited

Oesterdiekhoff, W. George. “Ancient Sun Cults: Understanding religious rites in terms of developmental psychology.” Mankind Quarterly , 48.1 (2007): 99-116.

Patricia, Spencer. “Dance in ancient Egypt.” Near Eastern Archaeology, 66.3 (2003): 111-112.

Rosalie, David. “The art of medicine: The art of healing in ancient Egypt: a scientific reappraisal.” The Lancet , 372.9652 (2008): 1802-1803.

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IvyPanda. (2021, September 8). Civilization in Ancient Egypt. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-ancient-egypt/

"Civilization in Ancient Egypt." IvyPanda , 8 Sept. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-ancient-egypt/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Civilization in Ancient Egypt'. 8 September.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Civilization in Ancient Egypt." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-ancient-egypt/.

1. IvyPanda . "Civilization in Ancient Egypt." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-ancient-egypt/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Civilization in Ancient Egypt." September 8, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/civilization-in-ancient-egypt/.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Telling time in ancient egypt.

Heqanakht Account VII

Head of Tutankhamun

Sennedjem and Iineferti in the Fields of Iaru

Charles K. Wilkinson

Hieratic Ostracon Dated to Year 21 of Ramesses II

Donation Stela of Osorkon I dated to year 6

Stela with man offering to Re-Harakhty, unfinished

Statuette of Osiris with the epithets Neb Ankh and Khentyimentiu, donated by Padihorpare

Lentoid Bottle ("New Year's Bottle") inscribed for the God's Father Amenhotep, son of the God's Father Iufaa

Water Clock Decorated with a Baboon

Relief panel showing two baboons offering the wedjat eye to the sun god Khepri, who holds the Underworld sign

Shadow Clock

Janice Kamrin Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

February 2017

A hallmark of almost every known culture is some system to track the passing of time. It is thought that, like most agricultural societies, the ancient Egyptians originally organized their calendar according to the cycles of the moon and the agricultural seasons ( 30.4.2 ). Most scholars agree that the Egyptian day began at dawn, before the rising of the sun, rather than sunrise. The daily cycle was divided into twenty-four hours: twelve hours of the day and twelve hours of the night, the latter apparently reckoned based on the movement of groups of stars (“decans”) across the night sky. Beginning in the New Kingdom (ca. 1500 B.C.), there is evidence that sundials, shadow clocks ( 12.181.307 ), and water clocks ( 17.194.2341 ) were used to measure the passing of the hours. There is no evidence that the Egyptians tracked minutes or seconds, although there are general terms for time segments shorter than an hour. The month was organized into three weeks of ten days each, with the start of the lunar month marked by the disappearance of the waning moon.

By at least the middle of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2450 B.C.), and quite possibly several centuries earlier, the Egyptians had developed a “civil” calendar composed of twelve months of thirty days each (360 days), divided into three seasons—Inundation ( Akhet ), Emergence ( Peret ), and Harvest ( Shemu )—of four months each, with five epagomenal days (days outside the regular months) added at the end of the year. Official dates were expressed according to this system, as a specific day within a specific month of a season (e.g., Day 15, Month 3 of the Inundation Season). At least as early as the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.), the months had alternative names ( 22.3.522 ) that seem to echo some sort of lunar reckoning.

It is likely that New Year’s Day ( 30.8.214 ) originally was associated with the heliacal rising of the brightest star in the night sky, Sopdet (also known by its Greek name of Sothis or Latin name of Sirius). In Egypt, this star reemerged after a seventy-day sojourn beneath the horizon at about the same time as the first signs of the annual Nile flood that brought the life-giving waters down from the highlands of Ethiopia. The correlation between Sopdet and the New Year is based in part on an ancient text (from ca. 2500 B.C.) that reads: “It is Sopdet, your daughter whom you love, in this her name as Year”; an inscription from the New Kingdom that mentions the rising of Isis-Sopdet on the morning of New Year’s Day (ca. 1250 B.C.); and a reference to Isis-Sopdet from the much later temple at Dendera (late first millennium B.C.), which says specifically that the years are “reckoned from her shining forth.”

Since a true astronomical year has 365.25+ days, the Egyptian civil calendar fell back by a quarter day or so each year. This meant that the rising of Sopdet/Sothis and the seasons of this calendar did not correspond to the actual agricultural seasons for much of Egyptian history. Scholars have attempted to use this disconnect, especially between the actual Sothic rise and New Year’s Day in the civil calendar, which correspond only once every 1,460 years, to calculate when the civil system was first established, but no agreement on this point has yet been reached.

Lunar-based month names, the importance of the heliacal rising of Sothis, the fact that some Egyptian festivals were scheduled according to the lunar cycle rather than tied to specific days in the civil calendar, and some double dates, have led scholars to posit an early luni-stellar calendar that would have operated alongside the civil calendar. This presumably would have been corrected regularly (perhaps by adding a thirteenth month or an extra epagomenal day every several years) to stay in step with the actual astronomical year ( 66.99.73 ).

Although the exact format changes over time, years were for the most part counted according to the reign of a specific ruler ( 10.176.42 ; 09.184.183 ). In Dynasty 1 (ca. 3100 B.C.), each civil year within a reign was identified by important events such as the founding of a temple or the installation of a cult statue, a practice that lasted well into the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.). It is also during Dynasty 1 that the germ of a system to number the years by reign appears, in a record of “the first occasion of the Djet (“eternity”)-festival,” probably referring to the first time this festival had been celebrated during the reign of King Djer. By late Dynasty 2 (ca. 2900 B.C.), regnal years were being labeled according to the apparently biennial census of the country’s mineral, animal, and/or agricultural assets. This soon seems to have become the key event by which years were counted: through to the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2130 B.C.), years can be named as either renpet zep N (Year of the Nth Counting) or renpet em-khat zep N (Year after the Nth Counting). Scholars long assumed that these counts were always biennial, and that minimum reign lengths for Old Kingdom monarchs could be estimated by doubling the highest attested census. However, recent scholarship has begun to question this construct and to suggest alternatives such as biennial counts that gradually became annual; counts carried out as needed to raise funds for government projects; or counts carried out in years during which a thirteenth month was added to the theoretical luni-solar calendar. It seems likely that annual counts became the rule by Dynasty 6 (ca. 2323–2150 B.C.), but overall, this question remains open.

At some point, most likely during the First Intermediate Period (ca. 2130–2030 B.C.), years began to be numbered according to each king’s tenure on the throne. During the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2030–1650 B.C.), these years were counted from one New Year’s Day to the next; the period of time between the new king’s coronation and Day 1 of Month 1 may have been counted as his Year 1, but alternatively may have been left to his predecessor. In the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 B.C.), the regnal count began when the new king took the throne, and years were calculated from one anniversary of the coronation to the next ( 50.6 ) all according to the civil calendar. It is likely that the same system pertained during the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1070–664 B.C.). During the Late Period (ca. 664–332 B.C.), the second option outlined as a possibility for the Middle Kingdom was in use: the king’s Year 1 was counted from coronation to New Year’s Day, and his Year 2 began with the new year, so that a Year 1 could last anywhere from a week to almost a year.

Also extremely important in the ancient Egyptian conception of the world was their larger attitude toward time. Inscriptions refer to two kinds of eternity. Linear time, or djet , associated with the funerary god Osiris ( 56.16.2 ), had a beginning and would have an end, albeit in the infinitely far future. Neheh , cyclical time, was tied to the passage of the sun through the sky during the day and the Netherworld during the night ( O.C.81 ). Ideally, an Egyptian who had lived according to the precepts of maat by supporting and maintaining the proper order of a just cosmos, and who had been accorded a proper burial, would live forever ( djet ) and ever ( neheh ).

Kamrin, Janice. “Telling Time in Ancient Egypt.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm (February 2017)

Further Reading

Clagett, Marshall. 1995. Ancient Egyptian science. a source book Volume II . Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.

Spalinger, Anthony P., 2001. “Calendars,” in Donald B. Redford, ed., The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 224-227.

Wells, Ronald A. 2001 “Astronomy,” in Donald B. Redford, ed., The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Egypt . Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 145-151

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Artist or Maker

• Wilkinson, Charles K.

Home — Essay Samples — History — Ancient Egypt — History of Egypt

History of Egypt

• Categories: Ancient Egypt

About this sample

Words: 671 |

Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 671 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Ancient egypt, the ptolemaic period, roman and byzantine rule, arab and islamic egypt, ottoman and european domination, modern egypt.

• Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003.
• Manniche, Lise. An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. University of Texas Press, 1989.
• Mokhtar, G. The Cultural Treasures of the Egyptian Museum. The American University in Cairo Press, 2006.
• Bard, Kathryn A. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.

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During the 18th dynasty of ancient Egypt, Nefertiti and her husband Pharaoh Akhenaten were influential figures who left a lasting impact on the history and culture of Egypt. Their reign was marked by significant changes in [...]

King Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh who is best known for his religious reforms and his establishment of a new capital city. His reign was marked by significant changes in religious [...]

Statuette of the Lady Tiye, standing at 24 centimeters tall, is an Egyptian wood sculpture dating back to the reign of Amenhotep III–Akhenaten, around 1390–1349 B.C. The sculpture shows Tiye, who was the royal wife of Amenhotep [...]

According to our text, The Humanities, “King Tutankhamun was just a teenager when he died. For an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, presumably well-fed and fiercely protected, this was a premature demise. It was also momentous, for his [...]

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