how to start second paragraph in an essay

105 Best Words To Start A Paragraph

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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The first words of a paragraph are crucial as they set the tone and inform the reader about the content that follows.

Known as the ‘topic’ sentence, the first sentence of the paragraph should clearly convey the paragraph’s main idea. 

This article presents a comprehensive list of the best words to start a paragraph, be it the first, second, third, or concluding paragraph.

Words to Start an Introduction Paragraph

The words you choose for starting an essay should establish the context, importance, or conflict of your topic.

The purpose of an introduction is to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the topic, its significance, and the structure of the ensuing discussion or argument.

Students often struggle to think of ways to start introductions because they may feel overwhelmed by the need to effectively summarize and contextualize their topic, capture the reader’s interest, and provide a roadmap for the rest of the paper, all while trying to create a strong first impression.

Choose one of these example words to start an introduction to get yourself started:

• The debate surrounding [topic]…
• [Topic] has garnered attention due to…
• Exploring the complexities of [topic]…
• The significance of [topic] lies in…
• Over the past decade, [topic] has…
• The critical question of [topic]…
• As society grapples with [topic]…
• The rapidly evolving landscape of [topic]…
• A closer examination of [topic] reveals…
• The ongoing conversation around [topic]…

Don’t Miss my Article: 33 Words to Avoid in an Essay

Words to Start a Body Paragraph

The purpose of a body paragraph in an essay is to develop and support the main argument, presenting evidence, examples, and analysis that contribute to the overall thesis.

Students may struggle to think of ways to start body paragraphs because they need to find appropriate transition words or phrases that seamlessly connect the paragraphs, while also introducing a new idea or evidence that builds on the previous points.

This can be challenging, as students must carefully balance the need for continuity and logical flow with the introduction of fresh perspectives.

Try some of these paragraph starters if you’re stuck:

• Building upon previous research…
• As [source] suggests, [topic]…
• Analyzing [topic] through [theory]…
• Considering the impact of [policy]…
• Delving deeper into [topic]…
• Drawing from [author]’s findings…
• [Topic] intersects with [related topic]…
• Contrary to popular belief, [topic]…
• The historical context of [topic]…
• Addressing the challenges of [topic]…

Words to Start a Conclusion Paragraph

The conclusion paragraph wraps up your essay and leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

It should convincingly summarize your thesis and main points. For more tips on writing a compelling conclusion, consider the following examples of ways to say “in conclusion”:

• In summary, [topic] demonstrates…
• The evidence overwhelmingly suggests…
• Taking all factors into account…
• In light of the analysis, [topic]…
• Ultimately, [topic] plays a crucial role…
• In light of these findings…
• Weighing the pros and cons of [topic]…
• By synthesizing the key points…
• The interplay of factors in [topic]…
• [Topic] leaves us with important implications…

Complete List of Transition Words

Above, I’ve provided 30 different examples of phrases you can copy and paste to get started on your paragraphs.

Let’s finish strong with a comprehensive list of transition words you can mix and match to start any paragraph you want:

• Secondly, …
• In addition, …
• Furthermore, …
• Moreover, …
• On the other hand, …
• In contrast, …
• Conversely, …
• Despite this, …
• Nevertheless, …
• Although, …
• As a result, …
• Consequently, …
• Therefore, …
• Additionally, …
• Simultaneously, …
• Meanwhile, …
• In comparison, …
• Comparatively, …
• As previously mentioned, …
• For instance, …
• For example, …
• Specifically, …
• In particular, …
• Significantly, …
• Interestingly, …
• Surprisingly, …
• Importantly, …
• According to [source], …
• As [source] states, …
• As [source] suggests, …
• In the context of, …
• In light of, …
• Taking into consideration, …
• Given that, …
• Considering the fact that, …
• Bearing in mind, …
• To illustrate, …
• To demonstrate, …
• To clarify, …
• To put it simply, …
• In other words, …
• To reiterate, …
• As a matter of fact, …
• Undoubtedly, …
• Unquestionably, …
• Without a doubt, …
• It is worth noting that, …
• One could argue that, …
• It is essential to highlight, …
• It is important to emphasize, …
• It is crucial to mention, …
• When examining, …
• In terms of, …
• With regards to, …
• In relation to, …
• As a consequence, …
• As an illustration, …
• As evidence, …
• Based on [source], …
• Building upon, …
• By the same token, …
• In the same vein, …
• In support of this, …
• In line with, …
• To further support, …
• To substantiate, …
• To provide context, …
• To put this into perspective, …

Tip: Use Right-Branching Sentences to Start your Paragraphs

Sentences should have the key information front-loaded. This makes them easier to read. So, start your sentence with the key information!

To understand this, you need to understand two contrasting types of sentences:

• Left-branching sentences , also known as front-loaded sentences, begin with the main subject and verb, followed by modifiers, additional information, or clauses.
• Right-branching sentences , or back-loaded sentences, start with modifiers, introductory phrases, or clauses, leading to the main subject and verb later in the sentence.

In academic writing, left-branching or front-loaded sentences are generally considered easier to read and more authoritative.

This is because they present the core information—the subject and the verb—at the beginning, making it easier for readers to understand the main point of the sentence.

Front-loading also creates a clear and straightforward sentence structure, which is preferred in academic writing for its clarity and conciseness.

Right-branching or back-loaded sentences, with their more complex and sometimes convoluted structure, can be more challenging for readers to follow and may lead to confusion or misinterpretation.

Take these examples where I’ve highlighted the subject of the sentence in bold. Note that in the right-branching sentences, the topic is front-loaded.

• Right Branching: Researchers found a strong correlation between sleep and cognitive function after analyzing the data from various studies.
• Left-Branching: After analyzing the data from various studies, a strong correlation between sleep and cognitive function was found by researchers.
• The novel was filled with vivid imagery and thought-provoking themes , which captivated the audience from the very first chapter.
• Captivating the audience from the very first chapter, the novel was filled with vivid imagery and thought-provoking themes.

The words you choose to start a paragraph are crucial for setting the tone, establishing context, and ensuring a smooth flow throughout your essay.

By carefully selecting the best words for each type of paragraph, you can create a coherent, engaging, and persuasive piece of writing.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 101 Class Group Name Ideas (for School Students)
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How To Start A Paragraph: 200+ Important Words And Phrases

by Kerri-Anne Edinburgh | Last updated Jun 27, 2024 | First published on Aug 3, 2022 | 0 comments

There’s a lot to get right when you’re writing an essay. And a particularly important skill is knowing how to start a paragraph effectively. That first sentence counts!

Luckily for you, we’ve compiled HEAPS of advice, example phrases and top connective words to help you transition between paragraphs and guide your reader with ease.

So read on for a pick ’n’ mix of how to start a paragraph examples!

Paragraphs: the lowdown

So why exactly are paragraphs such an important tool for writing effectively ? Well:

• They’re an important part of keeping your reader captivated
• They help your reader to follow your argument or narrative
• And they keep your writing in easily digestible chunks of information!

And an important part of all that is nailing the start of your paragraphs . Honestly!

Start off strong and your reader will know exactly what you’re going to do next and how your information interrelates. Top marks here you come – and for the low, low cost of some clever vocab!

Start your paragraphs off weakly however, without setting up effective signposting and transitions , and they’ll get lost and ( horror !) might have to re-read your essay to make sense of it. Ugh.

What should your paragraphs contain?

If you’re writing an academic essay, there are a lot of popular conventions and guides about what a paragraph should include.

Academic writing guides favour well-developed paragraphs that are unified, coherent, contain a topic sentence, and provide adequate development of your idea. They should be long enough to fully discuss and analyse your idea and evidence.

And remember – you should ALWAYS start a new paragraph for each new idea or point .

You can read more about paragraph break guidelines in our helpful what is a paragraph article! If you’re wondering how long your paragraphs should be , check out our guideline article.

Paragraph structure (the PEEL method)

Academic paragraphs often follow a common structure , designed to guide your reader through your argument – although not all the time ! It goes like this:

• Start with a “topic sentence”
• Give 1-2 sentences of supporting evidence for (or against) your argument
• Next, write a sentence analysing this evidence with respect to your argument or topic sentence
• Finally, conclude by explaining the significance of this stance, or providing a transition to the next paragraph

(A quick definition: A “topic sentence” introduces the idea your paragraph will focus upon and makes summarising easy. It can occur anywhere but placing it at the start increases readability for your audience. )

One popular acronym for creating well-developed academic paragraphs is PEEL . This stands for Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link . Using this method makes it easy to remember what your paragraph should include.

• I.e. your point (the topic sentence), some evidence and analysis of how it supports your point, and a transitional link back to your essay question or forwards to your next paragraph.

NOTE : You shouldn’t start all your paragraphs the same way OR start every sentence in your paragraph with the same word – it’s distracting and won’t earn you good marks from your reader.

How to create clarity for your readers

Paragraphs are awesome tools for increasing clarity and readability in your writing. They provide visual markers for our eyes and box written content into easily digestible chunks.

But you still need to start them off strongly . Do this job well, and you can seamlessly guide your readers through the narrative or argument of your writing.

The first sentence of your paragraph is an important tool for creating that clarity . You can create links with the surrounding paragraphs and signal the purpose of this paragraph for your reader.

• Transitions show the links and relationships between the ideas you’re presenting: addition, contrast, sequential, conclusion, emphasis, example/citation
• Connective words help you to join together multiple paragraphs in a sequence
• Note: there is quite a lot of overlap in vocabulary! Some transitions are also great signposts etc.

Tip : Don’t overuse them! These techniques can make your writing sounds more professional and less like spoken language by smoothing over jarring jumps between topics. But using too many will make your writing stilted.

A common term that encompasses these three tools is “ sentence starter ”. They are typically set apart from the body of your sentence by a comma.

You can learn more about these key skills in our two helpful articles linked above – or explore a range of other writing skills advice, such as how to start an essay , structure an essay , and proofread an essay effectively!

Picking the right tone

It is important that the paragraph-starting phrases and connective words you choose complement the style of your writing and the conventions of the subject you are writing for .

For example, scientific papers usually have much clearer and expected structure and signposting conventions than arts and humanities papers.

If you’re unsure, it’s best to check some of the sources you’ve researched for your essay, explore the relevant academic style guide, or get help from a teacher – ask them for some examples!

Getting your grammar right

Grammatical conventions can be a minefield, but they’re worth remembering if you want to get top marks!

If you’re looking to increase the clarity of your writing and paragraphs, make sure you pick the right spot for your commas and colons .

For example, when you’re starting a new paragraph, many of the common signposting words and phrases require a comma. These include: however, therefore, moreover, what’s more, firstly, secondly, finally, likewise, for example, in general … (and more!).

These phrases should always be followed by a comma if it’s at the start of a sentence, or separated with a comma before and after like this if placed mid-sentence:

However, we cannot say for sure what happened here. We know, for example, that X claims to have lost the icon.

A word about “ this ” (a tip for really great writing)

As you start writing your paragraphs (and even sentences), you might be tempted to kick off with the word “ this” – as in the classic “ this shows that … ”.

But that’s not a great idea.

Why ? Academic essays aim should aim for maximum clarity, and “ this ” is just vague !

What’s important is that the connections that are clear to you , the writer (who is – hopefully – intimately familiar with your argument), are ALSO clear to your reader , who has probably never read your essay before.

Just imagine, your reader might be muttering “this what??” as they read, and then having to re-read the paragraph and the paragraph before to check … which is not ideal for getting good marks.

In complex documents (especially essays and theses) where a lot of information is presented at once, the points you’re referencing might be spread across several paragraphs of evidence and argument-building. So, unless your sentence/paragraph-starting “this” follows on immediately from the point it references, it’s best to try a different phrase.

And all it really takes is a little signposting and clarification to avoid the vagueness of “ this shows that ”. Ask yourself “ this WHAT shows that? ” And just point out what you’re referencing – and be obvious ! 

Here’s some examples:

You can also do a similar exercise with “ they ” and other demonstrative pronouns (that, these, those).

Specifying what your pronouns refer to will great help to increase the clarity of your (topic) sentences . And as an added bonus, your writing will also sound more sophisticated!

What type of paragraph are you starting?

When it comes to essay writing, there’s usually an expected structure: introduction, body (evidence and analysis) and conclusion .

With other genres of writing your paragraphs might not conform to such

Consider the structure of your paragraph. What do you want it to do? What is the topic? Do you want to open with your topic sentence?

How to start an introductory paragraph

Nailing the introduction of your essay is simultaneously one of the most important and hardest sections to write . A great introduction should set up your topic and explain why it’s significant.

One of the primary goals of an effective introduction is to clearly state your “ thesis statement ” (what your essay is about, and what you are setting out to achieve with your argument).

A popular (and easy) technique to start an introduction is to begin your first paragraph by immediately stating your thesis statement .

Here’s some examples of how to start a paragraph with your thesis statement:

• This paper discusses …
• In this paper, you will find …
• This essay argues that …
• This thesis will evaluate …
• This article will explore the complex socio-political factors that contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire between the reign of Constantine (312-337AD) and the fall of Rome in 476AD .

However, starting your introductory paragraph effectively is not all about immediately stating your thesis!

So head over to our great article on how to start an essay , for lots of more advice and examples on how to kick off your introductions and capture your reader’s attention with style!

How to start a body paragraph

Unless you’re writing an introduction or conclusion, you’ll be writing a “body paragraph”. Body paragraphs make up the majority of your essay, and should include all of your main points, data, evidence, analysis, deductions and arguments.

Each paragraph should have a particular purpose and be centred around one idea . Your body paragraphs might be analytical, evidential, persuasive, descriptive etc.

To help your reader make sense of the body of your essay, it’s important to guide them with signposts and transitions. These usually occur at the start of your paragraphs to demonstrate their relationship to preceding information.

However, that means there are LOTS of different techniques for starting your body paragraphs! So for 200+ words and phrases for effectively starting a body paragraph, simply keep reading!

How to start a concluding paragraph

Concluding paragraphs are a little different to other paragraphs because they shouldn’t be presenting new evidence or arguments . Instead, you’re aiming to draw your arguments together neatly, and tie up loose ends.

You might find them as part of a smaller sub-section within a longer academic dissertation or thesis. Or as part of the conclusion of your essay.

When starting your conclusion it’s always a great idea to let your reader know they’ve arrived by signposting its purpose . This is especially true if your essay doesn’t contain any headers!

Here are some examples of how to kick off your concluding paragraph:

• In conclusion, this paper has shown that …
• In summary, we have found that …
• A review of these analyses indicates that …
• To conclude, this essay has demonstrated that we must act immediately if we want to halt the drastic dwindling of our global bee population.

How to start a paragraph: 200+ top words and phrases for a winning first sentence

Choosing the best start for your paragraph is all about understanding the purpose of this paragraph within the wider context of the preceding (and following) paragraphs and your essay as a whole.

Where does it fit into the structure of your essay? Is it:

• Opening a new topic or theme?
• Providing explanations or descriptions?
• Continuing a list or sequence?
• Providing evidence?
• Presenting a different opinion or counter-argument?
• Beginning an analysis?
• Highlighting consequences?
• Drawing a conclusion?

It’s important to be direct in how you start each paragraph – especially if you’re struggling to get your point across!

The best way to craft a killer first sentence is to be clear on what you want it to do . We’ve covered 12 options below, packed with vocab and examples to get you started …

And don’t forget to consider when you should start a new paragraph , and how long you want your paragraphs to be . Where you place your paragraph breaks will have a big effect on the kind of starting sentence you need !

Finally – remember that the best time to craft effective opening sentences is after you’ve written your first draft and decided on your paragraph breaks! You should already have all your ideas arranged into a logical order.

Showing structure and presenting concepts

This first type of paragraphs are commonly found throughout your essay, whether you’re introducing your ideas, providing evidence and data, or presenting results.

There a lots of useful types of connective words and phrases to help you kick off your paragraphs with clarity:

Most notable are the sequential signposting words , which you can use throughout your essay to guide your reader through the steps of your argument, or a list of related evidence, for example.

If you’re looking for something a little more specific, read on for four sets of example academic phrases to use to start a paragraph!

1.       Starting or continuing a sequence

One of the most important types of transitional phrases to help you start a paragraph is a sequential transition . These signposting transitions are great for academic arguments because they help you to present your points in order, without the reader getting lost along the way.

Sequential connectives and transitions create order within your narrative by highlighting the temporal relationship between your paragraphs. Think lists of events or evidence , or setting out the steps in your narrative .

You’ll often find them in combination with other paragraph-starting phrases ( have a look at the examples below to spot them !)

Why not try out some of these examples to help guide the readers of your essay?

• Before considering X, it is important to note that …
• Following on from Y, we should also consider …
• The first notion to discuss is …
• The next point to consider is …
• Thirdly, we know that Y is also an important feature of …
• As outlined in the previous paragraph, the next steps are to …
• Having considered X, it is also necessary to explore Y …

2.       Providing evidence, examples or citations

Once you’ve made your claims or set out your ideas, it’s important to properly back them up. You’ll probably need to give evidence, quote experts and provide references throughout your essay .

If you’ve got more than one piece of evidence, it’s best to separate them out into individual paragraphs . Sequential signposting can be a helpful tool to help you and your reader keep track of your examples.

If your paragraph is all about giving evidence for a preceding statement, why not start with one of these phrases:

• For example, X often …
• This stance is clearly illustrated by …
• Consider the example of Y, which …
• This concept is well supported by …

If you want to quote or paraphrase a source or expert, a great way to start your paragraph is by introducing their views. You can also use phrases like these to help you clearly show their role in your essay:

• [Author], in particular, has argued that …
• According to [source], Y is heavily influenced by …
• [Source] for example, demonstrates the validity of this assertion by …
• This [counter-] argument is supported by evidence from X, which shows that …

Always remember to provide references for your sources in the manner most appropriate for your field ( i.e. footnotes, and author-date methods ).

3.       Giving emphasis to your point

Not all points and paragraphs in an essay are made equal. It’s natural you’ll want to highlight ideas and evidence for your reader to make sure they’re persuaded by your argument !

So, if you want to give emphasis to what you’re about to discuss, be obvious ! In fact, you may need to be more direct than you think:

• This detail is significant because …
• Undoubtedly, this experience was …
• Certainly, there are ramifications for …
• The last chapters, in particular, are revealing of X …

4.       Acknowledging uncertainty

In academia it’s common to find a little uncertainty in your evidence or results, or within the knowledge of your field . That’s true whether you’re a historian exploring artefacts from Ancient Greece, or a social scientist whose questionnaire results haven’t produced a clear answer.

Don’t hide from this uncertainty – it’s a great way to point ahead to future research that needs to be done. In fact, you might be doing it in your essay!

Why not try one of these examples to highlight the gaps in your academic field or experiment?

• Whether X is actually the case remains a matter of debate, as current explorations cannot …
• Although not proven, it is commonly understood that X …
• Whilst the likelihood of X is debateable …
• Given the age of the artifacts, it is impossible to say with accuracy whether Y …
• Although we cannot know for sure, the findings above suggest that …
• Untangling the causes of X is a complex matter and it is impossible to say for sure whether …

Showing the relationships between your points

As your essay progresses you will need to guide your reader through a succession of points, ideas and arguments by creating a narrative for them to follow. And important part of this task is the use of signposting to demonstrate the relationship between your paragraphs . Do they support each other? Do they present opposite sides of a debate?

Luckily there are lots of agreement , opposition and contextual connectives to help you increase your clarity:

Read on for four more sets of example academic phrases to help you present your ideas!

5.       Making a new point

If there’s no connection between your new paragraph and the preceding material, you’re probably starting a new topic, point or idea.

That means it’s less likely ( although not impossible ) that you’ll need transitional phrases . However, it’s still important to signpost the purpose and position of this new paragraph clearly for your reader.

• We know that X …
• This section of the essay discusses …
• We should now turn to an exploration of Y …
• We should begin with an overview of the situation for X …
• Before exploring the two sides of the debate, it is important to consider …

You can find some great ideas and examples for starting a new topic in our how to start an essay article. Whilst they’re definitely applicable to introductions, these strategies can also work well for kicking off any new idea!

6.       Presenting accepted concepts

If you’re aiming to take a new stance or question an accepted understanding with your essay, a great way to start a paragraph is by clearly setting out the concepts you want to challenge .

These phrases are also an effective way to establish the context of your essay within your field:

• It is commonly believed that …
• The accepted interpretation of X is …
• Until recently, it was thought that …
• Historically, X has been treated as a case of …
• Over the past two decades, scholars have approached X as an example of …
• The most common interpretation of Y is …

7.       Adding similar points

Agreement connectives are an important tool in your arsenal for clearly indicating the continuation or positive relationship between similar ideas or evidence you’re presenting.

If you’re looking to continue your essay with a similar point, why not try one of these examples:

• Another aspect of X is …
• Another important point is …
• By the same token, Y should be explored with equal retrospection for …
• Moreover, an equally significant factor of X is …
• We should also consider …
• Proponents of Y frequently also suggested that …

8.       Demonstrating contrast

In contrast, if you’re looking to present a counter-argument, opposite side of a debate, or critique of the ideas, evidence or results in your preceding paragraph(s), you’ll need to turn to contradiction and opposition connectives.

These phrases will help you to clearly link your paragraphs whilst setting them in contrast within your narrative:

• A contrary explanation is that …
• On the other side of this debate,  X suggests that …
• Given this understanding of X, it is surprising that Y …
• On the other hand, critics of X point to …
• Despite these criticisms, proponents of X continue to …
• Whilst the discussion in the previous paragraph suggests X to be true, it fails to take into consideration Y …

Note : some paragraph-opening sentences can be modified using connective words to show either agreement or contrast! Here are some examples:

• It could also be said that X does [not] …
• It is [also] important to note that X … OR It is important, however, to note that X …
• There is [also/however], a further point to be considered …

Presenting analyses, arguments and results

An important stage of any essay is the analysis – that’s when you bring your own arguments to the table, based on your data and results.

Signalling this clearly, therefore, is pretty important! Happily, there are plenty of connective words and phrases that can help you out:

Read on for four sets of example academic phrases to use to start your analysis, results and summary paragraphs!

9.       Conducting an analysis and constructing your argument

Once you’ve set out your evidence or data, it’s time to point out the connections within them. Or to analyse how they support the argument you want to make.

With humanities essays it is common to analyse the impact of your evidence as you present it. In contrast, sciences essays often contain a dedicated analysis section after the data has been presented.

You’ll probably need several analytical paragraphs to address each of your points. So, a great way to get started is to dive straight in by signposting the connections you want to make in each one:

• Each of these arguments make an important contribution to X because …
• In order to fully understand Y, we need to analyse the findings from …
• Each model of X and Y changed throughout the experiment because …
• Exploring this dataset reveals that, in fact, X is not as common as hypothesised …
• Notwithstanding such limitations, this data still shows that …
• Of central concern to Y, therefore, is the evidence that …
• This interpretation of X is …
• This critique implies that …
• This approach is similar to that of Y, who, as we have seen above, argues that …
• The resulting graphs suggest that …
• Whilst conducting the survey, it was discovered that …

10.   Presenting results

Having completed your analyses of any evidence (and hopefully persuaded your reader of your argument), you may need to present your results. This is especially relevant for essays that examine a specific dataset after a survey or experiment .

If you want to signpost this section of your essay clearly, start your paragraph with a phrase like these:

• The arguments presented above show that …
• In this last analysis, we can see that X has shown …
• As we have seen, the data gathered demonstrates that …
• As demonstrated above, our understanding of X primarily stems from …

11.   Demonstrating cause and effect

When writing an academic essay you may often need to demonstrate the cause and effect relationship between your evidence or data, and your theories or results . Choosing the right connective phrases can be important for showing this relationship clearly to your reader.

Try one of these phrases to start your paragraph to clearly explain the consequences:

• As a consequence, X cannot be said to …
• Therefore, we can posit that …
• Provided that X is indeed true, it has been shown that Y …
• As such, it is necessary to note that …
• For this reason, the decision was made to …
• The evidence show that the primary cause of X was …
• As a result of Y, it was found that …

12.   Summarising a topic or analysis

In general, summary paragraphs should not present any new evidence or arguments. Instead, they act as a reminder of the path your essay has taken so far.

Of course, these concluding paragraphs commonly occur at the end of an essay as part of your conclusion. However, they are also used to draw one point or stage of your argument to a close before the next begins .

Within a larger essay or dissertation, these interludes can be useful reminders for your reader as you transition between providing context, giving evidence, suggesting new approaches etc.

It’s worth noting that concluding your topic or analysis isn’t always the same as presenting results, although there can be some similarities in vocabulary.

Connect your arguments into summaries with clear linking phrases such as:

• Altogether, these arguments demonstrate that …
• Each of these arguments make an important contribution to our understanding of X …
• From this overview of X and Y, we can conclude that …
• We can therefore see that …
• It was hypothesised that X, however, as we have seen …
• Therefore, we can [clearly] see that …

Time to get writing your paragraphs!

And that’s it! You should now have a much-improved understanding of how to start a paragraph.

Whether you we’re worried about how to start your introductions or conclusions, or were wondering about specific types of body paragraphs, hopefully you’ve found what you need in the examples above .

If you need more writing advice to help you nail top marks for your essay, we’ve got a whole series of articles designed to improve your writing skills – perfect ! Have a read for top tips to for capturing easy marks 😊

You can learn:

• how to create effective paragraphs
• about the ideal length(s) for your paragraphs
• how to start an essay AND how to structure an essay
• the 70+ top connective words and phrases to improve your writing
• how to signpost your essay for top marks
• about improving clarity with easy proofreading tricks

Good luck completing your essay!

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It’s the roadmap to your essay, it’s the forecast for your argument, it’s...your introduction paragraph, and writing one can feel pretty intimidating. The introduction paragraph is a part of just about every kind of academic writing , from persuasive essays to research papers. But that doesn’t mean writing one is easy!

If trying to write an intro paragraph makes you feel like a Muggle trying to do magic, trust us: you aren’t alone. But there are some tips and tricks that can make the process easier—and that’s where we come in.

In this article, we’re going to explain how to write a captivating intro paragraph by covering the following info:  

• A discussion of what an introduction paragraph is and its purpose in an essay
• An overview of the most effective introduction paragraph format, with explanations of the three main parts of an intro paragraph
• An analysis of real intro paragraph examples, with a discussion of what works and what doesn’t
• A list of four top tips on how to write an introduction paragraph

Are you ready? Let’s begin!

What Is an Introduction Paragraph? 

An introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay , paper, or other type of academic writing. Argumentative essays , book reports, research papers, and even personal  essays are common types of writing that require an introduction paragraph. Whether you’re writing a research paper for a science course or an argumentative essay for English class , you’re going to have to write an intro paragraph. 

So what’s the purpose of an intro paragraph? As a reader’s first impression of your essay, the intro paragraph should introduce the topic of your paper. 

Your introduction will also state any claims, questions, or issues that your paper will focus on. This is commonly known as your paper’s thesis . This condenses the overall point of your paper into one or two short sentences that your reader can come back and reference later.

But intro paragraphs need to do a bit more than just introduce your topic. An intro paragraph is also supposed to grab your reader’s attention. The intro paragraph is your chance to provide just enough info and intrigue to make your reader say, “Hey, this topic sounds interesting. I think I’ll keep reading this essay!” That can help your essay stand out from the crowd.

In most cases, an intro paragraph will be relatively short. A good intro will be clear, brief, purposeful, and focused. While there are some exceptions to this rule, it’s common for intro paragraphs to consist of three to five sentences . 

Effectively introducing your essay’s topic, purpose, and getting your reader invested in your essay sounds like a lot to ask from one little paragraph, huh? In the next section, we’ll demystify the intro paragraph format by breaking it down into its core parts . When you learn how to approach each part of an intro, writing one won’t seem so scary!

Once you figure out the three parts of an intro paragraph, writing one will be a piece of cake!

The 3 Main Parts of an Intro Paragraph

In general, an intro paragraph is going to have three main parts: a hook, context, and a thesis statement . Each of these pieces of the intro plays a key role in acquainting the reader with the topic and purpose of your essay. 

Below, we’ll explain how to start an introduction paragraph by writing an effective hook, providing context, and crafting a thesis statement. When you put these elements together, you’ll have an intro paragraph that does a great job of making a great first impression on your audience!

Intro Paragraph Part 1: The Hook

When it comes to how to start an introduction paragraph, o ne of the most common approaches is to start with something called a hook. 

What does hook mean here, though? Think of it this way: it’s like when you start a new Netflix series: you look up a few hours (and a few episodes) later and you say, “Whoa. I guess I must be hooked on this show!” 

That’s how the hook is supposed to work in an intro paragrap h: it should get your reader interested enough that they don’t want to press the proverbial “pause” button while they’re reading it . In other words, a hook is designed to grab your reader’s attention and keep them reading your essay! 

This means that the hook comes first in the intro paragraph format—it’ll be the opening sentence of your intro. 

It’s important to realize  that there are many different ways to write a good hook. But generally speaking, hooks must include these two things: what your topic is, and the angle you’re taking on that topic in your essay. 

One approach to writing a hook that works is starting with a general, but interesting, statement on your topic. In this type of hook, you’re trying to provide a broad introduction to your topic and your angle on the topic in an engaging way . 

For example, if you’re writing an essay about the role of the government in the American healthcare system, your hook might look something like this: 

There's a growing movement to require that the federal government provide affordable, effective healthcare for all Americans. 

This hook introduces the essay topic in a broad way (government and healthcare) by presenting a general statement on the topic. But the assumption presented in the hook can also be seen as controversial, which gets readers interested in learning more about what the writer—and the essay—has to say.

In other words, the statement above fulfills the goals of a good hook: it’s intriguing and provides a general introduction to the essay topic.

Intro Paragraph Part 2: Context

Once you’ve provided an attention-grabbing hook, you’ll want to give more context about your essay topic. Context refers to additional details that reveal the specific focus of your paper. So, whereas the hook provides a general introduction to your topic, context starts helping readers understand what exactly you’re going to be writing about

You can include anywhere from one to several sentences of context in your intro, depending on your teacher’s expectations, the length of your paper, and complexity of your topic. In these context-providing sentences, you want to begin narrowing the focus of your intro. You can do this by describing a specific issue or question about your topic that you’ll address in your essay. It also helps readers start to understand why the topic you’re writing about matters and why they should read about it. 

So, what counts as context for an intro paragraph? Context can be any important details or descriptions that provide background on existing perspectives, common cultural attitudes, or a specific situation or controversy relating to your essay topic. The context you include should acquaint your reader with the issues, questions, or events that motivated you to write an essay on your topic...and that your reader should know in order to understand your thesis. 

For instance, if you’re writing an essay analyzing the consequences of sexism in Hollywood, the context you include after your hook might make reference to the #metoo and #timesup movements that have generated public support for victims of sexual harassment. 

The key takeaway here is that context establishes why you’re addressing your topic and what makes it important. It also sets you up for success on the final piece of an intro paragraph: the thesis statement.

Elle Woods' statement offers a specific point of view on the topic of murder...which means it could serve as a pretty decent thesis statement!

Intro Paragraph Part 3: The Thesis

The final key part of how to write an intro paragraph is the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the backbone of your introduction: it conveys your argument or point of view on your topic in a clear, concise, and compelling way . The thesis is usually the last sentence of your intro paragraph. 

Whether it’s making a claim, outlining key points, or stating a hypothesis, your thesis statement will tell your reader exactly what idea(s) are going to be addressed in your essay. A good thesis statement will be clear, straightforward, and highlight the overall point you’re trying to make.

Some instructors also ask students to include an essay map as part of their thesis. An essay map is a section that outlines the major topics a paper will address. So for instance, say you’re writing a paper that argues for the importance of public transport in rural communities. Your thesis and essay map might look like this: 

Having public transport in rural communities helps people improve their economic situation by giving them reliable transportation to their job, reducing the amount of money they spend on gas, and providing new and unionized work .

The underlined section is the essay map because it touches on the three big things the writer will talk about later. It literally maps out the rest of the essay!

So let’s review: Your thesis takes the idea you’ve introduced in your hook and context and wraps it up. Think of it like a television episode: the hook sets the scene by presenting a general statement and/or interesting idea that sucks you in. The context advances the plot by describing the topic in more detail and helping readers understand why the topic is important. And finally, the thesis statement provides the climax by telling the reader what you have to say about the topic. 

The thesis statement is the most important part of the intro. Without it, your reader won’t know what the purpose of your essay is! And for a piece of writing to be effective, it needs to have a clear purpose. Your thesis statement conveys that purpose , so it’s important to put careful thought into writing a clear and compelling thesis statement. 

How To Write an Introduction Paragraph: Example and Analysis

Now that we’ve provided an intro paragraph outline and have explained the three key parts of an intro paragraph, let’s take a look at an intro paragraph in action.

To show you how an intro paragraph works, we’ve included a sample introduction paragraph below, followed by an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses.

Example of Introduction Paragraph

While college students in the U.S. are struggling with how to pay for college, there is another surprising demographic that’s affected by the pressure to pay for college: families and parents. In the face of tuition price tags that total more than $100,000 (as a low estimate), families must make difficult decisions about how to save for their children’s college education. Charting a feasible path to saving for college is further complicated by the FAFSA’s estimates for an “Expected Family Contribution”—an amount of money that is rarely feasible for most American families. Due to these challenging financial circumstances and cultural pressure to give one’s children the best possible chance of success in adulthood, many families are going into serious debt to pay for their children’s college education. The U.S. government should move toward bearing more of the financial burden of college education. 

Example of Introduction Paragraph: Analysis

Before we dive into analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of this example intro paragraph, let’s establish the essay topic. The sample intro indicates that t he essay topic will focus on one specific issue: who should cover the cost of college education in the U.S., and why. Both the hook and the context help us identify the topic, while the thesis in the last sentence tells us why this topic matters to the writer—they think the U.S. Government needs to help finance college education. This is also the writer’s argument, which they’ll cover in the body of their essay. 

Now that we’ve identified the essay topic presented in the sample intro, let’s dig into some analysis. To pin down its strengths and weaknesses, we’re going to use the following three questions to guide our example of introduction paragraph analysis: 

• Does this intro provide an attention-grabbing opening sentence that conveys the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide relevant, engaging context about the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide a thesis statement that establishes the writer’s point of view on the topic and what specific aspects of the issue the essay will address? 

Now, let’s use the questions above to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of this sample intro paragraph. 

Does the Intro Have a Good Hook? 

First, the intro starts out with an attention-grabbing hook . The writer starts by presenting  an assumption (that the U.S. federal government bears most of the financial burden of college education), which makes the topic relatable to a wide audience of readers. Also note that the hook relates to the general topic of the essay, which is the high cost of college education. 

The hook then takes a surprising turn by presenting a counterclaim : that American families, rather than students, feel the true burden of paying for college. Some readers will have a strong emotional reaction to this provocative counterclaim, which will make them want to keep reading! As such, this intro provides an effective opening sentence that conveys the essay topic. 

Does the Intro Give Context?

T he second, third, and fourth sentences of the intro provide contextual details that reveal the specific focus of the writer’s paper . Remember: the context helps readers start to zoom in on what the paper will focus on, and what aspect of the general topic (college costs) will be discussed later on. 

The context in this intro reveals the intent and direction of the paper by explaining why the issue of families financing college is important. In other words, the context helps readers understand why this issue matters , and what aspects of this issue will be addressed in the paper.  

To provide effective context, the writer refers to issues (the exorbitant cost of college and high levels of family debt) that have received a lot of recent scholarly and media attention. These sentences of context also elaborate on the interesting perspective included in the hook: that American families are most affected by college costs.

Does the Intro Have a Thesis? 

Finally, this intro provides a thesis statement that conveys the writer’s point of view on the issue of financing college education. This writer believes that the U.S. government should do more to pay for students’ college educations. 

However, the thesis statement doesn’t give us any details about why the writer has made this claim or why this will help American families . There isn’t an essay map that helps readers understand what points the writer will make in the essay.

To revise this thesis statement so that it establishes the specific aspects of the topic that the essay will address, the writer could add the following to the beginning of the thesis statement:

The U.S. government should take on more of the financial burden of college education because other countries have shown this can improve education rates while reducing levels of familial poverty.

Check out the new section in bold. Not only does it clarify that the writer is talking about the pressure put on families, it touches on the big topics the writer will address in the paper: improving education rates and reduction of poverty. So not only do we have a clearer argumentative statement in this thesis, we also have an essay map!  

So, let’s recap our analysis. This sample intro paragraph does an effective job of providing an engaging hook and relatable, interesting context, but the thesis statement needs some work ! As you write your own intro paragraphs, you might consider using the questions above to evaluate and revise your work. Doing this will help ensure you’ve covered all of your bases and written an intro that your readers will find interesting!

4 Tips for How To Write an Introduction Paragraph

Now that we’ve gone over an example of introduction paragraph analysis, let’s talk about how to write an introduction paragraph of your own. Keep reading for four tips for writing a successful intro paragraph for any essay. 

Tip 1: Analyze Your Essay Prompt

If you’re having trouble with how to start an introduction paragraph, analyze your essay prompt! Most teachers give you some kind of assignment sheet, formal instructions, or prompt to set the expectations for an essay they’ve assigned, right? Those instructions can help guide you as you write your intro paragraph!

Because they’ll be reading and responding to your essay, you want to make sure you meet your teacher’s expectations for an intro paragraph . For instance, if they’ve provided specific instructions about how long the intro should be or where the thesis statement should be located, be sure to follow them!

The type of paper you’re writing can give you clues as to how to approach your intro as well. If you’re writing a research paper, your professor might expect you to provide a research question or state a hypothesis in your intro. If you’re writing an argumentative essay, you’ll need to make sure your intro overviews the context surrounding your argument and your thesis statement includes a clear, defensible claim. 

Using the parameters set out by your instructor and assignment sheet can put some easy-to-follow boundaries in place for things like your intro’s length, structure, and content. Following these guidelines can free you up to focus on other aspects of your intro... like coming up with an exciting hook and conveying your point of view on your topic!

Tip 2: Narrow Your Topic

You can’t write an intro paragraph without first identifying your topic. To make your intro as effective as possible, you need to define the parameters of your topic clearly—and you need to be specific. 

For example, let’s say you want to write about college football. “NCAA football” is too broad of a topic for a paper. There is a lot to talk about in terms of college football! It would be tough to write an intro paragraph that’s focused, purposeful, and engaging on this topic. In fact, if you did try to address this whole topic, you’d probably end up writing a book!

Instead, you should narrow broad topics to  identify a specific question, claim, or issue pertaining to some aspect of NCAA football for your intro to be effective. So, for instance, you could frame your topic as, “How can college professors better support NCAA football players in academics?” This focused topic pertaining to NCAA football would give you a more manageable angle to discuss in your paper.

So before you think about writing your intro, ask yourself: Is my essay topic specific, focused, and logical? Does it convey an issue or question that I can explore over the course of several pages? Once you’ve established a good topic, you’ll have the foundation you need to write an effective intro paragraph . 

Once you've figured out your topic, it's time to hit the books!

Tip 3: Do Your Research

This tip is tightly intertwined with the one above, and it’s crucial to writing a good intro: do your research! And, guess what? This tip applies to all papers—even ones that aren’t technically research papers. 

Here’s why you need to do some research: getting the lay of the land on what others have said about your topic—whether that’s scholars and researchers or the mass media— will help you narrow your topic, write an engaging hook, and provide relatable context. 

You don't want to sit down to write your intro without a solid understanding of the different perspectives on your topic. Whether those are the perspectives of experts or the general public, these points of view will help you write your intro in a way that is intriguing and compelling for your audience of readers. 

Tip 4: Write Multiple Drafts

Some say to write your intro first; others say write it last. The truth is, there isn’t a right or wrong time to write your intro—but you do need to have enough time to write multiple drafts . 

Oftentimes, your professor will ask you to write multiple drafts of your paper, which gives you a built-in way to make sure you revise your intro. Another approach you could take is to write out a rough draft of your intro before you begin writing your essay, then revise it multiple times as you draft out your paper. 

Here’s why this approach can work: as you write your paper, you’ll probably come up with new insights on your topic that you didn’t have right from the start. You can use these “light bulb” moments to reevaluate your intro and make revisions that keep it in line with your developing essay draft. 

Once you’ve written your entire essay, consider going back and revising your intro again . You can ask yourself these questions as you evaluate your intro: 

• Is my hook still relevant to the way I’ve approached the topic in my essay?
• Do I provide enough appropriate context to introduce my essay? 
• Now that my essay is written, does my thesis statement still accurately reflect the point of view that I present in my essay?

Using these questions as a guide and putting your intro through multiple revisions will help ensure that you’ve written the best intro for the final draft of your essay. Also, revising your writing is always a good thing to do—and this applies to your intro, too!

What's Next?

Your college essays also need great intro paragraphs. Here’s a guide that focuses on how to write the perfect intro for your admissions essays. 

Of course, the intro is just one part of your college essay . This article will teach you how to write a college essay that makes admissions counselors sit up and take notice.

Are you trying to write an analytical essay? Our step-by-step guide can help you knock it out of the park.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Some experts argue that focusing on individual actions to combat climate change takes the focus away from the collective action required to keep carbon levels from rising. Change will not be effected, say some others, unless individual actions raise the necessary awareness.

While a reader can see the connection between the sentences above, it’s not immediately clear that the second sentence is providing a counterargument to the first. In the example below, key “old information” is repeated in the second sentence to help readers quickly see the connection. This makes the sequence of ideas easier to follow.  

Sentence pair #2: Effective Transition

Some experts argue that focusing on individual actions to combat climate change takes the focus away from the collective action required to keep carbon levels from rising. Other experts argue that individual actions are key to raising the awareness necessary to effect change.

You can use this same technique to create clear transitions between paragraphs. Here’s an example:

Some experts argue that focusing on individual actions to combat climate change takes the focus away from the collective action required to keep carbon levels from rising. Other experts argue that individual actions are key to raising the awareness necessary to effect change. According to Annie Lowery, individual actions are important to making social change because when individuals take action, they can change values, which can lead to more people becoming invested in fighting climate change. She writes, “Researchers believe that these kinds of household-led trends can help avert climate catastrophe, even if government and corporate actions are far more important” (Lowery).

So, what’s an individual household supposed to do?

The repetition of the word “household” in the new paragraph helps readers see the connection between what has come before (a discussion of whether household actions matter) and what is about to come (a proposal for what types of actions households can take to combat climate change).

Sometimes, transitional words can help readers see how ideas are connected. But it’s not enough to just include a “therefore,” “moreover,” “also,” or “in addition.” You should choose these words carefully to show your readers what kind of connection you are making between your ideas.

To decide which transitional word to use, start by identifying the relationship between your ideas. For example, you might be

• making a comparison or showing a contrast Transitional words that compare and contrast include also, in the same way, similarly, in contrast, yet, on the one hand, on the other hand. But before you signal comparison, ask these questions: Do your readers need another example of the same thing? Is there a new nuance in this next point that distinguishes it from the previous example? For those relationships between ideas, you might try this type of transition: While x may appear the same, it actually raises a new question in a slightly different way. 
• expressing agreement or disagreement When you are making an argument, you need to signal to readers where you stand in relation to other scholars and critics. You may agree with another person’s claim, you may want to concede some part of the argument even if you don’t agree with everything, or you may disagree. Transitional words that signal agreement, concession, and disagreement include however, nevertheless, actually, still, despite, admittedly, still, on the contrary, nonetheless .
• showing cause and effect Transitional phrases that show cause and effect include therefore, hence, consequently, thus, so. Before you choose one of these words, make sure that what you are about to illustrate is really a causal link. Novice writers tend to add therefore and hence when they aren’t sure how to transition; you should reserve these words for when they accurately signal the progression of your ideas.
• explaining or elaborating Transitions can signal to readers that you are going to expand on a point that you have just made or explain something further. Transitional words that signal explanation or elaboration include in other words, for example, for instance, in particular, that is, to illustrate, moreover .
• drawing conclusions You can use transitions to signal to readers that you are moving from the body of your argument to your conclusions. Before you use transitional words to signal conclusions, consider whether you can write a stronger conclusion by creating a transition that shows the relationship between your ideas rather than by flagging the paragraph simply as a conclusion. Transitional words that signal a conclusion include in conclusion , as a result, ultimately, overall— but strong conclusions do not necessarily have to include those phrases.

If you’re not sure which transitional words to use—or whether to use one at all—see if you can explain the connection between your paragraphs or sentence either out loud or in the margins of your draft.

For example, if you write a paragraph in which you summarize physician Atul Gawande’s argument about the value of incremental care, and then you move on to a paragraph that challenges those ideas, you might write down something like this next to the first paragraph: “In this paragraph I summarize Gawande’s main claim.” Then, next to the second paragraph, you might write, “In this paragraph I present a challenge to Gawande’s main claim.” Now that you have identified the relationship between those two paragraphs, you can choose the most effective transition between them. Since the second paragraph in this example challenges the ideas in the first, you might begin with something like “but,” or “however,” to signal that shift for your readers.  

• picture_as_pdf Transitions

Home ➔ How to Write an Essay ➔ Words to Use in an Essay ➔ Sentence Starters

Sentence Starters for Essays

A sentence starter is simply a word or a phrase that will help you to get your sentence going when you feel stuck, and it can be helpful in many different situations. A good sentence starter can help you better transition from one paragraph to another or connect two ideas. If not started correctly, your sentence will likely sound choppy, and your reader might not be able to follow your thoughts.

Below, we will explain when sentence starters for essays are used and what types of them exist. We will then give you plenty of examples of sentence-starter words and phrases that you can use in your writing.

Note: To learn more about word choice in academic writing, you can read our guide: Words to Use in an Essay

Why you need good sentence starters

In academic writing, sentence starters are usually used to connect one idea to another. Sentence starters make your essay coherent as they are often used to transition from one paragraph to another. In other words, they glue your writing together so that it makes sense and is easy to read.

You can also use sentence starters inside paragraphs. This will help you to better transition from one idea to another. It can make your writing flow better and sound more unified if done correctly.

When sentence starters are used

You don’t have to use them in every sentence, but they can be helpful if you feel like your ideas are choppy or you want to connect two thoughts. If overused, sentence starters can make your writing sound repetitive and distracting to the reader.

Here’s a list of cases where you should consider using sentence starters:

• To transition from one paragraph or section of your writing to another
• To introduce a new idea at the start of your essay or paragraph
• To start the final paragraph and conclude the entire essay
• To emphasize something important
• To create a hook and grab your reader’s attention
• To clarify something or give brief background information

These are just some common situations for using sentence starters, and this list is not definitive. If you can’t decide whether or not to use a sentence starter, it’s usually best to err on the side of not using one. If your paragraph flows nicely, don’t overthink it and move on with your essay writing .

What are the different types of sentence starters?

Sentence starters vary based on what you want to achieve in the sentence you’re starting. Here are some of the most common purposes that define what sentence starter you need to apply, along with some examples.

Starters for hooks

If you want to grab your reader’s attention in the first paragraph and make them want to read your essay, you need to use introduction sentence starters that are attention-grabbing and interesting. Some common sentence starters for essay hooks are:

• Did you know that… (for a fact)
• When I was… (for an anecdote)
• Just as… (for an analogy)
• According to… (for a statistic)

Starters to start a thesis statement

The thesis statement is the main idea of your essay. It’s what you want to prove or argue in your essay. You will need to use sentence starters that introduce your essay topic in a clear and concise way. For example:

• This essay will discuss…
• The purpose of this essay is to…
• In this essay, I will argue that…
• In my opinion…
• I think that…

Starters for topic sentences

A topic sentence is the first sentence at the beginning of each body paragraph that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. You will want to use body paragraph starters that state the main idea of the paragraph in a clear and concise way. Some specific examples:

• One reason why…
• The most important thing to remember is that…
• Another important factor to consider is…
• The first thing to note is that…
• It’s important to remember that…
• Besides the previous point,…

Starters for concluding

When you’re concluding your essay , you need to use conclusion sentence starters that emphasize the main points of your argument and leave your reader with a strong impression. Here are some examples:

• In conclusion,…
• To sum up,…
• Overall,…
• To conclude,…
• Finally,…
• In the final analysis,…

Starters for lists

If you’re listing ideas or items, you will want to use sentence starters that introduce each item clearly. Some common list starters are:

• The first…
• The second…
• Thirdly,…
• Next,…
• Lastly,…

Starters for comparing and contrasting

If you’re writing an essay that compares and contrasts two or more things, you will need to use sentence starters that introduce each item you’re discussing and emphasize the similarities and/or differences. For example:

• Similarly,…
• However,…
• In contrast to…
• On the other hand,…
• Compared to…
• Despite the fact that…

Starters for elaborating

If you want to elaborate on an idea, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the detail you’re going to include and how it relates to the main idea. Some common starters for elaborating are:

• For example,…
• In other words,…
• That is to say,…
• To elaborate,…
• Another way to put it would be…
• To put it more simply,…

Starters for giving background information

If you want to give some brief background information in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the information and explain why it’s relevant. For example:

• As previously mentioned,…
• As everyone knows,…
• In today’s society,…

Starters for giving an example

If you want to give an example in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the example and explain how it supports your argument. For example:

• For instance,…
• To illustrate,…
• Thus,…
• In this case,…

Starters for introducing a quotation

If you want to include a quotation in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the quotation and explain its relevance. Some examples:

• As John Doe said,…
• According to Jane Doe,…
• As the old saying goes,…
• In Jane Doe’s words,…
• To put it another way,…

Starters for introducing evidence

If you want to include evidence in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the evidence and explain its relevance. For example:

• The data shows that…
• This proves that…
• This suggests that…
• The evidence indicates that…

Starters for bridging

If you want to create a bridge sentence between two paragraphs, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the second paragraph and explain how it relates to the first. For example:

• This leads to the question,…
• This raises the issue,…
• Another important point to consider is…
• This brings us to the question of…

Starters to show causation

If you want to show causation in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that introduce the cause and explain its relationship to the effect. For example:

• Because of this,…
• As a result,…
• Consequently,…
• Due to the fact that…
• Therefore,…

Starters to emphasize a point

If you want to emphasize a point in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that draw attention to the point and make it clear why it’s important. Examples of sentence starters to add emphasis:

• Importantly,…
• Significantly,…

Starters to express doubt

If you want to express doubt about an idea in your essay, you need to use sentence starters that make it clear you’re not certain and explain why you have doubts. For example:

• It’s possible that…
• It’s uncertain whether…
• Some people might argue that…
• There is evidence to suggest that…
• Although it is debatable,…
• It might be the case that…

Key takeaways

• Sentence starters are especially important in academic writing because they can help you make complex arguments and express yourself clearly.
• There are many different types of sentence starters, each with its own purpose.
• You need to choose the right sentence starter for the specific task you’re writing about.
• When in doubt, err on the side of caution and choose a simpler sentence starter.

Now that you know the different types of sentence starters and how to use them effectively, you’ll be able to write clear, concise, and well-organized essays.

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How to start a second paragraph in an essay

The second paragraph of an essay is essential for connecting the ideas presented in the first paragraph to the ensuing ideas in the rest of the essay. To start a second paragraph in an essay, it is important to begin with a smooth transition from the previous paragraph. Depending on the length of the essay and the topic, transitions between paragraphs can be as simple as a one word phrase that leads into the next or longer phrases that explain how the two paragraphs are connected.

To start a second paragraph, it is also important to consider how the new paragraph will contribute to the overall essay. This can be done by including a topic sentence that states the purpose of the paragraph and connects back to the essays main argument. For example, if the first paragraph explains why one opinion is incorrect, the second paragraph could start by presenting a stronger argument in its favor.

The introduction of evidence is also a crucial step in starting a second paragraph in an essay. This could include facts, statistics, quotes, examples, or any other evidence that supports the topic sentence and main argument. By including evidence, authors can strengthen their claims and make them more credible to readers.

Finally, authors should consider using various types of language in their essays to keep readers engaged. This could include rhetorical questions, strong adjectives and adverbs, vivid metaphors and similes, or even rhetorical devices. By adding variety to their writing, authors can effectively capture their readers attention and make their essays more interesting.

In summary, starting a second paragraph in an essay is essential for making connections between paragraphs and ensuring that readers understand the authors argument. This can be done by including a smooth transition, a strong topic sentence, supporting evidence, and engaging language.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

On Paragraphs

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What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges

• The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
• Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

• Key words can be repeated in several sentences
• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
• To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
• When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
• When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.

How to Write a Paragraph in an Essay

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The deadline for your essay is looming, but you're still not sure how to write your essay paragraphs or how to structure them. If that's you, then you're in good hands.

After the content of your essay, the structure is the most important part. How you arrange your thoughts in an essay can either support your argument or confuse the reader. The difference comes down to your knowledge of how to write a paragraph to create structure and flow in an essay. 

At its most basic level,  an essay paragraph comprises the following elements: (1) a topic sentence, (2) sentences that develop and support the topic sentence, and (3) a concluding sentence.

Also, when writing a paragraph or essay , keep in mind that most essays follow the five-paragraph model. This model involves writing an introductory paragraph, three paragraphs of supporting arguments, and a conclusion paragraph. 

In most cases, a paper of this length just won't cut it. However, remembering this formula can help you write key paragraphs in your essay, such as an introduction that states the main hypothesis, a body that supports this argument, and a conclusion that ties everything together.

Let's break down how to write a paragraph so you can get that essay written. 

Writing a paragraph means grouping together sentences that focus on the same topic so that the important points are easy to understand. In the body of an essay, each paragraph functions as its own point or argument that backs up the essay's main hypothesis. Each paragraph also includes evidence that supports each argument made. 

It helps to separate each paragraph idea in a quick essay outline before you start writing your paragraphs so you can organize your thoughts. It is also helpful to link each paragraph in a cohesive way that supports your hypothesis. For good paragraph writing to work, your readers will need to be able to clearly follow the ideas you're presenting throughout your essay.  

Essay paragraphs are important for organizing topics and thoughts and for creating readability and flow. Readers often skip large blocks of writing in blog posts, articles, or essays. It can be confusing when there are no breaks between different ideas or when thoughts flow one into the next without any discernible pauses. Knowing how to write a paragraph to help break up your content and ideas is essential for avoiding this.

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Writing a paragraph is easier when you follow a structure. An essay paragraph consists of around 250 words , with the sentence count varying from five to six or more, depending on the type of essay you're writing.

The structure of an essay paragraph includes the following: 

• A topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph that clearly states one idea
• Supporting sentences that explain the idea in the topic sentence and provide evidence to back up that idea 
• A concluding sentence that links back to the original topic sentence idea and segues to the next paragraph

Following this basic structure will ensure that you never have to wonder how to write a paragraph and will keep your essay structure consistent. 

What Is a Topic Sentence?

All good paragraph writing starts with a topic sentence. The topic sentence provides a brief summary of the content. In an essay's body, each paragraph begins with a topic sentence.

The topic sentence gives structure to a paragraph the same way a thesis gives structure to an essay. Both a thesis and a topic sentence state the main idea that drives the rest of the content. In the case of a paragraph, the topic sentence drives the rest of the paragraph content, and in the case of an essay, the thesis drives the rest of the essay content.

When writing a topic sentence, keep in mind that it should be

• The first sentence of your paragraph
• Specific, focusing on a specific area of your thesis statement
• The focus of your paragraph

There are two parts to every topic sentence: the topic, which is what the paragraph will be about, and the controlling idea, which is the paragraph's direction. For example, if your paragraph was about hamsters being great pets, that would be your topic, but your controlling idea might be that there are many reasons why hamsters are great pets.

A paragraph example with a good topic sentence would start out something like this: 

Hamsters are great pets for many reasons. They don't require extensive training, so no time-consuming obedience courses are necessary. They are also relatively inexpensive to own when compared to dogs or cats because they're low-maintenance. 

Examples of Effective Hooks

A paragraph in an essay should always use an effective hook. If you're hoping to grab the attention of your reader, it helps to start your paragraph with a compelling statement or question that will be of interest. 

Here are a few examples to use for inspiration: 

Most people would rather work to live than live to work, and the gig economy makes this possible. 

How important is it for today's influencers to rely on Instagram? 

Daily sugar intake has reached a staggering average of 25 teaspoons per person in the United States.

Supporting Sentences

Writing an essay paragraph is like building an effective and functional house. In the same way that each room has a purpose, each paragraph in your essay should have its own separate topic with supporting sentences . Paragraph writing can be simple if you think of it this way! 

The goal of supporting sentences is to provide evidence validating each topic in your paragraph. Each sentence provides details to help your reader understand the paragraph's main idea. 

If you have trouble coming up with supporting sentences to develop the main idea in your paragraph, try rephrasing your topic sentence as a question. For example, if you're writing about how all babies have three basic needs, ask, what are the three basic needs of all babies? 

At the end of your supporting sentences, add a concluding sentence that ties everything to the main argument of your essay. Repeat this for each supporting argument, and you'll have mastered the concept of how to write a paragraph. Read on for a paragraph example with supporting sentences. 

Supporting Sentence Examples

To get a feel for how to use supporting sentences in a paragraph in an essay, check out this basic example: 

Babies have three basic needs. First, babies need food. Depending on their age, they'll drink formula for their first meals and graduate to soft baby food later. Second, they need shelter. Babies need a safe place to live. Third, they need support. They need someone loving to look out for them and take care of them.  

How to Use Transitions

Knowing how to write a paragraph involves knowing how to use transitions .

Good essay paragraphs have transitions that help ideas flow clearly from one to the next. Given that your essay will include many different ideas and subtopics, your transitions will ensure that your information and ideas are well connected. 

If you're not familiar with transitions, they are words or phrases that connect ideas. They signal a connection between your topic sentence and your supporting sentences, but they also help readers connect ideas between paragraphs. 

At the beginning of a sentence, use a transition to segue into a new idea. At the beginning of each paragraph, use a transition to signal a new concept or idea that you will discuss.

However, try to avoid one-word transitions at the beginning of a paragraph, like "Since" or "While," because they don't usually provide enough information. Instead, try using transitional phrases between paragraphs (instead of words), such as "On the other hand" or "In addition to."  

Examples of Transitions

Here are a few examples of transitions — both one-word transitions and transitional phrases — to use in the paragraphs of your essay:  

• As a result
• For example
• By the same token
• Consequently
• In the meantime
• To summarize
• To conclude
• Undoubtedly
• Subsequently

Writing a paragraph in an essay can be simple if you understand basic paragraph structure. Additionally, it's helpful to keep in mind the structure of an essay and how each essay paragraph links together to form a fully developed argument or idea.

Creating an outline before you start writing your essay—which can also be described as a blueprint (to return to the metaphor of building a house)—is a great way to effectively arrange your topics, support your argument, and guide your writing.

Knowing how to write a paragraph is essential to communicating your thoughts and research, no matter the topic, in a way that is readable and coherent.

How Long Is a Paragraph?

An essay paragraph can vary in length depending on a variety of factors, such as the essay's type, topic, or requirements. Generally, essay paragraphs are three to five or more sentences, since each paragraph should have a fully developed idea with a beginning, middle, and end. 

However, all essays are different, and there are no hard and fast rules that dictate paragraph length. So, here are some guidelines to follow while writing a paragraph:  

• Stick to one idea per paragraph. 
• Keep your paragraphs roughly the same length. 
• Ensure that each page of your essay has 2 – 3 paragraphs.
• Combine shorter paragraphs into a larger one if the smaller paragraphs work together to express a single idea.

Overall, it's the paragraph writing itself that dictates a paragraph's length. Don't get too caught up in trying to reach a specific word count or number of sentences. Understanding this concept is key to knowing how to write a paragraph that conveys a clear and fully developed idea. 

How Do I Know When to Start a New Paragraph?

A new essay paragraph will always signal a new point or idea. Before you think about starting a new paragraph, ask yourself whether you are about to discuss something new that you haven't brought up yet. If the answer is yes, it warrants a new paragraph. 

The end of a paragraph functions as a break for your reader. If you've successfully developed and concluded an idea, you'll know that it's time to begin a new paragraph, especially if the material is long or complex. 

Every essay should have an introductory paragraph and a conclusion paragraph. But as long as you keep in mind that good paragraph writing means starting off with a new idea each time, you're in a good position to know when a new paragraph should begin. 

How Many Paragraphs Do I Need in My Essay?

The number of paragraphs you write in an essay will largely depend on the requirements of the essay. These requirements are usually dictated by an instructor.

For a short, 1-page essay, your instructor might require only three paragraphs. For a longer, 2- to 3-page essay, you might need five paragraphs. For longer essays, there could be up to seven to nine paragraphs. Any essay with more paragraphs than that is usually deemed a thesis or a research paper. 

At a minimum, an essay will always have at least three paragraphs: an introductory paragraph, a body paragraph, and a conclusion paragraph. Depending on the required word or page count or the type of essay (argumentative, informative, etc.), your essay could have multiple paragraphs expanding on different points. An argumentative essay, for example, should have at least five paragraphs. 

Therefore, the most important question to ask when deciding on your number of essay paragraphs is this: What does my professor expect from me? 

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How to Structure an Essay

Essay writing is a fundamental skill, a basic task, that is expected of those who choose to pursue their undergraduate and master’s degrees. It constitutes a key requirement for students to complete a given course credit. However, many students and early career researchers find themselves struggling with the challenge of organizing their thoughts into a coherent, engaging structure. This article is especially for those who see essay writing as a daunting task and face problems in presenting their work in an impactful way.  

Table of Contents

• Writing an essay: basic elements and some key principles  
• Essay structure template 
• Chronological structure 
• Problem-methods-solutions structure 
• Compare and contrast structures 
• Frequently asked questions on essay structure 

Read on as we delve into the basic elements of essay writing, outline key principles for organizing information, and cover some foundational features of writing essays.  

Writing an essay: basic elements and some key principles

Essays are written in a flowing and continuous pattern but with a structure of its own. An introduction, body and conclusion are integral to it. The key is to balance the amount and kind of information to be presented in each part. Various disciplines may have their own conventions or guidelines on the information to be provided in the introduction.  

A clear articulation of the context and background of the study is important, as is the definition of key terms and an outline of specific models or theories used. Readers also need to know the significance of the study and its implications for further research. Most importantly, the thesis or the main proposition should be clearly presented.  

The body of the essay is therefore organized into paragraphs that hold the main ideas and arguments and is presented and analyzed in a logical manner. Ideally, each paragraph of the body focuses on one main point or a distinct topic and must be supported by evidence and analysis. The concluding paragraph should bring back to the reader the key arguments, its significance and food for thought. It is best not to re-state all the points of the essay or introduce a new concept here. 

In other words, certain general guidelines help structure the information in the essay. The information must flow logically with the context or the background information presented in the introductory part of the essay. The arguments are built organically where each paragraph in the body of the essay deals with a different point, yet closely linked to the para preceding and following it. Importantly, when writing essays, early career researchers must be careful in ensuring that each piece of information relates to the main thesis and is a building block to the arguments. 

Essay structure template

• Introduction 
• Provide the context and share significance of the study 
• Clearly articulate the thesis statement 
• Body  
• Paragraph 1 consisting of the first main point, followed by supporting evidence and an analysis of the findings. Transitional words and phrases can be used to move to the next main point. 
• There can be as many paragraphs with the above-mentioned elements as there are points and arguments to support your thesis. 
• Conclusion  
• Bring in key ideas and discuss their significance and relevance 
• Call for action 
• References 

Essay structures

The structure of an essay can be determined by the kind of essay that is required.  

Chronological structure

Also known as the cause-and-effect approach, this is a straightforward way to structure an essay. In such essays, events are discussed sequentially, as they occurred from the earliest to the latest. A chronological structure is useful for discussing a series of events or processes such as historical analyses or narratives of events. The introduction should have the topic sentence. The body of the essay should follow a chorological progression with each para discussing a major aspect of that event with supporting evidence. It ends with a summarizing of the results of the events.  

Problem-methods-solutions structure

Where the essay focuses on a specific problem, the problem-methods-solutions structure can be used to organize the essay. This structure is ideal for essays that address complex issues. It starts with presenting the problem, the context, and thesis statement as introduction to the essay. The major part of the discussion which forms the body of the essay focuses on stating the problem and its significance, the author’s approach or methods adopted to address the problem along with its relevance, and accordingly proposing solution(s) to the identified problem. The concluding part offers a recap of the research problem, methods, and proposed solutions, emphasizing their significance and potential impact. 

Compare and contrast structures

This structure of essay writing is ideally used when two or more key subjects require a comparison of ideas, theories, or phenomena. The three crucial elements, introduction, body, and conclusion, remain the same. The introduction presents the context and the thesis statement. The body of the essay seeks to focus on and highlight differences between the subjects, supported by evidence and analysis. The conclusion is used to summarize the key points of comparison and contrast, offering insights into the significance of the analysis.  

Depending on how the subjects will be discussed, the body of the essay can be organized according to the block method or the alternating method. In the block method, one para discusses one subject and the next para the other subject. In the alternative method, both subjects are discussed in one para based on a particular topic or issue followed by the next para on another issue and so on.  

Frequently asked questions on essay structure

An essay structure serves as a framework for presenting ideas coherently and logically. It comprises three crucial elements: an introduction that communicates the context, topic, and thesis statement; the body focusing on the main points and arguments supported with appropriate evidence followed by its analysis; and a conclusion that ties together the main points and its importance .  

An essay structure well-defined essay structure enhances clarity, coherence, and readability, and is crucial for organizing ideas and arguments to effectively communicate key aspects of a chosen topic. It allows readers to better understand arguments presented and demonstrates the author’s ability to organize and present information systematically. 

Yes, while expert recommend following an essay structure, early career researchers may choose how best to adapt standard essay structures to communicate and share their research in an impactful and engaging way. However, do keep in mind that deviating too far from established structures can hinder comprehension and weaken the overall effectiveness of the essay,  By understanding the basic elements of essay writing and employing appropriate structures such as chronological, problem-methods-solutions, or compare and contrast, researchers can effectively organize their ideas and communicate their findings with clarity and precision. 

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How do you start a second paragraph on an essay?

in most essays, you can start the second paragraph with an introduction to the first topic you will be discussing. the first paragraph should be an intro to the whole general idea, so just start the second one with a topic sentence about your first idea.

ex. "Jam comes in many different flavors, such as raspberry, mango, apricot, and orange"

That depends on the 'strength' of the sentences. If they carry enough information, then probably. But - if this is an assignment, check with whoever set it. unless it has to a long one to accept it like a paragraph

not hard i once had that kind of problem not hard at all you have 2 pages and 2 days equals that you have to memorize a page in a day so the time would take an hour the memorize in a day so keep reading that first page an hour passes read it again repeat that same thing but the only thing i want to tell you is that you wont remember word to word but you can tell what you read not shortly but you can explain it long start reading you wont get as if you snapped your fingers

Add your answer:

Words you can start another paragraph with?

you would start off with also,the title of your story,essay or whatever you are talking about and NEVER NEVER NEVER start a paragraph with the word AND!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

How to start a discursive essay?

When writing a discursive essay, you should keep in mind that its style is more impersonal and formal in comparison with other assignment types. Start with an introduction the topic. Discuss each essay question in a single paragraph. Begin each paragraph with a powerful issue sentence

The most important idea expressed in a paragraph or in a essay?

The most important idea expressed in a paragraph or an essay is the theme. The theme is generally noted in the first paragraph of an essay or the first sentence of a paragraph.

Why do you start a new paragraph?

To start elaborating on another idea or subject. If you didn't it would be one giant block of text and that is not an essay.

Essays-one paragraph in length?

An essay is more than one paragraph. A paragraph is just what it is four or five sentences. That doesn't make an essay.``

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PTE Writing Essay Template : Score big with these templates in 2024.

Home  ⁄  pte writing  ⁄  pte writing essay template : score big with these templates in 2024..

PTE Writing Essay Template! Ah I have discussed this topic maybe a thousand times and yet it remains a puzzle for many test takers.

I wanted to start this blog, with one question that nearly every test taker asks me

Which PTE Writing essay template will really get me the scores?

I would like to answer this question in two parts :

First, If someone says (and that includes me) that they know the exact template that will work. THEY ARE LYING. You need to understand one thing:

No one is 100% sure how the scoring works for PTE Exam except for the development team that built the PTE Exam.

What coaches worldwide, including myself, have developed over the years is a proven template and strategies that consistently help students score.

Today in this video i am going to put forward the complete strategy along with sample answers that helps you understand how to score in PTE Writing essay using templates. 

PTE Essay Writing Template : How to Use a Template to Score 79+. [Researched]

Step-by-step guide to using a pte writing essay template, 1. analyzing the essay prompt.

• Read Carefully: Understand the question type and what is being asked. Misinterpreting the prompt can lead to off-topic responses, affecting your score.
• Identify Keywords: Highlight the main topic and any specific aspects to address. Keywords help you stay focused on the core subject.

2. Planning Your Essay

• Brainstorm Ideas: Spend 2-3 minutes jotting down key points. This helps in organizing your thoughts and ensures you cover all necessary aspects.
• Organize Your Thoughts: Plan the structure – introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. A well-organized essay is easier to write and read.

PTE Writing Essay Template

Here is a sample template designed to help you achieve a high score by effectively incorporating keywords:

Introduction

• Hook: Start with an interesting statement or a question to grab the reader’s attention.
• Paraphrase the Prompt: Rephrase the essay question in your own words to show understanding.
• Thesis Statement: Clearly state your main argument or viewpoint. This sets the direction for your essay.

Body Paragraph 1

• Topic Sentence: Introduce the first main point. This sentence should clearly state what the paragraph will discuss.
• Supporting Details: Provide evidence, examples, or reasons to back up your point. This adds credibility to your argument.
• Example: Illustrate with a specific example to make your point more concrete and relatable.
• Linking Sentence: Connect to the next paragraph smoothly. This maintains the flow of your essay.

Body Paragraph 2

• Topic Sentence: Introduce the second main point. This should be a logical continuation of the first point.
• Supporting Details: Provide additional evidence or reasons to strengthen your argument.
• Example: Illustrate with another specific example for further clarity.
• Linking Sentence: Summarize the paragraph and connect to the conclusion. This helps in transitioning smoothly to the final part of your essay.
• Summarize Main Points: Briefly recap the key arguments discussed in the body paragraphs.
• Restate Thesis: Reinforce your main argument or viewpoint without repeating it verbatim.
• Final Thought: Provide a closing remark or call to action. This leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

Sample PTE Essay Using the Template

Essay Question: “Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of living in a large city.”

Sample Essay:

Introduction: Living in a large city has become increasingly common in today’s world. While some people enjoy the opportunities and amenities it offers, others believe it brings challenges. This essay will discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of urban living.

Body Paragraph 1: One significant advantage of living in a large city is access to better job opportunities. Cities often host a variety of industries, providing diverse employment options. For instance, in New York City, one can find job opportunities in finance, technology, healthcare, and more. This variety can lead to career growth and better earnings. Additionally, large cities tend to have better educational institutions and professional networks, further enhancing career prospects.

Body Paragraph 2: However, living in a large city also has its downsides, such as the high cost of living. Rent, groceries, and transportation tend to be more expensive compared to smaller towns. For example, the cost of renting an apartment in San Francisco can be prohibitive for many, making it difficult to save money. Moreover, large cities often suffer from issues like traffic congestion and pollution, which can negatively impact the quality of life.

Conclusion: In conclusion, while large cities offer numerous job opportunities and amenities, they also come with higher living costs and environmental challenges. Individuals must weigh these factors based on their personal circumstances and preferences to decide if urban living is suitable for them.

Tips for Effective PTE Essay Writing

• Time Management: Allocate time for planning, writing, and reviewing. Aim to spend 2-3 minutes planning, 15-16 minutes writing, and 1-2 minutes reviewing.
• Vocabulary and Grammar: Use varied vocabulary and check for grammatical accuracy. Avoid repeating the same words and phrases.
• Coherence and Cohesion: Ensure your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Use linking words and phrases to connect ideas.
• Practice Regularly: Regular practice helps improve your writing speed and proficiency. Write essays on different topics to build confidence.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Deviating from the Topic: Stay focused on the essay prompt. Address all parts of the question.
• Overcomplicating the Language: Use clear and concise language. Complex sentences can lead to grammatical errors.
• Ignoring the Essay Structure: Follow the template for a well-organized essay. A clear structure makes your essay easier to read and understand.

Additional Strategies for High Scores

• Understand the Scoring Criteria: Familiarize yourself with the PTE scoring guidelines for content, form, and language use.
• Use Academic Vocabulary: Incorporate academic words and phrases where appropriate. This demonstrates a higher level of language proficiency.
• Review Sample Essays: Analyze high-scoring essays to understand what makes them effective. Pay attention to how arguments are structured and supported.

Using this step-by-step guide and template, you can structure your PTE essay effectively and increase your chances of achieving a high score. Practice regularly, and you’ll become more confident in your essay-writing abilities. Remember, the key to success in PTE essay writing is a clear structure, coherent arguments, and consistent practice.

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Read the Court’s Ruling on Jan. 6 Obstruction

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(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2023 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued. The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337. 1 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Syllabus FISCHER v. UNITED STATES CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT No. 23-5572. Argued April 16, 2024-Decided June 28, 2024 The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liability on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding." 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). Petitioner Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) for his conduct on Jan- uary 6, 2021. On that day, Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered out- side the Capitol, and some eventually forced their way into the build- ing, breaking windows and assaulting police. App. 189. This breach of the Capitol delayed the certification of the vote. The criminal com- plaint alleges that Fischer was among those who invaded the building. Fischer was charged with various crimes for his actions on January 6, including obstructing an official proceeding in violation of §1512(c)(2). He moved to dismiss that charge, arguing that the provision criminal- izes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and remanded for further proceed- ings. Held: To prove a violation of §1512(c)(2), the Government must establish that the defendant impaired the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or other things used in an official proceeding, or attempted to do so. (a) To determine the scope of the residual “otherwise” clause in §1512(c)(2), the Court must decide how it is linked to its “surrounding

21 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus words," Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (plurality opinion), and "give effect, if possible, to every clause and word of [the] statute."" Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539). The Court considers both "the spe- cific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341. (1) Section 1512(c)(1) describes particular types of criminal con- duct in specific terms. The purpose of (c)(2) is, as the parties agree, to cover some set of “matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Re- public of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860. Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in §1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest. But (c)(2) could have a narrower scope if Congress designed it to fill inadvertent gaps in the focused language of (c)(1). One way to discern the reach of an “otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general princi- ples are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294. And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, a general or collective term at the end of a list of specific items is typically controlled and defined by reference to those specific items that precede it. Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458. These approaches to statu- tory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. Under these principles, the "otherwise" provision of §1512(c)(2) is limited by the list of specific criminal violations that precede it in (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers all forms of obstructive con- duct beyond $1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment, Congress would have had little reason to provide any specific examples at all. And the sweep of subsection (c)(2) would swallow (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c) (1) recognizes the dis- tinct purpose of each provision. Subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct-four types of actions that, by their nature, im- pair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or objects for use in an official proceeding. Reading the "otherwise" clause as having been given more precise content by (c)(1), subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence rather than altering incriminating evidence. Subsection

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) Syllabus 3 (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the avail- ability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]" enumerated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. (2) It makes sense to read (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. The Enron accounting scandal exposed a loop- hole in §1512. At that time, the statute imposed liability on anyone who, among other things, corruptly persuaded another person to shred documents. But it curiously failed to impose liability on a person who destroyed records himself. The parties agree that Congress enacted §1512(c) as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act to plug this loop- hole. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress created a catch-all provision that reaches beyond the scenar- ios that prompted the legislation. (b) The broader context of §1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings, much of which would be unnecessary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive conduct. Given the Court's obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, the Court's narrower interpretation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in §1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction with penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. The Govern- ment's reading would lump together under (c)(2) disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate sentences. (c) The Government's theory would also criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyist to decades in prison. Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to "resist reading" particular sub-provisions "to create a coverall statute." Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion). Nothing in the text or statutory his- tory gives the Court a reason to depart from that practice today. And the Government's interpretation would give prosecutors broad discre- tion to seek a 20-year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish with far shorter sentences. By reading (c)(2) in light of (c)(1), the Court affords proper respect to “the prerogatives of Congress” in carrying out the quintessentially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the penalties for them. United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600. 64 F. 4th 329, vacated and remanded.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus ROBERTS, C. J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which THOMAS, ALITO, GORSUCH, KAVANAUGH, and JACKSON, JJ., joined. JACKSON, J., filed a concurring opinion. BARRETT, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which SOTOMAYOR and KAGAN, JJ., joined.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 Opinion of the Court NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. Č. 20543, [email protected], of any typographical or other formal errors. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS delivered the opinion of the Court. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liabil- ity on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). We consider whether this “otherwise” clause should be read in light of the limited reach of the specific provision that precedes it. I This case concerns the prosecution of petitioner Joseph Fischer for his conduct on January 6, 2021. That day, both Houses of Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered outside the Capitol. As set forth in the criminal complaint against Fischer, some of the crowd eventually

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court “forced entry” into the building, “breaking windows," and "assaulting members of the U. S. Capitol Police." App. 189. This breach of the Capitol caused Members of Congress to evacuate the Chambers and delayed the certification pro- cess. The complaint alleges that Fischer was one of those who invaded the building. According to the complaint, about an hour after the Houses recessed, Fischer trespassed into the Capitol and was involved in a physical confrontation with law enforce- ment. Fischer claimed in Facebook posts that he “pushed police back about 25 feet," and that he “was inside the [Cap- itol] talking to police." Id., at 193–194. Body camera foot- age shows Fischer near a scrum between the crowd and po- lice who were trying to eject trespassers from the building. Id., at 195-196. A grand jury returned a seven-count superseding indict- ment against Fischer. Six of those counts allege that Fischer forcibly assaulted a federal officer, entered and re- mained in a restricted building, and engaged in disorderly and disruptive conduct in the Capitol, among other crimes. See id., at 181-185; 18 U.S. C. §§111(a), 231(a)(3), 1752(a)(1), (a)(2); 40 U. S. C. §§5104(e)(2)(D), (G). Those six counts carry maximum penalties ranging from six months' to eight years' imprisonment. In Count Three, the only count now before us, the Gov- ernment charged Fischer with violating 18 U.S. C. §1512(c)(2). Fischer moved to dismiss that count, arguing that the provision criminalizes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. It concluded that the scope of Section 1512(c)(2) is limited by subsection (c)(1) and therefore requires the defendant to "have taken some action with respect to a document, record, or other object.' 2022 WL 782413, *4 (DC, Mar. 15, 2022) (quoting United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022)). 999

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 Opinion of the Court A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and re- manded for further proceedings. Judge Pan, writing for the court, held that the word “otherwise” in Section 1512(c)(2) means that the provision unambiguously covers "all forms of corrupt obstruction of an official proceeding, other than the conduct that is already covered by §1512(c)(1)." 64 F. 4th 329, 336 (2023). Judge Walker concurred in part and concurred in the judgment because he read the mens rea element of the statute—“corruptly”—as requiring a defend- ant to act with “an intent to procure an unlawful benefit." Id., at 361 (internal quotation marks omitted). Judge Katsas dissented. In his view, the language in sub- section (c)(1) narrows the language that comes after the word "otherwise" in subsection (c)(2). He therefore con- strued Section 1512(c)(2) as applying “only to acts that," like the ones specified in (c)(1), “affect the integrity or avail- ability of evidence” at an official proceeding. Id., at 363. We granted certiorari. 601 U. S. _ (2023). II The controversy before us is about the scope of the resid- ual "otherwise" clause in Section 1512(c)(2). On the one hand, Fischer contends that (c)(2) “applies only to acts that affect the integrity or availability of evidence." Brief for Pe- titioner 8. On the other, the Government argues that (c)(2) “capture[s] all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment.” Brief for United States 13. Resolving such a dispute requires us to determine how the residual clause is linked to its “surrounding words." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (2015) (plurality opinion); see, e.g., United States v. Hansen, 599 U. S. 762, 774–775 (2023). In doing so, "we must ‘give effect, if possi- ble, to every clause and word of [the] statute.”” Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (2000) (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539 (1955)). To that end, we

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court consider both "the specific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robin- son v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341 (1997); see, e.g., Pul- sifer v. United States, 601 U. S. 124, 133 (2024) (choosing between “two grammatically permissible ways” to read a sentencing statute “by reviewing text in context"). A 1 Section 1512 provides: "(c) Whoever corruptly— "(1) alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding; or "(2) otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so, "shall be fined ... or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both." Subsection (c)(1) describes particular types of criminal conduct in specific terms. To ensure the statute would not be read as excluding substantially similar activity not men- tioned, (c)(2) says it is also illegal to engage in some broader range of unenumerated conduct. The purpose of the "otherwise” clause is therefore, as the parties agree, to cover some set of "matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009); see Brief for Petitioner 12; Brief for United States 12-13. The problem is defining what exactly Con- gress left for (c)(2). Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in Section 1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest in one go. The point of (c)(1) would then be to illustrate just one type of conduct among many (c)(2) prohibits; it would be subsidiary to the overarching prohibition in (c)(2). But

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 Opinion of the Court (c)(2) could well have a narrower scope if Congress designed it with the focused language of (c)(1) in mind. Subsection (c)(1) would then prohibit particular types of obstructive conduct and (c)(2) would fill any inadvertent gaps that might exist. One way to discern the reach of an "otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general principles are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associ- ated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294 (2008). That “avoid[s] ascribing to one word a meaning so broad that it is inconsistent with” “the company it keeps." Gus- tafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 575 (1995). And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, “a ‘general or collec- tive term' at the end of a list of specific items" is typically "controlled and defined by reference to the specific classes ... that precede it." Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458 (2022) (quoting first Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008); then Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105, 115 (2001)); accord, Bis- sonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC, 601 U. S. 246, 252 (2024). These approaches to statutory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. To see why, consider a straightforward example. A zoo might post a sign that reads, “do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them.” If a vis- itor eats lunch in front of a hungry gorilla, or talks to a friend near its enclosure, has he obeyed the regulation? Surely yes. Although the smell of human food or the sound of voices might well disturb gorillas, the specific examples of impermissible conduct all involve direct interaction with and harassment of the zoo animals. Merely eating or talk- ing is so unlike the examples that the zoo provided that it

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court would be implausible to assume those activities were pro- hibited, even if literally covered by the language. The idea is simply that a general phrase can be given a more focused meaning by the terms linked to it. That prin- ciple ensures- es-regardless of how complicated a sentence might appear—that none of its specific parts are made re- dundant by a clause literally broad enough to include them. See Yates, 574 U. S., at 545–546 (plurality opinion). For instance, a football league might adopt a rule that players must not "grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.” If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind. See 64 F. 4th, at 365-366 (Katsas, J., dissenting). Similarly improbable consequences can result from un- tethering an "otherwise” provision from the rest of a crimi- nal statute. Take Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137 (2008) (abrogated on other grounds by Johnson v. United States, 576 U.S. 591 (2015)). The question there was whether driving under the influence qualified as a "violent felony" under the Armed Career Criminal Act (ACCA). A “violent felony” was defined in relevant part by ACCA as a crime, punishable by more than a year's imprisonment, that "is burglary, arson, or extortion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves conduct that presents a serious poten- tial risk of physical injury to another."" 553 U. S., at 139– 140 (quoting 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii) (2000 ed.)). We recognized that, depending on the context, "the word 'oth- erwise' can"-though not “must”—“refer to a crime that is similar to the listed examples in some respects but different in others." 553 U. S., at 144 (emphasis deleted). And we held that while driving under the influence certainly may

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 Opinion of the Court present a serious risk of physical injury, such an offense was so dissimilar from the previously enumerated exam- ples that it could not be classified as a “violent felony" under the statute. Id., at 142–146. The list of crimes that pre- ceded the residual clause-burglary, arson, extortion, and the use of explosives-focused on "purposeful, violent, and aggressive conduct." Id., at 144–145 (internal quotation marks omitted). And if that focus did not extend to the re- sidual clause, ACCA's 15-year mandatory minimum sen- tence would apply to a host of offenses “not typically com- mitted by those whom one normally labels ‘armed career criminals" and that were "far removed... from the delib- erate kind of behavior associated with violent criminal use of firearms.”¹ Id., at 146–147. The "otherwise" provision of Section 1512(c)(2) is simi- larly limited by the preceding list of criminal violations. The offenses enumerated in subsection (c)(1) cover someone who "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object . . . with the intent to impair the ob- ject's integrity or availability for use in an official proceed- ing." Complex as subsection (c)(1) may look, it simply consists of many specific examples of prohibited actions un- dertaken with the intent to impair an object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding: altering a rec- ord, altering a document, concealing a record, concealing a document, and so on. That list is followed immediately by a residual clause in (c)(2). Guided by the basic logic that Congress would not go to the trouble of spelling out the list in (c)(1) if a neighboring term swallowed it up, the most sen- 1 The dissent explains that we subsequently held the ACCA residual clause void for vagueness. See post, at 8 (opinion of BARRETT, J.) (citing Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015)). That our answer to the narrow question presented in Begay did not resolve a broader consti- tutional defect in the statute says little about whether the reasoning of Begay is relevant here.

00 8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court sible inference is that the scope of (c)(2) is defined by refer- ence to (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers "all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on ev- idence impairment,” Brief for United States 13, there would have been scant reason for Congress to provide any specific examples at all. The sweep of subsection (c)(2) would con- sume (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Indeed, subsection (c) (1) would be an elaborate pumpfake: a list of four types of highly particularized con- duct, performed with respect to a record, document, or ob- ject and “with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding,” followed in the very next subsection-in the same sentence, no less—by a superseding prohibition on all means of obstructing, influ- encing, or impeding any official proceeding. Construing Section 1512 in such a way gets the “familiar” analysis we apply to these types of statutes “exactly backwards,” elimi- nating specific terms because of broad language that follows them, rather than limiting the broad language in light of narrower terms that precede it. Bissonnette, 601 U. S., at 252, 255. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c)(1) recog- nizes the distinct purpose of each provision. See A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law 208 (2012) ("evident purpose" helps define scope of catchall provision). As we have ex- plained, subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct—four types of actions that, by their nature, impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or ob- jects for use in an official proceeding. When the phrase "otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" is read as having been given more precise con- tent by that narrower list of conduct, subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 Opinion of the Court is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence―ra- ther than altering incriminating evidence. See, e.g., United States v. Reich, 479 F. 3d 179, 185–187 (CA2 2007) (So- tomayor, J.) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) for trans- mitting a forged court order). Subsection (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding be- yond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]” enu- merated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. See, e.g., United States v. Mintmire, 507 F. 3d 1273, 1290 (CA11 2007) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) based in part on the defendant's attempt to orches- trate a witness's grand jury testimony). The dissent supposes that because the word "otherwise" in (c)(2) can mean “in a different manner,” “by other means," or "in other respects," (c)(1) and (c) (2) are “distinct and independent prohibitions." Post, at 2, 5 (internal quo- tation marks omitted). But the word "otherwise" is not by itself "sufficient to demonstrate that the examples do not limit the scope of the clause." Begay, 553 U. S., at 144 (em- phasis deleted). “Otherwise” can link a set of examples to a general phrase and give it more definite meaning—even in statutory sentences that rival the complexity of Section 1512(c). See Finnegan v. Leu, 456 U. S. 431, 437–438 (1982); Breininger v. Sheet Metal Workers, 493 U. S. 67, 91– 92 (1989). 2 It makes sense to read subsection (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. Prior to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, Section 1512 imposed criminal liability on anyone who “knowingly uses intimida- tion or physical force, threatens, or corruptly persuades an- other person" to, among other things, shred documents. 18 U. S. C. §1512(b)(2)(B) (2000 ed.). But the Enron account- ing scandal revealed a loophole: Although Enron's "outside

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents," the statute curiously failed to “impos[e] liability on a person who de- stroys records himself." Yates, 574 U. S., at 535-536 (plu- rality opinion). As a result, prosecutors had to prove that higher-ups at Enron and Arthur Andersen persuaded some- one else to shred documents rather than the more obvious theory that someone who shreds documents is liable for do- ing so. See S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 7 (2002). The parties agree that to plug this loophole, Congress en- acted Section 1512(c)—the provision at issue here—as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress actually hid away in the second part of the third subsection of Sec- tion 1512 a catchall provision that reaches far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legislation in the first place. The better conclusion is that subsection (c) (2) was designed by Congress to capture other forms of evidence and other means of impairing its integrity or availability beyond those Congress specified in (c)(1). B 1 The broader context of Section 1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings. See 18 U. S. C. ch. 73. Much of that particularized legislation would be unneces- sary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive con- duct, as the Government contends. Section 1503(a), for ex- ample, makes it a crime to "corruptly, or by threats or force, or by any threatening . . . communication, endeavor[] to in- fluence, intimidate, or impede” any juror or court officer. Section 1504 covers attempting to influence jurors through written communications. Section 1505 covers anyone who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 Opinion of the Court corruptly obstructs congressional inquiries or investiga- tions. Section 1507 covers picketing or parading in certain locations "with the intent of interfering with, obstructing, or impeding the administration of justice.” Section 1509 co- vers the obstruction of the exercise of rights or performance of duties under court orders. Section 1510(a) covers ob- struction of federal criminal investigations through bribery. Section 1511(a) covers certain obstruction of state or local law enforcement with the intent to facilitate illegal gam- bling. And Sections 1516, 1517, and 1518 address obstruc- tive acts in specific contexts, including federal audits, ex- aminations of financial institutions, and inquiries into healthcare-related offenses. If the Government were correct, then the "otherwise ob- structs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" pro- vision—which is buried in subsection (c)(2) of Section 1512 would largely obviate the need for that broad array of other obstruction statutes. In light of our obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, our narrower interpre- tation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. 2 An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in Section 1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction, with varying degrees of culpability and penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. Section 1512(a)(2)(B)(iv), for exam- ple, authorizes up to 30 years' imprisonment for someone who uses or attempts to use physical force against another person with the intent of causing him to be absent from an official proceeding. See §1512(a)(3)(B)(ii) (specifying pun- ishment). Section 1512(d)(1), by contrast, authorizes only

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court three years' imprisonment for someone who harasses an- other person and thereby dissuades him from attending an official proceeding. Reading (c)(2) to cover all forms of obstructive conduct would override Congress's careful delineation of which pen- alties were appropriate for which offenses. Most instances of those prohibited acts would instead fall under subsection (c)(2)'s sweeping reach, which provides a 20-year maximum term of imprisonment. Such a reading of subsection (c)(2) would lump together disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate penalties in (a)(2) and (d)(1).2 3 The Government's responses to this surplusage problem are not convincing. It first argues that because other provisions in Section 1512 would allow conviction in some circumstances on a "lesser mens rea than ‘corruptly,"" they have “a broader compass" than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34. For in- stance, the Government contends that subsection (b) can be violated by "knowing use of intimidation or threats, or mis- leading conduct." Id., at 35. But the Government concedes that "Congress did not define corruptly' for purposes of Sec- tion 1512." Id., at 44. And while the Government suggests that “corruptly” is “normally associated with wrongful, im- moral, depraved, or evil' conduct,” ibid. (quoting Arthur An- dersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 705 (2005)), it 292 2 The dissent maintains we have "glosse[d] over the absence of any prescribed minimum.' Post, at 14 (quoting Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting)). Congress might have thought (c)(2) prohibited conduct of varying severity. But it does not follow that it designed (c)(2) to reach forms of conduct already covered in Chapter 73 with far lower maximum sentences. It would be improper to substitute for those fine- grained statutory distinctions the charging discretion of prosecutors and the sentencing discretion of district courts.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 Opinion of the Court never persuasively explains how “knowingly us[ing] intim- idation" or "threat[s]” against someone is not "wrongful." §1512(b). The same is true for most other subparts of Sec- tion 1512 that the Government identifies as having a lesser mens rea than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34; see, e.g., §1512(a)(1)(A) (criminalizing anyone who “kills or attempts to kill another person, with intent to" prevent attendance in an official proceeding); §1512(a)(2)(B)(iv) (criminalizing anyone who "uses physical force . . . against any person" in- tending to cause them to be absent from an official proceed- ing). None of those other provisions has a mens rea the Gov- ernment may more readily establish than the "corruptly" mens rea of subsection (c)(2). The Government also contends that its interpretation creates no surplusage because Section 1512's other “provi- sions sweep more broadly than an official proceeding.” Tr. of Oral Arg. 64; Brief for United States 34. To be sure, sub- sections (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2) criminalize various means of preventing someone from giving a judge or law enforcement officer information relating to the commission or possible commission of a federal offense or a violation of conditions of supervised release. And subsections (d)(3) and (4) make it a crime to harass someone and thereby dissuade them from arresting or prosecuting a person alleged to have committed a federal offense. None of these crimes requires an “official proceeding.” But not much if any conduct cov- ered by those provisions would escape the Government's ex- pansive interpretation of subsection (c)(2). For a person to have violated (c)(2), “an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted.” §1512(f)(1). And be- cause interference with an arrest or with communications to authorities about federal offenses could very well ob- struct the initiation of future official proceedings, the Gov- ernment's reading of (c)(2) would still often consume viola- tions of (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2), (3), and (4).

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court The dissent tries to solve this surplusage problem by ar- guing that conduct only violates (c)(2) if it has a “relation- ship in time, causation, or logic”” with an official proceed- ing. Post, at 11 (quoting United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 599 (1995)). Assuming there is such a requirement, it would simply mean that the defendant's actions “must have the natural and probable effect” of interfering with the pro- ceeding. Id., at 599 (internal quotation marks omitted). Such a bar on prosecutions based on “speculative” theories of obstruction, id., at 601, would hardly cabin the reach of (c)(2). The dissent points out that our reading creates some sur- plusage, too. See post, at 12–13. In a wide-ranging scheme like Chapter 73, it is true that some provisions will inevita- bly cover some of the same conduct. But “surplusage is nonetheless disfavored,” and our “construction that creates substantially less of it is better than a construction that cre- ates substantially more.” 64 F. 4th, at 374 (Katsas, J., dis- senting). III On the Government's theory, Section 1512(c) consists of a granular subsection (c)(1) focused on obstructive acts that impair evidence and an overarching subsection (c)(2) that reaches all other obstruction. Even setting surplusage aside, that novel interpretation would criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyists alike to decades in prison. As the Solicitor General acknowledged at oral argument, under the Government's interpretation, a peaceful protester could conceivably be charged under §1512(c)(2) and face a 20-year sentence. Tr. of Oral Arg. 51-52. And the Government would likewise have no apparent obstacle to prosecuting under (c)(2) any lobbying activity that “influences” an official proceeding and is undertaken “corruptly." Those peculiar results “un-

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 Opinion of the Court derscore[] the implausibility of the Government's interpre- tation." Van Buren v. United States, 593 U. S. 374, 394 (2021). Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to “re- sist reading” particular sub-provisions “to create a coverall" statute, as the Government would have us do here. Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion); see also Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 6-11 (2018); Arthur Andersen, 544 U. S., at 703-704. And there is no reason to depart from that practice today. Nothing in the text or statutory history suggests that subsection (c)(2) is designed to impose up to 20 years' imprisonment on essentially all defendants who commit obstruction of justice in any way and who might be subject to lesser penalties under more specific ob- struction statutes. See, e.g., §§1503(b)(3), 1505. If Con- gress had wanted to authorize such penalties for any con- duct that delays or influences a proceeding in any way, it would have said so. Instead, Section 1512 mentions "rec- ord," "document,” or other “object” 26 times. See 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(B), (a)(2)(B)(i), (ii), (iii), 1512(b)(2)(A), (B), (C), 1512(c)(1), 1512(f). Rather than transforming this evidence-focused statute into a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of justice, we cabin our reading of subsection (c)(2) in light of the context of subsection (c)(1). Doing so affords proper respect to "the prerogatives of Congress" in carrying out the quintessen- tially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the pen- alties for them. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600. We have long recognized that “the power of punishment is vested in the legislative, not in the judicial department,” United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 76, 95 (1820), and we have as a result “traditionally exercised restraint in assessing the reach of a federal criminal statute,”” Marinello, 584 U. S., at 11 (quoting Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600). The Government's reading of Section 1512 would intrude on that deliberate arrangement of constitutional authority over federal

16 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court crimes, giving prosecutors broad discretion to seek a 20- year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish only with far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror under §1503. For all these reasons, subsection (c)(2)'s “surrounding words" suggest that we should not give this “otherwise” pro- vision the broadest possible meaning. Yates, 574 U. S., at 536 (plurality opinion). Although the Government's all-en- compassing interpretation may be literally permissible, it defies the most plausible understanding of why (c)(1) and (c)(2) are conjoined, and it renders an unnerving amount of statutory text mere surplusage. Given that subsection (c)(2) was enacted to address the Enron disaster, not some further flung set of dangers, it is unlikely that Congress re- sponded with such an unfocused and “grossly incommensu- rate patch." 64 F. 4th, at 376 (Katsas, J., dissenting). We therefore decline to adopt the Government's interpretation, which is inconsistent with "the context from which the stat- ute arose." Bond v. United States, 572 U. S. 844, 860 (2014). * * * To prove a violation of Section 1512(c)(2), the Govern- ment must establish that the defendant impaired the avail- ability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of rec- ords, documents, objects, or as we earlier explained, other things used in the proceeding, or attempted to do so. See supra, at 9. The judgment of the D. C. Circuit is therefore vacated, and the case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. On remand, the D. C. Circuit may assess the sufficiency of Count Three of Fischer's in- dictment in light of our interpretation of Section 1512(c)(2). It is so ordered.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 JACKSON, J., concurring SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE JACKSON, concurring. On January 6, 2021, an angry mob stormed the United States Capitol seeking to prevent Congress from fulfilling its constitutional duty to certify the electoral votes in the 2020 Presidential election. See ante, at 1-2. The peaceful transfer of power is a fundamental democratic norm, and those who attempted to disrupt it in this way inflicted a deep wound on this Nation. But today's case is not about the immorality of those acts. Instead, the question before this Court is far narrower: What is the scope of the partic- ular crime Congress has outlined in 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2)? In the United States of America, “men are not subjected to criminal punishment because their conduct offends our patriotic emotions or thwarts a general purpose sought to be effected by specific commands which they have not diso- beyed. Nor are they to be held guilty of offenses which the statutes have omitted, though by inadvertence, to define and condemn." Viereck v. United States, 318 U. S. 236, 245 (1943). Our commitment to equal justice and the rule of law requires the courts to faithfully apply criminal laws as writ- ten, even in periods of national crisis, see, e.g., Cramer v. United States, 325 U. S. 1, 46-48 (1945), and even when the conduct alleged is indisputably abhorrent, cf. Michaels v. Davis, 601 U. S. (2024) (JACKSON, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari) (slip op., at 3).

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring Notwithstanding the shocking circumstances involved in this case or the Government's determination that they war- rant prosecution, today, this Court's task is to determine what conduct is proscribed by the criminal statute that has been invoked as the basis for the obstruction charge at issue here. I join in the Court's opinion because I agree with the majority that §1512(c) (2) does not reach “all forms of ob- structive conduct”” and is, instead, “limited by the preced- ing list of criminal violations” in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 7-8. I write separately to explain why and how that interpreta- tion of §1512(c) follows from the legislative purpose that this statute's text embodies. I Our goal in interpreting any statute should be "to give effect to the intent of Congress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534, 542 (1940). There is no question that intent is generally expressed through the text of a statute. See American Tobacco Co. v. Patterson, 456 U. S. 63, 68 (1982). “[H]ewing closely to Congress's will" as embodied in the statute that it wrote "is especially important" when construing laws like this one, which im- plicate the possible imposition of punitive sanctions. Pugin v. Garland, 599 U. S. 600, 612 (2023) (JACKSON, J., concur- ring). Here, the majority rightly interprets the scope of §1512(c)(2) by “look[ing] for guidance from” the statutory "examples [that] come before" it those listed in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 5. In my view, the examples that Con- gress opts to include in the text of a statute evince its inten- tions concerning what the rule covers and thereby help ex- press a particular legislative purpose. The majority's football-based example is illustrative. In a football league, says the majority, “a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 JACKSON, J., concurring attack, assault, or harm any player,”” should not be inter- preted as being directed at hurt feelings, because the listed "prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. I agree. I would add that it is like- wise clear from the listed prohibited acts that such a rule is also not addressing far more serious and unexpected con- duct than the kinds of acts that the preceding examples de- scribe, which can result in serious and foreseeable physical injuries during a rough-and-tumble football game. By con- trast, if a player were to shoot or poison another player, the rule's drafters would expect the police to be called, not a referee. Thus, we conclude that the rule is best understood to be inapposite with respect to conduct at both extremes of the universe of harmful acts in which a player might con- ceivably engage. We recognize this intuitive fact that there is a certain category of conduct the rule is designed to prohibit-be- cause we recognize, albeit implicitly, that the drafters of this rule have included these particular examples for a rea- son. We understand that, given the preceding list of exam- ples, this rule was adopted with a clear intent concerning its scope. So, though a broad conception of "harm” is “liter- ally covered by the language” of the rule, ibid., we appreci- ate that the rule's drafters did not intend for that term to take on its most expansive meaning. Instead, the examples help illuminate what the drafters actually intended the rule to cover. From the preceding list, we can confidently dis- cern that the drafters meant to proscribe only conduct that risks injuries with severity akin to facemask pulling, not trash talk or murder.1 1 The majority invokes the canons of noscitur a sociis and ejusdem gen- eris to support this inference. See ante, at 5. Those canons are useful interpretive tools, but in my view, they are ultimately only devices used in furtherance of achieving our goal of determining “the intent of Con- gress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534,

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring The upshot is that, when interpreting the scope of a par- ticular statute or rule, our assessment of the words that the drafters used informs our understanding of what the rule was designed to do.² Discerning the rule's purpose is criti- cal when a court is called upon to interpret the provision. II Turning to the statutory provision at issue here, the pur- pose of $1512(c), reflected in its text, is clear. Subsection (c)(1) is indisputably focused on persons who engage in a particular kind of obstructive conduct: Anyone who "cor- ruptly alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, . . . with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official pro- ceeding." Subsection (c)(2), in turn, is directed at criminal conduct that “otherwise” achieves a similar result. I there- fore agree with the majority that §1512(c)(2)'s reach is nar- rower than the Government contends. As the majority holds, §1512(c)(2) “makes it a crime to impair the availabil- ity or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)" and to “impai[r] the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the 'record[s], document[s], or other object[s]' enumerated in (c)(1)." ... 542 (1940). "There is no invariable rule for the discovery of that inten- tion." Ibid. As one treatise explains, such canons are “not. rule[s] of law" but rather "one of various factors to be considered." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts 212 (2012); see also id., at 196–198. We apply these canons because we understand that their principles are consistent with how users of language—including legislators convey meaning. See id., at 212 ("Any lawyer or legislative drafter who writes two or more specifics followed by a general residual term without the intention that the residual term be limited may be guilty of malpractice"). As such, they are valid indicia of Congress's pur- pose. 2 Other indicia of the drafters' intent, such as the rule's context or en- actment history, can further inform our understanding of the rule. See infra, at 5-8.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) JACKSON, J., concurring 10 5 Ante, at 8-9. This understanding of §1512(c)'s text and purpose is en- tirely consistent with the statute's enactment history. Con- gress enacted §1512(c) as part of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which "was prompted by the exposure of Enron's massive accounting fraud and revelations that the company's out- side auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 535–536 (2015) (plurality opinion). When introducing what later became §1512(c) on the Senate floor, Senator Lott emphasized that its principal purpose was to target document destruction, which was, at the time, prohibited “only if ... a subpoena ha[d] been is- sued for the evidence that ha[d] been destroyed or altered." 148 Cong. Rec. S6545 (July 10, 2002). “[T]his section,” he explained, "would allow the Government to charge obstruc- tion against individuals who acted alone, even if the tam- pering took place prior to the issuance of a grand jury sub- poena." Ibid. Similarly, the Senate Report accompanying the proposed statute noted that “current federal obstruction of justice statutes relating to document destruction [were] riddled with loopholes and burdensome proof require- ments." S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 6 (2002). According to the Senate Report, §1512(c) was drafted to fill these gaps: "When a person destroys evidence with the intent of ob- structing any type of investigation and the matter is within the jurisdiction of a federal agency, overly technical legal distinctions should neither hinder nor prevent prosecution and punishment.” Id., at 7. Conversely, there is no indication whatsoever that Con- gress intended to create a sweeping, all-purpose obstruction statute. As the majority notes, "[f]ederal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific crimi- nal acts and settings." Ante, at 10. Outside of the Govern- ment's proposed interpretation of §1512(c), Congress has never enacted “a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring justice.” Ante, at 15.³ Meanwhile, many States have done just that. See J. Decker, The Varying Parameters of Ob- struction of Justice in American Criminal Law, 65 La. L. Rev. 49, 77, and n. 236 (2004) (collecting statutes). 4 The drafters of the Model Penal Code, too, proposed such a gen- eral obstruction crime. See ALI, Model Penal Code §242.1, p. 201 (1980) ("A person commits a misdemeanor if he pur- posely obstructs, impairs or perverts the administration of law or other governmental function by force, violence, phys- ical interference or obstacle, breach of official duty, or any other unlawful act"). Given that Congress has never before passed a similarly broad obstruction law when others have long existed, it is highly unlikely that Congress intended for subsection (c)(2) to establish a first-of-its-kind general federal obstruction crime. Nothing in the enactment history of §1512(c) sug- gests that Congress believed that it was creating an all-en- compassing statute that would obviate the need for any other obstruction prohibitions. This conclusion is further reinforced by the fact that, un- like §1512(c)(2), nearly all of the broad, all-purpose obstruc- tion statutes that various States have enacted are classified as misdemeanors. See, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(3) (2023); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 2921.31(B) (Lexis 2024). As a 3 That is not to say, of course, that Congress could not enact such a statute if it so chose. "We have traditionally exercised restraint in as- sessing the reach of a federal criminal statute. . . out of deference to the prerogatives of Congress,” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600 (1995), not because broad criminal proscriptions are beyond the scope of Congress's power. 4 See also, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(1) (2023) ("A person commits obstructing government operations if he intentionally obstructs, impairs, or hinders the performance of a governmental function by a public serv- ant, by using or threatening to use violence, force, or physical interfer- ence or obstacle"); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §2921.31(A) (Lexis 2024) ("No person... shall do any act that hampers or impedes a public official in the performance of the public official's lawful duties").

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 JACKSON, J., concurring result, these types of obstruction crimes are generally pun- ishable by up to a year of incarceration. See 1 W. LaFave, J. Israel, N. King, & O. Kerr, Criminal Procedure §1.8(c), pp. 557-558 (4th ed. 2015). That is so for a reason: As the Model Penal Code's drafters explained, “the existence of a residual misdemeanor offense" allows for the “appropri- ately narrow definition of the serious forms of obstruction carrying felony penalties." §242.1, Comment 2, at 203. "A broad residual offense. . . provides a hedge against the in- genuity of offenders," since "[n]ot all forms of obstruction can be anticipated and precisely proscribed in specific of- fenses." Ibid. But, at the same time, that kind of broad criminal statute “must incorporate certain limitations lest it nullify policy decisions expressed elsewhere." Ibid. In other words, these broad misdemeanor obstruction statutes are “amalgam[s] of generality and constraint.” Ibid. The Government's interpretation of §1512(c)(2), by con- trast, exhibits all the generality of these catchall misde- meanor obstruction provisions while displaying none of their restraint. Section 1512(c)(2) is a felony, and it im- poses a 20-year maximum sentence-one of the more severe potential punishments in Chapter 73 of the U. S. Code. That stands in contrast with Congress's specification that other serious obstructive acts warrant “far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror un- der $1503." Ante, at 16. Finally, it is worth remembering the statutory context in which Congress chose to prohibit the obstruction-related conduct we are considering today. The statute Congress wrote addresses this matter in a 13-word phrase, enumer- ated "2," that is located within subsection (c) of a much broader §1512, which itself consists of “a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction." Ante, at 11. However we might interpret Congress's drafting choices in other contexts, we should be wary of finding that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring a statute addresses significant criminal conduct when none of the available indicia of congressional intent, including the prohibition's placement, suggest that Congress in- tended that result. Here, it beggars belief that Congress would have inserted a breathtakingly broad, first-of-its- kind criminal obstruction statute (accompanied by a sub- stantial 20-year maximum penalty) in the midst of a signif- icantly more granular series of obstruction prohibitions without clarifying its intent to do so―not in the text of the provision itself, nor in the surrounding statutory context, nor in any statement issued during the enactment process. * * * In my view, the Court properly interprets §1512(c)(2) in the opinion it issues today. It also rightly vacates the judg- ment below and remands this case for further proceedings. Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) by corruptly obstructing “a proceeding before Congress, specif- ically, Congress's certification of the Electoral College vote." App. 183. That official proceeding plainly used certain rec- ords, documents, or objects—including, among others, those relating to the electoral votes themselves. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 65-67. And it might well be that Fischer's conduct, as alleged here, involved the impairment (or the attempted impairment) of the availability or integrity of things used during the January 6 proceeding “in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)." Ante, at 8. If so, then Fischer's prosecu- tion under $1512(c)(2) can, and should, proceed. That issue remains available for the lower courts to determine on re- mand.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 BARRETT, J., dissenting SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE BARRETT, with whom JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR and JUSTICE KAGAN join, dissenting. Joseph Fischer allegedly joined a mob of rioters that breached the Capitol on January 6, 2021. At the time, Con- gress was meeting in a joint session to certify the Electoral College results. The riot forced Congress to suspend the proceeding, delaying it for several hours. The Court does not dispute that Congress's joint session qualifies as an “official proceeding”; that rioters delayed the proceeding; or even that Fischer's alleged conduct (which includes trespassing and a physical confrontation with law enforcement) was part of a successful effort to forcibly halt the certification of the election results. Given these prem- ises, the case that Fischer can be tried for “obstructing, in- fluencing, or impeding an official proceeding” seems open and shut. So why does the Court hold otherwise? Because it simply cannot believe that Congress meant what it said. Section 1512(c)(2) is a very broad provision, and admittedly, events like January 6th were not its target. (Who could blame Congress for that failure of imagination?) But statutes often go further than the problem that in- spired them, and under the rules of statutory interpreta- tion, we stick to the text anyway. The Court, abandoning that approach, does textual backflips to find some way—

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting any way to narrow the reach of subsection (c)(2). I re- spectfully dissent. I The case for the Government's interpretation is straight- forward. It can be accomplished in three paragraphs, as compared to the Court's many, many more. Ante, at 4-12. Start with the verbs: To "obstruct" and to “impede” mean to "hinder" or "retard" something's "passage" or "progress." 10 Oxford English Dictionary 668 (2d ed. 1989); 7 id., at 705. We have previously explained that these words are "broad." Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 7 (2018). To “influence” is similarly expansive, meaning “[t]o affect the condition of” or “to have an effect on” something. 7 Ox- ford English Dictionary, at 940. The object of these verbs is an "official proceeding," defined to include “a proceeding be- fore the Congress." 18 U.S. C. §1515(a)(1)(B).¹ So (c)(2) covers all sorts of actions that affect or interfere with official proceedings. "[O]therwise," which introduces 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2), does not narrow its scope. “Otherwise” means “in a differ- ent manner,” “by other means,” or “in other respects." 10 Oxford English Dictionary, at 984; Webster's Third New In- ternational Dictionary 1598 (2002). It is often used to in- troduce a "catchall phras[e].” Texas Dept. of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, 576 U. S. 519, 535 (2015). Here, “otherwise” tells the reader how (c)(1) and (c) (2) fit together. Subsection (c)(1) prohibits "alter[ing], destroy[ing], mutilat[ing], or conceal[ing] a rec- ord, document, or other object” with “intent to impair [its] integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” In other words, (c)(1) targets document and object spoliation— 1 The D. C. Circuit held, and this Court does not dispute, that Con- gress's joint session on January 6, 2021, qualifies as an "official proceed- ing."" 64 F. 4th 329, 342 (2023).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 BARRETT, J., dissenting classic means of obstruction. Subsection (c)(2) then prohib- its obstructing, influencing, or impeding an official proceed- ing by means different from those specified in (c)(1), thereby serving as a catchall. The “enumerated" crimes in (c)(1) and the "unenumerated crimes" in (c) (2) are similar “on one spe- cific dimension": "the particular similarity specified after the 'otherwise." Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137, 150–151 (2008) (Scalia, J., concurring in judgment). Here, that means that each crime represents one means through which to obstruct, influence, or impede an official proceed- ing. Joseph Fischer allegedly participated in a riot at the Cap- itol that forced the delay of Congress's joint session on Jan- uary 6th. Blocking an official proceeding from moving for- ward surely qualifies as obstructing or impeding the proceeding by means other than document destruction. Fischer's alleged conduct thus falls within (c)(2)'s scope. II A Opting for a narrower approach, the Court declines to take (c)(2) on its own terms. Instead, it borrows the eviden- tiary focus of (c)(1) to hold that a defendant violates (c)(2) only by "impair[ing] the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or . . . other things used in the proceeding." Ante, at 16. Other means of obstructing a proceeding—say, by shutting it down are out. This interpretation might sound faithful to the statute, because the limit comes from a related provision rather than thin air. But snipping words from one subsection and grafting them onto another violates our normal interpretive principles. “[W]e ordinarily resist reading words or ele- ments into a statute that do not appear on its face."" Dean v. United States, 556 U. S. 568, 572 (2009) (quoting Bates v.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting United States, 522 U. S. 23, 29 (1997)). And “[w]here Con- gress includes particular language in one section of a stat- ute but omits it in another section of the same Act,"" we generally presume that Congress did so intentionally. Rus- sello v. United States, 464 U. S. 16, 23 (1983) (quoting United States v. Wong Kim Bo, 472 F. 2d 720, 722 (CA5 1972) (per curiam)). The Court's reasons for departing from these rules are thin. 1 The Court begins with the noscitur a sociis and ejusdem generis canons. Ante, at 5. The noscitur canon counsels that "words grouped in a list should be given related mean- ings." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law §31, p. 195 (2012) (internal quotation marks omitted). It is particu- larly useful when interpreting “a word [that] is capable of many meanings."" McDonnell v. United States, 579 U. S. 550, 569 (2016) (quoting Jarecki v. G. D. Searle & Co., 367 U. S. 303, 307 (1961)). See, e.g., Gustafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 573–575 (1995) (employing the canon to in- terpret “communication” in the statutory list “prospectus, notice, circular, advertisement, letter, or communication""). The ejusdem canon applies when “a catchall phrase" follows “an enumeration of specifics, as in dogs, cats, horses, cattle, and other animals." Scalia & Garner §32, at 199. We often interpret the catchall phrase to “embrace only objects simi- lar in nature to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words." Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U. S. 105, 115 (2001). See, e.g., Washington State Dept. of Social and Health Servs. v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler, 537 U. S. 371, 375, 385 (2003) (employing the canon to construe the general term in the statutory list "execution, levy, at- tachment, garnishment, or other legal process""). These canons are valuable tools. But applying either to (c)(2) is like using a hammer to pound in a screw-it looks like it might work, but using it botches the job. Unlike the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 BARRETT, J., dissenting pattern to which the noscitur canon applies, §1512(c) is not a list of terms that includes an ambiguous word. So the Court does not do what it does when applying noscitur: se- lect between multiple accepted meanings of the words "ob- structs,” “influences,” and “impedes." Instead, it modifies those words by adding an adverbial phrase: obstructs, in- fluences or impedes by “impair[ing] the availability or in- tegrity for use in an official proceeding of records, docu- ments, or objects." Ante, at 16 (emphasis added). The ejusdem canon is an equally poor fit. Unlike the pattern to which ejusdem applies, (c)(2) is “not a general or collective term following a list of specific items to which a particular statutory command is applicable.” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 615 (1995) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Instead, (c)(1) and (c)(2) are "distinct and independent prohibitions." Ibid. Though they share a subject and an adverb—“[w]hoever corruptly"-the two clauses contain different verbs that take different objects. §1512(c). Moreover, (c)(1) has a separate mens rea provi- sion that further disrupts the connection between the clauses. To my knowledge, we have never applied either of these canons to a statute resembling §1512(c). Rather than iden- tify such a case, the Court invents examples of a sign at the zoo and a football league rule. Ante, at 5-6. The zoo exam- ple ("do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them”) does not help, because it mim- ics the typical ejusdem format of specific words followed by a catchall. The list of specific verbs makes clear that the cleanup phrase (“otherwise disturb") is limited to conduct that involves direct interaction with the animals. But in the absence of a laundry list followed by a catchall, it is hard to see why the ejusdem canon fits. Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008) ("The absence of a list of specific items undercuts the inference embodied in ejusdem

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting generis that Congress remained focused on the common at- tribute when it used the catchall phrase"). And §1512(c) does not follow the laundry-list-plus-catchall pattern. The Court's football example is only slightly better. As a refresher: "[A] football league might adopt a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.' If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. Put aside that it is hard to imagine anyone describing “trash talk” as inflicting an “injury” or “harming" a player in a football game. The league rule plainly forecloses the possibility. Consistent with the noscitur canon, “harm” takes its meaning from its companions “attack” and “as- sault." And while the Court tries to track §1512(c)'s struc- ture by adding an extra intent clause, the two clauses in its example are still tightly focused on actions directed at the player. (After all, who is wearing the facemask, helmet, or other equipment?) Given that shared theme, it is easy to understand that the first clause's focus on physical conduct limits the (only slightly) more general clause. But §1512(c)'s subsections are not so closely related―(c)(1) fo- cuses specifically on objects in a proceeding, and (c)(2) broadens the lens to the proceeding itself. Consider a rule that actually mirrors §1512(c): "Any player who: "(1) punches, chokes, or kicks an opposing player with the intent to remove him from the game; or "(2) otherwise interrupts, hinders, or interferes with

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 the game, BARRETT, J., dissenting "shall be suspended." While the specific verbs in the first clause involve actions directed at an opposing player, the second clause is a sepa- rate prohibition with an entirely different object. Imagine that, just before the opposing team's kicker attempts a field goal, players leave the sidelines and storm the field, some tackling referees in the process. Those players have surely “interrupt[ed], hinder[ed], or interfer[ed] with the game,” even though they have not physically injured any opponent. This hypothetical, not the Court's, is analogous to §1512(c) and it supports the Government's interpretation. 2 The Court next recruits help from Begay, which inter- prets an "otherwise" clause in the Armed Career Criminal Act. Ante, at 6; 553 U. S., at 140. The ACCA defines a "vi- olent felony" as a felony that “is burglary, arson, or extor- tion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves con- duct that presents a serious potential risk of physical injury.” 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii). Begay holds that the example crimes limit the catchall clause to "crimes that are roughly similar . . . to the examples themselves." 553 U. S., at 143. So too here, the Court reasons, the list of crimes in (c)(1) limits the “otherwise” clause in (c)(2). But §1512(c) is structured differently than the statute in Begay. While §1512(c) contains two distinct criminal pro- hibitions (c)(1) and (c)(2)—the statutory definition in Be- gay contained a list of examples followed immediately by a residual clause. The latter structure more readily supports interpreting the general clause in light of the specifics, much like a statute to which the ejusdem canon would ap- ply. Moreover, the residual clause at issue in Begay called out for a limiting principle—what is a “serious potential risk of physical injury?" The breadth itself was a cue that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting the interpreter should read back to find some limit. See id., at 142–143. Subsection (c)(2)'s “otherwise” clause, by con- trast, stands on its own. Postscript: Seven years after Begay was decided, we held ACCA's residual clause void for vagueness. Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015). So the clause is not only distinguishable, but also a poor model for statutory interpretation. 3 The Court argues that "there would have been scant rea- son for Congress to provide any specific examples” in (c)(1) if (c)(2) covered all forms of obstructive conduct. Ante, at 8. Conduct like destroying and concealing records "obstructs, influences, or impedes a[n] official proceeding,” so Congress could have enacted just (c)(2) and been done with it. On the Government's interpretation, the Court asserts, the second prohibition swallows the first. If (c)(1) has any function, it must be to cast light (and impose limits) on (c)(2). What the Court does not say is that its rewrite also elim- inates the need for (c)(1)'s examples. The Court's interpre- tation assumes that Congress used a convoluted, two-step approach to enact a prohibition on “impair[ing] the integ- rity or availability of records, documents, or other objects for use in an official proceeding." So why didn't Congress just say that? And if the Court is right about what (c)(2) means, why do we need the specific examples in (c)(1)? Those acts are already covered. The problem of (c)(2) sub- suming (c)(1) is therefore not unique to my theory. It bears emphasis, though, that the broad overlap makes sense, given the statute's backstory. When the Enron scan- dal occurred, Congress (along with the general public) was taken aback to discover that seemingly criminal conduct was actually not a federal crime. As it then existed, §1512 had a loophole: It imposed liability on those who persuaded others to destroy documents, but not on the people who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 BARRETT, J., dissenting themselves destroyed documents. Ante, at 9–10. Congress enacted §1512(c) to close this “Enron gap.” Subsection (c)(1) deals with the particular problem at hand-document de- struction. Subsection (c)(2) reflects Congress's desire to avoid future surprises: It is “a catchall for matters not spe- cifically contemplated-known unknowns." Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009). So contrary to the Court's suggestion, it would not be “pe- culiar" for (c)(2) to cover conduct “far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legisla- tion in the first place." Ante, at 10. Enron exposed more than the need to prohibit evidence spoliation-it also ex- posed the need to close statutory gaps. And in any event, statutes often reach beyond the “principal evil” that ani- mated them. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U. S. 75, 79 (1998). That is not grounds for narrowing them, because “it is ultimately the provisions of our laws rather than the principal concerns of our legislators by which we are governed." Ibid. While the Court insists that (c)(1) limits (c)(2), it cannot seem to settle on the "common attribute" in the first subsec- tion that cabins the second. See Ali, 552 U. S., at 225. On one hand, the Court says that “(c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding." Ante, at 8 (emphasis added). This “physical evidence” limitation tracks the Dis- trict Court's interpretation. See United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022). On the other hand, the Court says that (c)(2) prohibits “impairing the availability or in- tegrity of other things used in an official proceeding," such as "witness testimony” or “intangible information." Ante, at 9. This broader “evidence impairment” theory resembles Judge Katsas's interpretation. 64 F. 4th 329, 363 (CADC 2023) (dissenting opinion).

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting Both formulations are problematic—and not only because both are atextual. The first, focused solely on physical items, would leave (c)(2) with almost no work to do. Sub- section (c)(1) already prohibits “alter[ing], destroy[ing], mu- tilat [ing], or conceal[ing]" documents, records, or objects. This essentially covers the waterfront of acts that impair the integrity or availability of objects. True, (c)(2) could also encompass "cover[ing] up, falsif[ying], or mak[ing] a false entry in” a record or document. See 18 U. S. C. §1519. But it seems “unlikely" that Congress used the “expansive” lan- guage of (c)(2) “to address such narrow concerns." 64 F. 4th, at 344. The somewhat amorphous “other things” limitation has the benefit of giving (c)(2) a wider berth, but it is un- clear how the Court landed on it. The term does not appear in (c)(1) or in §1512's surrounding subsections, which refer specifically to records, documents, objects, and testimony. The "other things” formulation comes from the Court, not Congress. The Court's uncertainty about the relevant “common at- tribute" is a tell that Congress did not intend to define (c)(2) by reference to (c)(1). Indeed, “[h]ad Congress intended to limit [§1512(c)(2)]'s reach" as the Court asserts, it "easily could have written” the catchall to say “otherwise impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, objects, or other things for use in an official proceeding." Ali, 552 U. S., at 227; see ante, at 8-9.2 It did not, and we should not pretend that it did. B The Court relies on statutory context to "confir[m] that 2 Indeed, Congress could have looked to 18 U. S. C. §1505 as a model. That statute makes it a crime to "willfully withhol[d], misrepresen[t], remov[e] from any place, concea[1], cove[r] up, destro[y], mutilat[e], alte[r], or by other means falsif[y] any documentary material, answers to written interrogatories, or oral testimony" with the intent to obstruct "any civil investigative demand.” §1505 (emphasis added).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 BARRETT, J., dissenting (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1)." Ante, at 10. As the Court sees it, interpreting (c) (2) according to its plain text would render other obstruction provisions, within §1512 and throughout Chapter 73, superfluous. Ante, at 10–12. The Court exaggerates. Subsection (c)(2) applies only to conduct that obstructs an “official proceeding." The Court highlights several provisions that cover obstruction of in- vestigations. See, e.g., 18 U. S. C. §§1510(a), 1511(a), 1516, 1517, 1518, 1519. The circuits have held that criminal in- vestigations do not qualify as “official proceedings." See, e.g., United States v. Ermoian, 752 F. 3d 1165, 1172 (CA9 2013); United States v. Ramos, 537 F. 3d 439, 463 (CA5 2008). Likewise, not every provision in §1512 relates to an official proceeding; instead, several target the obstruction of communications to judges and law enforcement about the commission of federal offenses. 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(C), (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), (d)(1)(2). The Court responds by stressing that for purposes of §1512, "an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted." §1512(f)(1); ante, at 13. Because obstruc- tion of investigations or communications could end up ob- structing the initiation of a future official proceeding, the Court reasons that (c)(2) may still swallow those other pro- visions. But we have previously construed federal obstruc- tion offenses similar to §1512(c) to require a tighter link be- tween the obstructive conduct and the relevant proceeding. Under the "nexus” requirement, the defendant's conduct must have a “relationship in time, causation, or logic” with the proceeding. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 599 (adopting nexus requirement for §1503's omnibus clause). And the defend- ant must act in “contemplation” of a “particular official pro- ceeding." Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 708 (2005) (adopting nexus requirement for §1512(b)(2)). The circuits have unanimously applied this requirement to §1512(c). See United States v. Young, 916 F. 3d 368, 386 (CA4 2019) (collecting cases). This element

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting eliminates much of the overlap that the Court perceives be- tween (c)(2) and the provisions that do not require an “offi- cial proceeding.” Moreover, §§1512(a)(1)(A) and (d)(1) prohibit preventing the mere attendance of any person in an official proceeding. Preventing attendance will not always have the effect of ob- structing, influencing, or impeding the proceeding. And §1512(d)(1) makes it a crime to intentionally harass some- one and thereby dissuade her from testifying in an official proceeding. In contrast to (c)(2), this provision—which car- ries a significantly lower maximum penalty-does not re- quire a defendant to act “corruptly." This is not to deny that (c)(2)—if allowed its broad, ordi- nary meaning-overlaps with several offenses in Chapter 73. See ante, at 10-11. Even so, (c)(2) still leaves a healthy amount of work for other obstruction offenses. And besides, "substantial" overlap "is not uncommon in criminal stat- utes." Loughrin v. United States, 573 U. S. 351, 358, n. 4 (2014); see also Hubbard v. United States, 514 U. S. 695, 714, n. 14 (1995) (opinion of Stevens, J.). "The mere fact that two federal criminal statutes criminalize similar con- duct says little about the scope of either.” Pasquantino v. United States, 544 U. S. 349, 358, n. 4 (2005). That is espe- cially true here, because Congress enacted (c)(2) after it had already enacted other subsections of §1512, as well as ob- struction offenses like §§1503 and 1505. The redundancy argument would have more force if (c)(2) “render[ed] super- fluous an entire provision passed in proximity as part of the same Act." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 543 (2015) (plurality opinion) (emphasis added). As it stands, the canon against surplusage does not provide any reason to ar- tificially narrow (c)(2)'s scope. In any event, the Court's formulation does not begin to cure the statutory overlap. Killing a person with the intent to prevent the production of a record in an official proceed- ing constitutes conduct that impairs the availability of a

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 BARRETT, J., dissenting record for an official proceeding. 18 U. S. C. §1512(a)(1)(B). Using physical force against a person to influence testi- mony in an official proceeding counts as impairing the in- tegrity of "other things" used in an official proceeding. §1512(a)(2)(A). And impairing the availability or integrity of documents for use in an official proceeding will often “in- fluenc[e], obstruc[t], or imped[e] . . . the due administration of justice." §1503(a); see also §1515(a)(1)(A) (“official pro- ceeding"" includes “a proceeding before a judge or court of the United States"). Examples abound. See, e.g., §§1505, 1512(a)(1)(A), (a)(2)(B), (b)(1), (b)(2), (d)(1). “[T]he canon against surplusage merely favors that interpretation which avoids surplusage”—and on that score, the Court's inter- pretation fares no better than mine. Freeman v. Quicken Loans, Inc., 566 U. S. 624, 635 (2012). In fact, the broader statutory context works against the Court's interpretation. Congress did not select the verbs "obstruct," "influence,” and “impede” at random. Those words were already in §1503, which prohibits “corruptly or by threats or force, or by any threatening letter or commu- nication, influenc[ing], obstruct[ing], or imped[ing] . . . the due administration of justice." We have described this "Omnibus Clause"" as a "catchall," because it follows sev- eral specific proscriptions against coercive behavior toward jurors and court officers. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 598. Courts have routinely declined to "rea[d] the omnibus clause” as limited to "acts similar in manner to those prescribed by the statute's specific language.” United States v. Howard, 569 F. 2d 1331, 1333, 1335 (CA5 1978) (collecting cases). And Justice Scalia agreed that ejusdem generis did not apply to limit the Omnibus Clause, “one of the several distinct and independent prohibitions contained in §1503 that share only the word 'Whoever,' which begins the statute, and the penalty provision which ends it." Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 615 (opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part). Section 1512(c) follows the very same pattern.

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting C The Court concludes with an appeal to consequences: Construing (c)(2) broadly would “expos[e] activists and lob- byists alike to decades in prison." Ante, at 14. This fear is overstated. To begin with, the Court ignores that (c)(2) requires proof that a defendant acted “corruptly.” The meaning of this term is unsettled, but all of its possible definitions limit the scope of liability. On one proposed interpretation, a defend- ant acts corruptly by “us[ing] unlawful means, or act[ing] with an unlawful purpose, or both."" United States v. Rob- ertson, 103 F. 4th 1, 8 (CADC 2023) (approving jury instruc- tions for (c)(2)). On another, a defendant acts "corruptly" if he “act[s] ‘with an intent to procure an unlawful benefit ei- ther for himself or for some other person."" 64 F. 4th, at 352 (Walker, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (quoting Marinello, 584 U. S., at 21; alterations omitted). Under either, the “corruptly” element should screen out in- nocent activists and lobbyists who engage in lawful activity. And if not, those defendants can bring as-applied First Amendment challenges. The Court also emphasizes (c)(2)'s 20-year maximum penalty. Ante, at 14-15. But it simultaneously "glosses over the absence of any prescribed minimum." Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting). “Congress presuma- bly enacts laws with high maximums and no minimums when it thinks the prohibited conduct may run the gamut from major to minor." Ibid. Indeed, given the breadth of its terms, (c) (2) naturally encompasses actions that range in severity. Congress presumably trusted District Courts to impose sentences commensurate with the defendant's particular conduct. * * * There is no getting around it: Section 1512(c)(2) is an ex- pansive statute. Yet Congress, not this Court, weighs the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 BARRETT, J., dissenting "pros and cons of whether a statute should sweep broadly or narrowly." United States v. Rodgers, 466 U. S. 475, 484 (1984). Once Congress has set the outer bounds of liability, the Executive Branch has the discretion to select particular cases to prosecute within those boundaries. By atextually narrowing §1512(c)(2), the Court has failed to respect the prerogatives of the political branches. Cf. ante, at 15. I re- spectfully dissent.

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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• Post hoc fallacy
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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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