can you use numbers in an academic essay

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Writing numbers When to use words and when to use numerals

It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.

When to use words

In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.

• MLA . Use words if the number can be written using one or two words (e.g. three , twenty-seven ).
• APA . Use words for numbers zero to nine.
• Chicago . Use words for numbers zero to one hundred.

Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.

(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).

• Fifty respondents agreed with the statement.
• There were 50 respondents who agreed with the statement. [ rewritten sentence ]
• 50 respondents agreed with the statement.

(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).

• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7 billion people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7bn people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7,000,000,000 people.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70 million.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70,000,000.

Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.

• There were 2 respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.
• There were two respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.

When to use numerals

Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.

• Measurements (e.g. 6 kg, 3 cm, 10 min, 2 hr, 3 days, 6 years, 5 decades )
• Currency (e.g. $10, £50, £60 billion )
• Statistical data , including survey data (e.g. A survey of participants revealed that 4 out of 5 students worked. )
• Mathematical functions (e.g. v 2 = u 2 + 2as )
• Decimals (e.g. 2.5, 4.54 )
• Percentages (e.g. 75% )
• Ratios (e.g. 3:1 )
• Percentiles/quartiles (e.g. the 95th percentile, the 1st quartile )
• Times (e.g. 12.30 a.m., 6 p.m., 16:00 )
• Dates (e.g. Wednesday 25 December 2019 )
• Scores/points on a scale (e.g. This item scored 5 on a 9-point scale )

Other important points

The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.

• Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another.
• Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500 .
• Use of hyphens. When displaying a range, use a hyphen, with no space, e.g. 30%–50%
• Expressing fractions. Fractions can be written either as numerals e.g. 2/3 or words e.g. two-thirds . If using words, use a hyphen.

American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 16 January 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

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One, 2, III: Using Numbers in Academic Writing

3-minute read

• 28th December 2015

No matter what you’re studying, at some point in your academic career you’ll find yourself using numbers in your written work .

This might not seem too problematic, but there are important differences between using numbers in formal academic writing and in everyday life.

Numerals or Words?

The biggest question when it comes to numbers in academic writing is whether to use numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) or words (one, two, three, four, etc.). The general guideline is to write smaller numbers up to ten as words, with numerals saved for larger numbers.

Annoyingly, there is no consensus on this. For instance, the APA Style Guide recommends using numerals for ten and up (or “10 and up,” if we’re doing this the APA way). But the Chicago Manual of Style suggests spelling out all numbers up to one hundred.

The important thing is to check your school’s style guide and use a consistent system throughout each paper you write.

Roman Numerals

You may also need to understand Roman numerals . These aren’t so common these days, but you do see them in things like copyright dates (MCMLXXXVI = 1986) and the names of monarchs (Queen Elizabeth II).

Big Numbers

Despite the above rule, some bigger numbers are expressed either as words or as a combination of words and figures. For example, it is to say:

The Earth is 4.542 billion years old.

But writing this out in numerals is a bit confusing, as there are many zeroes:

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The Earth is 4,542,000,000 years old.

Commas and Hyphens

Punctuating numbers correctly is also important. When expressing a number over one thousand, for example, it’s common to separate the thousands with a comma:

One thousand = 1,000

One hundred thousand = 100,000

One million = 1,000,000

Hyphens, meanwhile, should be used either when expressing a number with more than one word (e.g., twenty-two) or when as part of an adjectival phrase modifying a noun (e.g., “I’m holding a seven-year-old grudge”).

Dates, Years and Centuries

Dates (e.g., 06/12/2013 or 6 December 2013) and years (e.g., 1948, 300-250 BCE) are usually written using numerals. Centuries, however, should be written out in full (i.e., “eighteenth century” rather than “18 th century”).

Technical Numbers

In technical writing, such as in the sciences and math, it’s more common to use numerals than words. This is especially true when a number is followed by a unit of measurement. So, for instance, the weight “four grams” could be expressed as “4 g” or “4 grams.”

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Writing academically: Numbers

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When using numbers in academic writing you need to decide if it’s more appropriate to use a numeral (e.g. 9) or to write the number in words (e.g. nine). It’s worth checking to see if your department has specific advice on this matter, because individual approaches do vary. In the absence of specific advice, here is some general guidance on the matter:

Basic numbers

• Numbers  up to nine  should always be written in  words,  anything higher than nine can be written in numerals. Alternatively, some guides suggest that if you can write the number in two words or fewer then use words rather than numerals. If you are going to take this approach then you should include a hyphen when writing numbers with two words, e.g. twenty-seven.
• For larger numbers, it is acceptable to use either numerals or words depending on context (e.g. a thousand people/1,000 people), but you should always use numerals in technical writing, e.g. 200,000 km. For less precise larger numbers, the written form is better (e.g. several thousand).

Measurements and decimals/fractions

• Use numerals for units of measurement or time, e.g. 500 km, 10 minutes.
• Always use numerals for decimals and fractions (e.g. 0.5 cm) unless the figures are vague (e.g. around half of the population).
• Units of measurement that modify a noun should be hyphenated, e.g. a 3-year-old child.

Dates, money and time

• Always use numerals for dates, e.g Monday 4 April, 2016.
• Use numerals for money (e.g. His pocket money was exactly £1.00 per week) unless the amounts are vague (e.g. He earned well over a million last year).
• Use numerals for indicating the precise time (e.g. 08:00), or words if the times indicated are vague (e.g. around eight o’clock). 

Combining numbers

• If you need to combine two numbers that run together then use words for the shorter number and numerals for the longer number, e.g. a tower of 1000 ten-pence pieces. 

Starting sentences with numbers

• Avoid starting a sentence with a numeral. Either write the number in words or rearrange your sentence. For example, “Three hundred and sixty-five days make one year” could become “There are 365 days in a year”. If you start a sentence with a year, write “The year” first e.g. “The year 1066 saw one of the most famous battles in English history”.
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1, Two, or III? How to Format Numbers in Academic Writing

3-minute read

• 4th April 2016

Whether it’s dates, survey results or statistical data, numbers and numerals play an important role in every field of academic writing . However, the best way to format numbers in academic writing is a contentious matter.

Words or Numerals?

One prominent issue is whether numbers should be written using words (e.g. one, two, three) or Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 2, 3). Generally, the rule here is to write out numbers up to nine and use numerals for larger values.

Nevertheless, different systems have different rules ; for instance, while APA recommends using numerals for ten and up (or ‘10 and up’, if you prefer), the Chicago Manual of Style suggests spelling out all numbers up to one hundred (or 100).

There are other exceptions too, since very big numbers may require a combination of words and numerals, particularly if they’re more than three words long (e.g. ‘4.5 billion’ is clearer and more concise than ‘four and a half billion’).

Another good guideline is to always spell out numbers at the start of a sentence unless they’re a decimal or a date.

Tips on Punctuation

The main things to keep in mind here are commas and hyphens. Commas are often used to separate thousands in large numbers:

One hundred thousand = 100,000

Two million = 2,000,000

Using commas isn’t compulsory, but make sure to apply a consistent style throughout your work.

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In addition, you should hyphenate numbers when they contain more than one word (e.g. 42 = forty-two) or when they’re part of an adjectival phrase (e.g. ‘the seven-year itch’).

Dates, Years and Centuries

Years (e.g. 2012, 45-12 BCE) are almost always written using numerals, though dates can be presented either numerically (e.g. 03/02/16) or written out in full (3 rd February, 2016).

For the most part, it’s better to write out months as a word if a date appears in the main text of your essay . Likewise, you should always write out centuries in full in academic texts (i.e. ‘nineteenth century’, not ‘19 th century’).

When in Rome…

It’s helpful to familiarise yourself with the basics of Roman numerals . You won’t need them too often, but they are still used for things like the pre-body material in longer essays (e.g. contents pages), the titles of monarchs (e.g. Phillip III) and film credits (e.g. MCMLXVIII = 1986).

Technical Numbers

In technical writing, especially in the sciences and mathematics, it’s generally better to present numbers as numerals, particularly when dealing with decimals, percentages and fractions.

Furthermore, numerals are often preferable when a number is followed by a unit of measurement (e.g., ‘six centimetres’ can also be written as ‘6 cm’).

Again, however, the most important things are clarity and consistency, so the style you choose to adopt may depend on what you’re trying to communicate.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Simple and clear rules for writing numbers in an essay that will impress any reader.

When it comes to showcasing numerical information within an essay or any other form of written content, it is essential to master the art of effectively conveying numerical data. Numbers, whether they represent statistical figures, percentages, monetary values, or quantities, require a unique approach in order to engage the reader and provide a clear understanding of the information being presented.

In the realm of written expression, numbers can often appear mundane and monotonous, dulling the impact of the overall message. However, through the use of creative and thoughtful techniques, one can transform these numerical figures into engaging storytelling tools that enhance the flow and impact of the written work.

Emphasizing numerical data can be achieved through various methods , starting with the careful selection of appropriate linguistic devices. Utilizing vivid and descriptive language, such as powerful adjectives and adverbs, can bring numbers to life and create a visual representation in the reader’s mind. For example, instead of simply stating that the company’s profit increased by 20%, one could say that the profit skyrocketed or surged by an astounding 20%. This not only adds excitement and energy to the writing but also captures the reader’s attention and encourages them to delve deeper into the information being presented.

Rules for Writing Numbers in an Essay

When it comes to writing numbers in an essay, there are certain rules and guidelines that should be followed. These rules ensure clarity and consistency throughout the essay, making it easier for readers to understand the information being presented. By adhering to these rules, writers can effectively communicate numerical information in a way that is both accurate and professional.

1. Spell out numbers from zero to nine. Numbers that are spelled out from zero to nine should be written as words in an essay. For example, “two apples,” “sixty-three percent,” or “nine thousand.” This helps to maintain consistency and readability in the text.

2. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above. Numbers that are 10 or greater should be written using numerals in an essay. For example, “14 fish,” “85 participants,” or “101 pages.” This makes it easier for readers to quickly comprehend the numerical information without any confusion.

3. Follow specific style guides for exceptions. In some cases, specific style guides may have exceptions to the general rules for writing numbers. For example, certain style guides may require the use of numerals for numbers that are greater than 100. Make sure to consult the appropriate style guide for any exceptions that may apply to your writing.

4. Use numerals for dates, times, and measurements. When writing dates, times, and measurements, it is generally preferred to use numerals rather than spelling them out. For example, “On July 4, 2023,” “at 12:30 p.m.,” or “3 meters long.” This helps to convey the exactness and precision of the information being presented.

5. Be consistent. Consistency is key when it comes to writing numbers in an essay. Choose a specific style and stick to it throughout the entire essay. Whether you choose to spell out numbers from zero to nine or use numerals for all numbers, make sure to apply the same formatting consistently.

By following these rules for writing numbers in an essay, writers can ensure that their numerical information is presented accurately and professionally. This enhances the overall clarity and comprehension of the essay, making it easier for readers to engage with the content.

Learn the basic guidelines for writing numbers in academic essays

Gain a solid understanding of the fundamental principles for expressing numerical values in your academic essays. Properly presenting numbers is essential for maintaining clarity and consistency in your writing. By adhering to these basic guidelines, you can ensure that your essays adhere to standard formatting conventions and effectively convey information to your readers.

1. Spell out small whole numbers: In general, numbers from one to nine are spelled out in academic essays. For example, instead of writing “2 cats,” you would write “two cats.” This practice helps to maintain a smooth flow of reading and prevents numerical symbols from disrupting the text.

2. Use numerals for large numbers and numbers with decimal points: When dealing with numbers greater than nine or numbers that involve decimal points, it is appropriate to use numerals. For instance, you would write “17 participants,” “6.5 percent,” or “2,500 words.” Numerals are especially useful for conveying exact values and facilitating comparisons.

3. Express common measurements with symbols: When discussing well-known units of measurement, it is acceptable to use their symbols without spelling them out. For example, “3 km” instead of “three kilometers” or “5 kg” instead of “five kilograms.” This approach saves space and is widely understood in academic writing.

4. Be consistent in expressing numerical ranges: When indicating a range of values, use the appropriate punctuation for clarity. For instance, you would write “between 5 and 10 books,” “from 200 to 300 participants,” or “in the years 1990-2000.” Consistency within a range helps the reader easily grasp the scope of the given information.

5. Follow specific style guides: Different style guides may have their own rules for writing numbers. For example, APA style may differ from MLA style. It is important to consult the style guide specified by your academic institution or instructor to ensure accurate and consistent presentation of numbers in your essays.

By following these basic guidelines, you can effectively incorporate numbers into your academic essays and enhance the overall clarity and professionalism of your writing.

The Role of Consistency in Writing Numbers

Consistency plays a crucial role when it comes to writing numbers in various contexts. Maintaining a consistent style throughout an essay or any written piece not only enhances readability but also ensures clarity and professionalism. Consistency in writing numbers refers to using the same format and style when expressing numerical values, whether they are written in digits or spelled out in words. Consistency helps to avoid confusion and allows readers to understand and interpret the numbers accurately.

One aspect of consistency in writing numbers involves deciding whether to use numerals or words. It is important to establish a set of guidelines and follow them consistently. For example, in scientific or technical writing, it is common to use numerals for measurements, percentages, statistics, and mathematical expressions. On the other hand, when writing literary or journalistic pieces, it is often preferred to spell out numbers up to ten and use numerals for larger values. By consistently applying these guidelines, writers can ensure that their numerical references are not only stylistically appropriate but also coherent within the context of their work.

Another aspect of consistency in writing numbers is ensuring that the same format is used throughout the entire essay or document. This includes deciding whether to use commas or spaces for thousands separators, the placement of decimal points, the use of currency symbols, and the format for dates and times. Consistency in these formatting choices helps readers to quickly and accurately interpret the numbers presented. It also helps to establish a professional and organized appearance in the written piece.

In addition to maintaining consistency within a single piece of writing, it is also important to be consistent across different documents or sources. This is particularly relevant when referencing numbers or data from external sources, such as research studies or statistical reports. By using consistent formats and styles, writers can provide a clear and cohesive presentation of numerical information, making it easier for readers to compare and understand the data across different sources.

Understand why consistency is important when writing numbers in an essay

Consistency plays a vital role when it comes to writing numbers in an essay. It ensures uniformity and clarity in conveying numerical information to the readers. By maintaining consistency in the representation of numbers, writers can effectively communicate their ideas and avoid confusion or misinterpretation. This section will delve into the importance of consistency and how it helps in enhancing the overall quality of an essay.

Consistency eliminates ambiguity: When writing numbers, inconsistency can lead to ambiguity, making it difficult for readers to comprehend the intended meaning. By following consistent formatting rules, such as using numerals for larger numbers or spelling out numbers for general descriptions, writers can ensure clarity and eliminate any confusion that arises from inconsistent presentation.

Consistency enhances readability: Readers easily navigate through an essay when it follows a consistent style and structure, including the representation of numbers. Consistent use of numerals or spelled-out numbers within the same context creates a visual rhythm, making the text more readable and engaging. It also helps readers to quickly identify relevant information and grasp the intended message without any distractions.

Consistency promotes professionalism: In academic and professional writing, consistency is valued as it reflects a meticulous approach to communication. By consistently using the appropriate conventions for writing numbers, writers demonstrate attention to detail and adherence to established standards. This conveys professionalism and enhances the credibility of the essay, making it more persuasive and impactful.

Consistency ensures accuracy: Writing numbers inconsistently can lead to inaccuracies and errors, especially when dealing with statistical or technical information. By maintaining consistency, writers can avoid potential mistakes and convey accurate data to support their arguments. Whether it is using consistent formatting for decimal places, percentages, or measurements, consistency ensures the precision and reliability of the information presented.

Consistency fosters a cohesive narrative: Writing an essay involves presenting ideas and arguments in a logical and coherent manner. By employing consistent styles and conventions for numbers, writers create a cohesive narrative that flows smoothly throughout the text. This consistency not only aids in the readability of the essay but also contributes to the overall coherence and structure of the piece, allowing the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought effortlessly.

In conclusion, consistency in writing numbers is essential as it eliminates ambiguity, enhances readability, promotes professionalism, ensures accuracy, and fosters a cohesive narrative. By applying consistent formatting and following established rules, writers can effectively communicate numerical information in an essay, making it more accessible, impactful, and engaging for the readers.

When to Spell Out Numbers in an Essay

Choosing whether to write a number as a numeral or spell it out can be a matter of style and convention. There are certain guidelines that can help determine when it is appropriate to spell out numbers in an essay.

When considering whether to use numerals or words to represent numbers, it is important to consider the context and purpose of the writing. In academic or formal writing, it is generally recommended to spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words, and to use numerals for numbers greater than nine or when emphasizing a specific quantity. However, in more informal or creative writing, it is often acceptable to use numerals for any number, as long as it is consistent throughout the essay.

Another factor to consider is the specific style guide or formatting guidelines being used. Different style guides, such as APA, MLA, and Chicago, have their own rules for when to spell out numbers and when to use numerals. It is important to consult the appropriate style guide for the specific requirements of the essay or writing assignment.

Additionally, when writing about percentages, currencies, and measurements, it is generally recommended to use numerals instead of spelling them out. This helps to ensure clarity and consistency in the representation of these specific types of numbers.

Ultimately, the decision to spell out numbers or use numerals in an essay may vary depending on the style, context, and guidelines being followed. It is important to consider the specific requirements and expectations of the writing situation to determine the most appropriate approach for representing numbers in the essay.

Discover the instances when numbers should be spelled out in your essay

One of the key elements in writing a well-crafted essay is effectively using numbers. While it may be tempting to use numerals for convenience and brevity, there are instances when it is important to spell out numbers. By doing so, you can enhance readability, maintain consistency, and adhere to established writing conventions.

When it comes to writing numbers, it is important to consider the context and purpose of your essay. In some cases, it is best to spell out numbers to provide clarity and avoid confusion. For instance, when expressing exact quantities, such as counting individuals or items, it is generally preferred to spell out numbers from one to nine. This helps to maintain flow and avoid disruption in the text.

Furthermore, when writing about statistics or data that are not precise measures, it is often recommended to spell out the numbers. This can help to convey a sense of importance and avoid the appearance of unnecessary precision. For example, instead of writing “5.3 million people,” you could write “over five million people” to capture the magnitude of the statistic without an excessive level of detail.

In addition, spelling out numbers can be particularly important when discussing percentages or ratios. This allows you to emphasize the proportion or relationship being described without the distraction of numerals. For example, instead of writing “25% of the population,” you could write “a quarter of the population” to convey the same information in a more engaging and understandable way.

Another instance where spelling out numbers is important is when they are used at the beginning of a sentence. It is considered more appropriate and aesthetically pleasing to spell out numbers in these cases to maintain consistency and avoid starting sentences with numerals. This can help to create a smoother reading experience for your audience.

Overall, understanding the instances when numbers should be spelled out in your essay can greatly enhance the quality of your writing. By being mindful of the context, purpose, and conventions of your essay, you can effectively utilize numbers to enhance clarity and readability. So, whether you are discussing exact quantities, statistics, percentages, or starting a sentence, remember to consider when it is best to spell out the numbers rather than using numerals.

Using Numerals in Academic Writing

Utilizing digits and numbers effectively is a fundamental aspect of academic writing. The correct presentation of numerical data can enhance the clarity, precision, and professionalism of your writing. Whether you are discussing statistics, presenting results, or referencing research findings, understanding how to use numerals properly is essential.

In academic writing, it is common practice to use numerals for numbers greater than nine. This helps to ensure consistency, readability, and ease of comprehension for your readers. Additionally, using numerals can also help to create a concise and efficient writing style.

When discussing percentages, decimal numbers, or fractions, it is generally best to use numerals. For example, “The study found that 75% of participants reported an improvement in their overall well-being.” Similarly, numerical measurements such as distances, weights, and temperatures should also be expressed using digits, such as “The experiment was conducted at a temperature of -20°C.”

However, there are exceptions to the use of numerals in academic writing. For example, when beginning a sentence, it is recommended to spell out numbers instead of using digits. For instance, “Fifty participants were selected for the study.” Additionally, when referring to approximate or rounded numbers, it is often best to use words. For example, “The population of the city is approximately one million people.”

In some cases, the choice to use numerals or words may be a matter of style or preference, and it is important to follow the guidelines set by your academic institution or discipline. Paying attention to these details can help to ensure the accuracy and professionalism of your writing.

Overall, the appropriate use of numerals in academic writing can significantly enhance the clarity and impact of your work. By adhering to the conventions of using numerals for numbers greater than nine, using digits for percentages and measurements, and applying exceptions for certain situations, you can ensure that your writing is accurate, consistent, and engaging.

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When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

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The Rules for Writing Numbers in English 

You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.

To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.

Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.

Writing Small and Large Numbers

A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.

For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."

The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.

Beginning a Sentence with a Number

Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.

Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.

Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.

If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.

Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.

Whole Numbers vs. Decimals

Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.

Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.

Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.

Paired Numbers (Two Numbers in a Row)

When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.

Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Decades and Centuries

Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.

Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.

Correct: The library was built in the fifties.

If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.

Consistency Is Key When Using Numbers in Your Writing

Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.

Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Style Guides May Have Slightly Different Rules for Writing Numbers in Words

Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?

If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.

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In an essay, when do you spell out numbers and when do you use numerals?

According to APA Style, you should normally use numerals for the numbers 10 and above. You should use words to express numbers below 10 (one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine).

Note, however, that APA lists a wide variety of exceptions. For instance, numbers that appear right before a unit of measurement should be expressed as numerals, regardless of where they fall, before or after 10. Example: Give him 5 cups of soup.

The APA also addresses this question directly in this webpage .

The sections in APA that address numbers are 6.32-6.39 in the 7th edition of the Publication Manual.

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Numbers in APA

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Note:  This page reflects the 6th edition of the APA manual, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. There is currently no equivalent 7th edition page, but we're working on one. Thank you for your patience. Here is a link to our APA 7 "General Format" page .

In general, APA style recommends using words to express numbers below 10, and using numerals when expressing numbers 10 and above. See below for a more extensive list.

Numbers expressed as numerals

In addition to expressing numbers 10 and above, the following are other instances when you would use numerals rather than words:

Numbers mentioned in the abstract, a table, or a figure in the paper (this allows for brevity) 

This study consisted of 8 tests.

Numbers that immediately precede a unit of measurement

2.54 cm, 1.5 gal

Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, percentiles, and quartiles

Divided by 10

50% of the participants

a ratio of 10:1

the 10 th percentile

numbers that represent time, dates, ages, scores and point values on a scale, exact sums of money, and numerals

2 hr 30 min

50-year-olds

A 10-point scale

Exception: Use words for approximations of numbers of days, weeks, months, or years

Roughly six months ago

Numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and tables, and each number in a list of four or more numbers

Illustration 1

Numbers expressed as words

In addition to using words to express numbers below 10, use words to also express:

Numbers beginning a sentence, title, or text heading

Fifteen participants were in the control group.

Common fractions

Three fourths of the population

Common phrases or groups

Seven Wonders of the World

The Three Musketeers

Other Rules Concerning Numbers

Here are a few more rules concerning numbers to adhere to as you follow APA style:

If you are using two modifiers against a noun, use a combination of both numerals and words

Three 5-point scales

If you’re unsure which modifier to write and which to express numerically, try it both ways. Be sure the way you express the numbers is in the clearest way possible.

Place a zero before a decimal fraction less than 1 if the statistic can exceed 1.

If the statistic cannot exceed 1, you do not need a zero.

For more specific guidelines, talk to your instructor or refer to the Style Manual.

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Numbers In Academic Writing – APA Style Guidelines

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Numbers are an imperative part of academic writing , serving as vital tools to represent quantitative data, statistical data, or measures in an accurate and precise manner. Numbers are used across various fields, including sciences, humanities, and business. However, adherence to specific rules is necessary in terms of using numbers effectively in academia, which vary depending on the style guide followed. This article will provide insights into how numbers are used appropriately.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Numbers in Academic Writing – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Numbers in academic writing
• 3 Numbers in academic writing: Exceptions
• 4 Numbers in academic writing: Percentages
• 5 Numbers in academic writing: Statistical results
• 6 Numbers in academic writing: Measurements
• 7 Numbers in academic writing: Long numbers

Numbers in Academic Writing – In a Nutshell

• Academic writing uses numbers in distinct ways depending on style guide.
• Conventions apply to technical number writing and non-technical number writing.
• Numbers are usually written out from one to nine, and numerals are used from 10.
• Technical data and statistics should always appear as numerals for reference.

Definition: Numbers in academic writing

The APA Style is one of the most widely used academic writing styles and is largely adopted by the behavioral and social sciences. A number can be written both numerically or in words within this style.

Typically, a number from one to nine should be written out as words, while numbers from 10 and above should be written out numerically. This general rule also applies to ordinals (first, 10th). Some exceptions do apply, as found next in this article.

Other writing styles utilize different number rules. The Chicago style , for instance, requires numbers to be written out as words up to 100. The MLA style spells out all numbers that can be written within one or two words (three, one hundred, etc.).

Numbers in academic writing: Exceptions

Exceptions to the general rule above apply in the following cases:

1. All numbers should be represented numerically when they are detailing an exact unit of measurement.

• The rock was chiseled 6 cm deep.

2. Write out numerals as words when they begin a sentence, except when dealing with specific years.

• Eighteenth-century scientists advanced the practice of medicine
• 1921 marked the discovery of insulin.

3. A number should be written out when dealing with fractions, set expressions, or other known numeric titles.

• John Milton crafted the poem in 1626, also referred to as the Fifth of November poem.
• According to sources, one-third of the English population perished from the Black Death.
• Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four is set in an alternative world in the year 1984 .

Numbers in academic writing: Percentages

When dealing with percentages in the APA Style, use numerals followed by the percent sign % , instead of “percent” or the abbreviations, “pct.”, “pct,”, or “pc”.

• The Spanish flu affected over 25% of the US population.

The same rule when beginning sentences with numerals applies to percentages, i.e., they should be written out as words when they start a sentence.

• Twenty-five percent of the US population was affected.

Numbers in academic writing: Statistical results

Reporting statistics in APA and papers that deal with technical numerical language in qualitative research have their own rules.

Here, all data is written in numerals to remain consistent and easily digested. This applies to the main body, tables, and figures sections of a paper.

Other statistical conventions include:

• Report the majority of statistics to two decimal places.
• Report statistics that can’t exceed 1.0 to three decimal places.
• For values that could exceed 1.0, use a leading zero. Those that can’t exceed 1.0 do not feature a leading zero.
• Italicize statistical values that aren’t Greek letters. E.g. SD .
• Spaces should be left before and after equal, more-than, and less-than signs.

Numbers in academic writing: Measurements

Always use numerals for units of measurement.

• Ampules contain 100 mg in 2 ml .

Numerals should be used for precise ages, timescales, dates, score lines, points of scale, and monetary sums.

• The final score was France 4 , and Croatia 2 .
• The students were aged 18 to 21 years in the study.

Imprecise ages and generalizations are not numbered but written out.

• She was roughly six years old based on his estimation.
• The outcome will be approximately seven times .

Numbers in academic writing: Long numbers

Longer numbers have their own set of rules. A period should be used to indicate a decimal point.

Commas are to be used to separate large figures every three digits after 1,000.

For sums exceeding 6 numerals, like 1 million and 1 billion, use a combination of numerals and written language.

• HBO Max had 73.8 million subscribers in 2022.
• This is a considerable growth from its 800,000 subscribers in 2015.

Should you write out numbers in academic writing?

As a general rule of thumb, numbers up to nine should be written out in the APA Style, while anything exceeding 10 should appear as numerals.

How are dates written in academic writing?

Dates are always written as numerals.

How are numbers expressed at the beginning of a sentence?

They are written out when they begin a sentence, except for dates and technical data.

Should I use the word "percent" or its symbol "%"?

The APA Style states that the symbol “%” should be used after numerals, while “percent” should be used for written-out figures.

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The Barker Underground

Writing advice from the harvard college writing center tutors, one hundred percent or 100% tips for writing numbers..

by Raymond DeLuca, English Grammar and Language Tutor

Students bring all sorts of different essays to the Writing Center, and each discipline has its own conventions when it comes to writing numbers. People are always surprised to learn that, yes, there are good and not so good ways to write numbers in English. So, this information will save you a headache. After all, it is not the best use of your time when writing an essay (especially when it’s due in a few hours) to get stuck thinking, well, is it “3” or “three”?

Just as there are different citation styles for citing sources in different academic fields, there are also different conventions for writing numbers. Each of the most common citation styles—MLA, APA, and Chicago– offers slightly different rules for writing numbers. You should always make sure you know what style and citation guidelines you should be following for a specific assignment. If you are writing a non-technical paper and can choose your style, I recommend following the MLA guidelines, which make a lot of sense and are commonly used in cases where you’re not using a lot of numbers.

Rule #1: When should you write out numbers and when should you use the number?

For papers in the humanities and in some social sciences, you will often use either the MLA or Chicago citation styles. In those styles, when you are writing a non-technical paper, you should write out numbers less than one hundred, using a dash for two-digit numbers: eight, fifteen, forty-five, sixty-two, eighty-seven, etc., etc.  And, for numbers over one hundred: 1,435; 2,870; 5,740; 11,480. Someone here is bound to ask: “Well, does that mean one trillion should be written as 1,000,000,000,000?” No, of course not. If the number (even if it’s above one hundred) can be easily expressed in words, then keep it in words: four hundred, eight thousand, three billion, nine quintillion, etc.

If you’re using APA style, you should generally only write out numbers 1-9 and use numerals for everything else. But there is an exception: If you are using a number at the beginning of the sentence, you should write it out.

Rule #2 What about percentages?

Just like with regular numbers, different style guides express different preferences for percentages.  I like the MLA style, which advises that for a percentage less than one hundred, you should write it in words: two percent, seventy-six percent, ninety-nine percent, but, for a percentage greater than one hundred, write it in numerals: 110 percent, 500 percent, 999 percent. Besides that, as you can see, in non-technical writing, it is better to use the word “percent” rather than the percent sign, “%.” It’s ugly.

In this case, Chicago and APA style both call for using use numbers in percentages.

Rule #3: What about years?

MLA, Chicago, and APA style all say that years are better written in numerals, not words: 1967, not “nineteen sixty-seven.” (Sometimes students write out the years to pad their paper’s word count; it’s not a good look! Everyone can see what you’re doing.) It’s also considered poor style to start a sentence with a year, i.e., “2020 has been a bad year.” You could rephrase that, writing instead: “Many people thought 2020 would be a better year.”

Rule #4: What about decades?

If you’re talking about a series of events that occurred in a certain decade, say, from 1980 – 1989, you can refer to that period in three different ways: the eighties, the ‘80s, or the 1980s. But stay clear of the “nineteen eighties.”

Rule #5: If you ever find yourself writing about a score or a court decision or a ratio, you should stick with numerals (even if said numbers are less than one hundred). For example, “The Red Sox were up 4-2 before losing 6-4,” or “The contentious 5-4 Supreme Court ruling says…”

These are obviously not the only situations you will encounter when you need to write a number, but these rules will help clear up some of the most common issues I’ve seen in student writing. Numbers can be as easy as one, two, three. If you find yourself writing a science or an econometrics paper, you may have to use way more numbers than you would otherwise, and you will need to make sure you are following the guidelines in your field. Generally, though, these five suggestions are good to keep in mind.

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Commitment • high standards • excellence • ethics • results • leadership • focus, bite size grammar tip: how to write numbers in essays.

It is important for writers to recognize and to understand how to express numbers in formal writing, and to be able to determine when to write out numbers into words and when to use figures or numerical digits. Although the leading guides, The Chicago Manual of Style and The Associated Press Stylebook , offer differing approaches when it comes to American English grammar rules, as long as writers are consistent within their own writing, the expression of numbers in formal writing can be varied. Keep in mind that with each varying discipline, the number expression can also follow different rules.   Below are helpful rules for most writers to follow when engaged in formal writing.

Numbers Smaller Than Ten

• Spell out smaller numbers such as whole numbers that are smaller than ten. Especially in formal writing, it is important to spell out the numbers, otherwise it looks too informal.

One-Word Numbers vs. Two-Word Numbers

• Although there is no consensus on the application of this rule, here is a good rule of thumb to follow. For any one-word number, such as thirteen or thirty, it should be spelled or written out. For any two-word number, such as 36 or 42, the number should be expressed in figures.

Hyphenated Numbers and Fractions

• For compound or two-word numbers, use a hyphen for numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. For example, “thirty-four students attended the club meeting” rather than “34 students attended the club meeting.”
• Hyphenate all fractions that are spelled out. For example, “My sister ate three-fourths of the pie.”

Time Periods

• When referencing time such as decades or centuries, these figures should be spelled out and they should not be capitalized. Use seventeenth century and the seventies , rather than 17 th and 70s , respectively.

Never Start a Sentence With a Numerical Figure

• If a writer begins a sentence with a number, then the number must be spelled out. For example, “Fourscore and seven years ago” should not be written as “4 score and 7 years ago.” If a sentence includes a larger number within the sentence, it can be written as digits. For example, “There were 50,000 fans who attended the concert.”

Recipes and Percentages

• For informal and daily writing, writers can use numerical digits to refer to percentages such as “15% of the students” and recipes such as “Add 3 cups of sugar.” For formal writing, percentages should be spelled out, such as “15 percent of teachers.”

Neighboring Numbers

• If the writing includes two numbers that are next to one another, spell out the number that has the least amount of letters when spelled out. It is confusing to readers if there are too many numbers written next to each other; therefore, write one of the numbers as a digit and the other spelled out. For example, write “four 18-year-olds” rather than “4 18-year-olds.”

Ordinal numbers

• An ordinal number is a number that defines an object or a thing’s position in a series such as “first,” “second,” or “third.” When using ordinal numbers, spell out the number. Write “The baseball player made it to second base” rather than “The baseball player made it to 2 nd base.”
• When using time markers such as midnight or noon , do not write out the number such as 12:00AM and 12:00PM.
• When writing about a time of day, write the numerical digits, such as 5:30p.m. or 1:30 sharp.
• AM and PM can also be written as A.M and P.M or a.m. and p.m. Some writers choose to place a space between the time and AM or PM (7 AM, 4:15 P.M., 3:30 p.m.) while others choose not to leave a space (7AM, 4:15P.M., 3:30p.m.).

When composing a formal piece of writing, consider now how you might express the use of numbers.

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Chicago Citation Style Guide

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• Using Numbers

Using Numbers in an Essay

Spell out numbers that can be expressed in either one or two words.  

•   one million
•   ninety-nine
•   one hundred
•   fifteen hundred

Always spell out the number if a sentence begins with a number.

Example: Two thousand twelve was an election year in the United States.

When Should I Use Numerals?

Use numerals if you are writing an essay about a scientific subject or an essay that includes frequent use of numbers, like statistical findings. 

Always use numerals:

•  in front of units of measurements. Example : 5 millimeters
•  with abbreviations such as 6 lbs., 4:20 p.m., $9, 2”, 4%.
•  in dates: Example: April 1, 2014
•  in decimal fractions: Example: 9.2

Exceptions:  

• For large numbers, you may use a combination of numerals and words. Example: 4.5 million
• In general use numerals with % signs, however, you may spell out percentages or amounts of money if you can do so in three words or less. Example: five dollars, forty-five percent, sixty-eight cents.
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• Last Updated: Oct 19, 2022 2:29 PM
• URL: https://micds.libguides.com/chicagostyle

A Quick Guide to Numbers in MLA Style

• Nov 05, 2020
• Academic Editing
• Proofreading Tips
• Referencing and Citations

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Your client might not know all the details of MLA style. As an academic proofreader, then, your work may involve checking that documents follow MLA conventions. Thus, in this post, we’re looking at how to present numbers in academic writing according to MLA style.

Numbers in MLA: Numerals or Words?

MLA style sets out two approaches to numbers. In writing that involves few numbers , the MLA Handbook advises spelling out numbers that can be written as one or two words:

o ne, thirty-six, ninety-nine, one hundred, three million

It also says that plurals of spelled-out numbers should be treated as nouns:

fives, thirties

Other numbers, however, should be presented as numerals:

5¾, 305, 643, 2,798

For writing that uses numbers frequently , meanwhile, the MLA advises:

• Using numerals with units of measurement (e.g., 55 inches , 800 grams ) and other numbers presented alongside them (e.g., comparisons or reports of experimental data).
• Expressing larger numbers as a mix of numerals and words (e.g., 7 million , 1.4 billion ).
• Other numbers should be spelled out if they can be written as one or two words.

In both approaches, the MLA also advises using numerals for:

• Numbers used with abbreviations or symbols (e.g., 8lbs. , 6:00am , $7.90 ).
• Addresses (e.g., 635 New Street , 81 5 th Street ).
• Items in a numbered series (e.g., Year 5 , chapter 3 , volume 4 ).
• Dates (e.g., September 10, 2020 , August 5, 1996 ).
• Decimal fractions (e.g., 5.6 , 3.142 ).

In addition, in both styles, numbers should be spelled out at the start of a sentence (or the sentence should be rephrased to avoid starting with a number). When proofreading, then, make sure the guidelines above are applied consistently according to the document type.

Commas in Numbers

MLA style recommends placing a comma after every third digit in large numbers. For example:

However, commas are not used in page and line numbers , addresses , or four-digit years .

Page Ranges in MLA Style

For a range of page numbers in a citation or the Works Cited list, the MLA says to write the second value in the range in full for numbers up to 99. For example:

For larger numbers, though, only the last two digits of the second number should be given. The exception is when more are necessary for clarity:

The rules for years are a little different. If a range of years begins AD 1000 or later, MLA says to omit the first two digits of the second year if they are the same as the first two digits of the first year. Otherwise, though, you should make sure both years are written in full:

If the years discussed fall between AD 1 and 999, though, follow the general rules for inclusive numbers. And make sure ranges of years that begin before AD 1 are written in full.

Punctuating Number Ranges

In published work, MLA follows the convention of using an en dash for number ranges:

She spent her most productive period (1907 –1912) in Amsterdam.

However, for simplicity, MLA also permits a hyphen for number ranges in student writing:

She spent her most productive period (1907- 1912) in Amsterdam.

If you’re proofreading student work, then, there is no need to replace hyphens in number ranges. You can simply check that ranges are punctuated consistently.

Roman Numerals

Finally, the MLA Handbook also has a few rules for using Roman numerals :

• Capitalized Roman numerals are used for the primary divisions in an essay or book outline and as suffixes for the names of persons (e.g., Part I , Henry VII ).
• Lowercase Roman numerals are only used when citing pages that are so numbered (e.g., in the preface or introduction of a book), with ranges written out in full (e.g., xxv –xxviii , iv –xii ).

If you see Roman numerals in a document, make sure they follow these conventions.

Becoming A Proofreader

Here, we’ve seen what to look out for when proofreading numbers in a document that uses MLA style. But you can learn all about style guides, formatting, and proofreading in general with our Becoming A Proofreader course! Sign up for a free trial today to find out more.

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• Knowledge Base
• Academic writing
• Taboo words in academic writing

Words and Phrases to Avoid in Academic Writing

Published on February 6, 2016 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on September 11, 2023.

When you are writing a dissertation , thesis, or research paper, many words and phrases that are acceptable in conversations or informal writing are considered inappropriate in academic writing .

You should try to avoid expressions that are too informal, unsophisticated, vague, exaggerated, or subjective, as well as those that are generally unnecessary or incorrect.

Bear in mind, however, that these guidelines do not apply to text you are directly quoting from your sources (including interviews ).

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Table of contents

Too informal, too exaggerated, too subjective, generally incorrect, other interesting articles.

Academic writing is generally more formal than the writing we see in non-academic materials (including on websites). It is also more formal than the ways in which we normally speak. The following words and phrases are considered too informal for a dissertation or academic paper.

Informal sentence starts

Some words are acceptable in certain contexts, but become too informal when used at the beginning of a sentence. You can replace these with appropriate  transition words  or simply remove them from the sentence.

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Using vague terms makes your writing imprecise and may cause people to interpret it in different ways. Always try to be as specific as possible.

Academic writing is usually unadorned and direct. Some adverbs of frequency (such as always and never ) and intensifiers (words that create emphasis, such as really ) are often too dramatic. They may also not be accurate – you’re making a significant claim when you say something is perfect or never happens.

These terms do sometimes add value, but try to use them sparingly.

Some words and phrases reveal your own bias. For instance, if you state that something will obviously happen, you are indicating that you think the occurrence is obvious – not stating a fact.

Expressing your opinion is appropriate in certain sections of a dissertation and in particular types of academic texts (such as personal statements and reflective or argumentative essays ). In most cases, though, take care when using words and phrases such as those below – try to let the facts speak for themselves, or emphasize your point with less biased language.

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Certain words and phrases are often used incorrectly, even by native speakers of a language. If you’re exposed to such mistakes often enough, you may start to assume they are correct – but it’s important that you don’t let them creep into your writing.

You should also bear in mind that some of these mistakes relate to things we all frequently mishear (for instance, we often think the speaker is saying would of instead of would have ).

In general, you should also try to avoid using words and phrases that fall into the following categories:

• Jargon (i.e., “insider” terminology that may be difficult for readers from other fields to understand)
• Clichés (i.e., expressions that are heavily overused, such as think outside of the box and at the end of the day )
• Everyday abbreviations (e.g., approx. , ASAP, corona, stats, info )
• Slang (e.g., cops , cool )
• Gender-biased language   (e.g., firemen , mankind )
• Generally unnecessary (e.g., redundant expressions that do not add meaning, such as compete with each other instead of simply compete)

Reflective reports and  personal statements  sometimes have a less formal tone. In these types of writing, you may not have to follow these guidelines as strictly. The preface or acknowledgements of a dissertation also often have a less formal and more personal voice than the rest of the document.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
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• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
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• Grammar Checker
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Vinz, S. (2023, September 11). Words and Phrases to Avoid in Academic Writing. Scribbr. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/taboo-words/

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Sarah's academic background includes a Master of Arts in English, a Master of International Affairs degree, and a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science. She loves the challenge of finding the perfect formulation or wording and derives much satisfaction from helping students take their academic writing up a notch.

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