case study overpopulated country

Geography Revision

GCSE, AS and A Level Geography Revision

Overpopulated Countries

Gcse geography resources.

Are you looking for high-quality GCSE Geography resources? If so, you can save yourself a lot of time by downloading our modules below.

Compatible with the following exam boards

Overpopulation

Overpopulation is the state in which the members of a certain species exceed the number that can be sustained by its environment. In terms of the human population, overpopulation is when the total number of people living at present exceeds the Earth’s capacity to sustain them. 

Human populations around the world have grown exponentially in the last 50 years. In 2021, nearly 8 billion people are living on our planet in numerous overpopulated countries, and this number is expected to increase in the future. 

The Problem of Overpopulation

Overpopulation is a problem often overlooked. Issues such as climate change, pollution, and water shortages are given more attention. However, overpopulation is a problem of equal importance, as it is one of the major contributors to these other global environmental issues. Overpopulation imposes greater demands on both land and the resources they provide. This has serious consequences on the environment, resulting in global environmental issues that affect many of the world’s economies and standards of living. 

In developed countries, advancements in modern medicine and healthcare have resulted in people living much longer compared to in the past. Each year, an estimate of 80 million births happen around the world. In conjunction with the decline in death rates, this leads to the human population growing at an estimated pace of 1 billion every 12 years. This rate of population increase is much faster compared to those a century ago. 

An increase in population coincides with an increase in the demand for resources such as food and water. In order to meet these increasing demands, people have developed various techniques and technologies to maximise both acquisition and production. As a result, the Earth’s resources are quickly being depleted for artificial products such as clothes, computers, and cars. In addition, the factories that make these products often release harmful emissions and chemical byproducts that cause environmental damage and promote climate change. 

Increasing demands for industrial production also necessitates the need to seek out more resources. Agriculture and the raising of livestock especially have taken over large areas of land for food production. As a consequence, human activity and development encroach on many natural habitats. In turn, this has led to the loss of biodiversity as animal and plant species lose their homes. In the history of the Earth, extinction rates have never been as high as they are today. At present, global extinction rates are estimated to reach as high as 140,000 species every year. 

In some regions of the world, overpopulation occurs as a result of external events such as war, famine, or natural disasters. When these events destroy previous habitations or make them unlivable, people are forced to seek refuge elsewhere. Certain regions may experience a sudden influx of in-migration, leading to a rapid increase in their population. 

Causes of Overpopulation

Decrease in the mortality rate.

Along with the Industrial Revolution’s development in industry and technology came great advances in the field of medicine. This scientific and medical progress allows humans to overcome many diseases, and prolong the lifespan of our populations. Vaccines and antibiotics have saved thousands of lives from ailments that would otherwise end in death. As a result, the death rate has fallen, while birth rates stay constant, leading to a rise in population. 

Developments in food production

Both scientific research and technological development have led to an increase in the efficiency of agricultural production. This includes the cultivation of crops that can be planted year-round, disease and pest-resistant seeds, and pesticides. Fishing and the raising of livestock has also witnessed many improvements, further contributing to an increase in food production. 

Migration and urban concentration

For some countries, migration and urban concentration are powerful factors that affect the composition of their populations. These are important not only for demographic growth but also for the economy and the generation of wealth. At present, more than half of the world’s population lives in cities that exceed 300,000 inhabitants. These populations are expected to continue growing until they make up 70% of the global population. 

Effects of Overpopulation

Depletion of natural resources.

The most significant effect of overpopulation is the exhaustion of the Earth’s natural resources. Our planet only has a limited capacity to provide for human needs and purposes. When the consumption of these resources exceeds the rate at which they can be replenished, this limit will be reached much sooner. 

Environmental degradation

The careless and uninhibited consumption of natural resources and energy production by use of fossil fuels has many effects immediately detrimental to our environment. Some consequences include desertification, deforestation, changes in the water cycle, loss of habitat and biodiversity, and the extinction of numerous plant and animal species. Greenhouse gas emissions produced by artificial processes also contribute greatly to the greenhouse effect and global warming. 

China is the world’s most populous country. At present, its population is a little over 1.4 billion people, with a majority of this number living in China’s eastern half. The dramatic increase in population has led to a decrease in many of its natural resources. In turn, this places strong restrictions on the expansion of the Chinese economy since it is dependent on its natural resources. 

For 11 years, China’s capital city, Beijing, has experienced water shortages. In Shanghai, another of China’s major cities, a rise in population has led to the increased use of vehicles. This raises problems regarding air quality and air pollution. 

Rapid population growth has also affected China’s education system. There are often not enough teachers and schools to cater to China’s youth. In response to this, cities such as Guangzhou have employed the use of joint lessons across different schools. 

India, with a population of 1.3 billion, has the second-largest population in the world. With the exception of its deserts in the northwest and its mountains in the north, India has an exceptionally high population density throughout the country. 

Overpopulation has led to a dramatic decline in India’s air quality, increasing the risk of airborne diseases and skin infections. New Delhi is the world’s most polluted city. It is estimated that breathing its air is comparable to smoking 50 cigarettes a day. In November 2017, Indian hospitals experienced a 20% increase in patients treated for various airborne diseases. 

Many other cities in India have increased rates of cancer, stroke, heart disease, and heart attacks.

United States

The United States of America is the third most populous country in the world. Currently, its population is estimated to be 329.7 million. A large portion of the United States’ population is found in densely populated urban areas clustered along its east and west coasts. Its two most populous states, Texas and California, contribute to around 25% of its total population. 

The population of New York, arguably the United States’ most famous city, has expanded in an uncommon way. In recent years, migration has caused a large increase in its population. Living costs and real estate in New York City have become extremely expensive. It is also very difficult to find employment in the city. New York has also suffered economic problems in previous years such as a recession. 

The fourth most populous country in the world, Indonesia has a total population of 266 million. The island of Java, a part of the country, is one of the world’s most densely populated areas. Indonesian cities, including its capital Jakarta, are facing many significant issues regarding overpopulation. 

In Jakarta, people spend an average of 15–35% of their income on transportation alone. In comparison, in other cities such as London and Singapore, people only spend an average of 5–8 % of their income on transportation. 

Indonesia’s large population has also made it difficult for its citizens to have access to piped water. Only half of Indonesia’s population has piped water, the other half mainly relies on raw water supplies. 

Pakistan holds the title of the world’s fifth-largest population with its 220 million inhabitants. The most densely populated area is Punjab province. Pakistan’s large population can be attributed to cultural attitudes and religious doctrine that promote having many children. Another reason is deficiencies in Pakistan’s education system and its low literacy rates. In cities such as Rawalpindi, the country’s poverty contributes to many health concerns for both mothers and their babies during pregnancy and child delivery. 

Brazil, the sixth most populous country in the world, has a population of 211.5 million. The majority of Brazil’s residents live along its Atlantic coast on the east. Brazil’s largest city, São Paulo, has an impressive population of 10 million inhabitants. This has certain implications on the economy of the city. One of which is the inequality in income distribution, as 34% of São Paulo’s citizens live below the poverty line. In addition to its overpopulation problem, Brazil is also challenged with issues such as paying off its foreign debt, crime, land distribution, and extreme poverty. 

Ranking seventh among the countries with the greatest populations, Nigeria is inhabited by 206 million people and it is the African continent’s most populous country. It has also recently become Africa’s largest economy. Nigerian cities such as Lagos are currently struggling with a lack of available housing, resulting in the development of slums. Often, large families are cramped in one-bedroom apartments. Communal bathrooms and kitchens are shared by up to 50 people. The Nigerian government has carried out initiatives to encourage its citizens to have smaller families. 

The eighth most populous country in the world, Bangladesh has a total population of 168.6 million. Not only does it hold one of the world’s largest populations, but it is also one of the world’s most densely populated countries. Bangladesh suffers from poor infrastructure as a result of its overpopulation. One of these problems is apparent in their sewage system, as it is not properly equipped to handle the large amounts of water and waste produced by Bangladesh’s inhabitants. The city of Dhaka is one of the most densely populated cities in the world. Attempts to manage Bangladesh’s overpopulation problem have been initiated by its government, but have not been successful. 

Russia is the world’s ninth-largest country by population size, with 146.7 million people. Russia’s population is less dense in the region of Siberia. Although this region makes up one-twelfth of the Earth’s total landmass, Siberia only has a population of roughly three people per square kilometre. The increase in Russia’s population is largely attributed to the influx of migrants from countries that were once part of the USSR. Usually, these migrants flock to cities such as Moscow, which at present has a population of 11.5 million people. The large number of people living in Moscow has led to the problem of a decrease in wages. In Moscow, 10% of inhabitants earn a living wage lower than 10,500 rubles. This amount is even lower than the city’s average wage. 

With 127.5 million inhabitants, Mexico is home to the world’s 10th largest population. It is estimated that one-fourth of Mexico’s population lives in or in the vicinity of its capital, Mexico City. Overpopulation in the country has led to rampant unemployment, as there are not enough jobs for all its citizens. Many Mexican citizens live in slums or are homeless. This is especially prominent in large cities such as Mexico City, Ecatepec, and Guadalajara. 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is an overpopulated country.

An overpopulated country is one that has a population size that exceeds the available resources and infrastructure, resulting in strains on the economy, environment, and social systems.

What are some consequences of overpopulation?

Consequences of overpopulation can include food and water scarcity, increased poverty rates, inadequate healthcare and education resources, environmental degradation, strain on infrastructure, and social unrest.

Can overpopulated countries address their population challenges?

Yes, overpopulated countries can address their population challenges through various means, such as implementing family planning programs, promoting education and healthcare, improving infrastructure, and adopting sustainable development practices.

What are some examples of overpopulated countries?

Examples of overpopulated countries include India, China, Nigeria, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Brazil, which have large populations relative to their available resources.

How can international cooperation help overpopulated countries?

International cooperation can support overpopulated countries by providing assistance in areas such as healthcare, education, sustainable development, and family planning initiatives. Sharing knowledge and resources can help alleviate the challenges associated with overpopulation.

CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF OVERPOPULATION . (n.d.). Retrieved from Sustainability for All:          https://www.activesustainability.com/sustainable-development/causes-consequences-overpopulation/

Overpopulation . (n.d.). Retrieved from Britannica:                               https://www.britannica.com/science/overpopulation

Overpopulation: The Causes, Effects And Potential Solutions . (n.d.). Retrieved from Ecavo:                              https://ecavo.com/overpopulation-causes-effects-solutions/

The top 10 countries with the world largest population: the disastrous effects on our planet . (n.d.). Retrieved from A Story Map: https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=2849fd1434a64a0ea45d0b3d2e89a045

The World’s Most Populous Countries . (n.d.). Retrieved from Infoplease:                               https://www.infoplease.com/world/population/worlds-most-populous-countries

What is Overpopulation? . (n.d.). Retrieved from Conserve Energy Future:                               https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-overpopulation.php

Why is Over Population a Problem? . (n.d.). Retrieved from YPTE:                               https://ypte.org.uk/factsheets/overpopulation/why-is-over-population-a-problem

Cite/Link to This Article

<a href="https://geography-revision.co.uk/gcse/overpopulated-countries/">Overpopulated Countries</a>

"Overpopulated Countries". Geography Revision . Accessed on June 1, 2024. https://geography-revision.co.uk/gcse/overpopulated-countries/.

"Overpopulated Countries". Geography Revision , https://geography-revision.co.uk/gcse/overpopulated-countries/. Accessed 1 June, 2024.

On a mission to end educational inequality for young people everywhere.

ZNotes Education Limited is incorporated and registered in England and Wales, under Registration number: 12520980 whose Registered office is at: Docklands Lodge Business Centre, 244 Poplar High Street, London, E14 0BB. “ZNotes” and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (registration UK00003478331).

• Politics and Policy

Overpopulation Countries Trends: Impact on the United Nations’ Agenda for Sustainable Development

Overpopulation is a critical issue wherein the number of individuals in a specific area surpasses the environment’s carrying capacity. With the global population approaching 8 billion and projected to grow significantly, this phenomenon has raised concerns about population growth trends. Some regions are experiencing rapid population expansion, increasing in highly populous countries. This article delves into the implications of these trends on the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Agenda.

Which Countries Are Most Populous?

Overview of the most populous countries.

Several countries worldwide grapple with high population numbers, leading to numerous challenges associated with overpopulation. China, India, and the United States are among the most populous nations, each facing unique demographic dynamics.

China: As the world’s most populous country, China has a population exceeding 1.4 billion. The Chinese government has implemented various policies, including the one-child policy (now relaxed), to manage population growth. These policies have had far-reaching socio-economic impacts.

India: India closely follows China in terms of population, with over 1.3 billion people. It is also one of the world’s youngest populations, with a significant portion under 25. While India has witnessed improvements in healthcare and education, it faces the challenge of providing opportunities and resources to its growing population.

United States: With over 330 million people, the United States has a large and diverse population. While its growth rate is lower than some other populous countries, immigration significantly shapes its demographic landscape.

Nigeria: A Case Study

Nigeria , situated in the vibrant region of West Africa, provides a compelling illustration of population dynamics. As the current most populous country on the African continent, Nigeria stands at the forefront of a significant demographic shift. Projections indicate that by 2050, Nigeria is on track to claim its position as the world’s third most populous nation, marking a remarkable demographic transition.

Rapid population growth in Nigeria is a multifaceted issue with several key contributing factors. Firstly, high birth rates are pivotal in driving this demographic surge. The country’s fertility rates remain notably high, leading to a substantial increase in births yearly. Cultural, social, and economic factors that impact family planning choices influence this elevated fertility rate. 

Population Projections for 2022 and 2050

Population projections for 2022 and 2050 provide crucial insights into the evolving global demographic landscape. These projections, as outlined by the United Nations Population Division, offer a glimpse into the anticipated trajectory of the world’s population and the challenges it entails.

As of 2022, the global population stands at approximately 7.9 billion people. While already substantial, this figure is expected to surge significantly over the next three decades. By 2050, the world’s population is projected to approach a staggering 9 billion individuals. This trajectory signifies a considerable demographic shift with far-reaching implications for human society and the environment.

It’s important to note that population growth rates are not uniform across all countries and regions. While some nations may experience relatively stable or declining populations, others, particularly those with higher fertility rates, will contribute disproportionately to this global increase. Regions such as sub-Saharan Africa are expected to undergo particularly rapid population growth during this period.

This demographic forecast underscores the urgency of implementing comprehensive and sustainable development strategies globally. The challenges of overpopulation are multifaceted and touch upon various domains, including resource management, environmental sustainability, healthcare provision, education, and social welfare.

To address these challenges effectively, policymakers, governments, and international organizations must prioritize initiatives that promote sustainable population management, access to family planning services, and investments in healthcare and education. Additionally, it necessitates a concerted effort to balance population growth and the sustainable use of resources, ensuring that the growing global population can thrive while safeguarding the planet’s ecosystems.

Why is Overpopulation a Concern for the United Nations?

Implications for sustainable development goals.

Overpopulation poses significant concerns for the United Nations in its pursuit of sustainable development goals (SDGs). These global goals encompass eradicating poverty, ensuring universal access to healthcare and education, and promoting environmental sustainability. However, overpopulation exerts immense pressure on resources and infrastructure, making it increasingly challenging to achieve these ambitious objectives. See the report here .

Environmental Impact of Overpopulation

Overpopulation exerts considerable stress on the environment, with far-reaching consequences. The growing human population leads to the depletion of natural resources and widespread environmental degradation. Some notable impacts include:

• Deforestation: Overpopulation drives demand for land, resulting in deforestation to make way for agriculture , urbanization, and infrastructure development. This contributes to habitat loss and threatens the survival of countless plant and animal species.
• Pollution: A burgeoning population produces more waste, leading to increased pollution of air, water, and soil. Industrial emissions, transportation exhaust, and improper waste disposal are among the factors contributing to deteriorating air and water quality.
• Biodiversity Loss: The expansion of human settlements and agricultural activities often encroaches upon critical ecosystems. This, in turn, accelerates biodiversity loss as species struggle to adapt or face habitat destruction.

Social and Economic Consequences

Overpopulation’s social and economic ramifications are equally concerning, impacting the United Nations’ sustainable development agenda. These consequences include:

• Strained Healthcare and Education Systems: Rapid population growth pressures healthcare and education infrastructure. Insufficient resources and facilities make providing quality services to all, particularly in densely populated regions challenging.
• Unemployment and Poverty: Overpopulation can exacerbate unemployment and poverty rates. Competition for limited job opportunities can increase unemployment rates among young adults. This, coupled with limited access to education and healthcare, contributes to cycles of poverty.
• Social Unrest: High population density and limited resources and opportunities can lead to social unrest. Scarce resources, inadequate access to basic services, and economic disparities may fuel civil unrest and conflict.

What are the Effects of Overpopulation?

Pressure on Resources and Infrastructure

Overpopulation leads to increased pressure on resources and infrastructure. As the population grows, the demand for food, water, housing, and energy also increases. This strains the existing resources and can lead to scarcity and inequality.

• Resource Scarcity: Overpopulation leads to heightened demand for essential resources such as arable land, freshwater, and energy sources. As an example, India, one of the world’s most populous countries, grapples with intense pressure on its agricultural land due to overpopulation. This has resulted in land degradation and disputes over limited farming space.
• Inadequate Housing: Rapid population growth often outpaces housing construction efforts. In metropolitan areas like Mumbai, India, soaring population figures have led to overcrowded slums and inadequate housing conditions, exacerbating the housing crisis.
• Transportation Congestion: Overpopulation in urban areas contributes to traffic congestion and deteriorating transportation infrastructure. Cities like Manila, Philippines, experience daily gridlocks due to the surge in vehicles on the road, highlighting the strain on transportation systems.

Increased Demand for Food and Water

With the growth of the global population, there is an increased demand for food and water. This puts pressure on agricultural systems, leading to land and water resources overexploitation. It becomes challenging to ensure food security for everyone.

• Agricultural Strain: Overpopulation escalates the demand for food production. In China, the world’s most populous nation, this has led to intensive agriculture practices, including synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, contributing to environmental degradation.
• Water Stress: Overpopulation amplifies water scarcity concerns. The depletion of the Aral Sea in Central Asia is a stark example of overpopulation’s impact on water resources. Diversion of water for irrigation projects in densely populated areas resulted in the near collapse of this once-vibrant ecosystem.

Impact on Healthcare and Education

Overpopulation affects the healthcare and education sectors. As the population grows, there is a need for more healthcare facilities and professionals to cater to the increasing number of people. Similarly, there is a higher demand for educational institutions and teachers. However, limited resources often result in inadequate access to quality healthcare and education for all.

• Healthcare Challenges: Overpopulated regions face challenges in providing adequate healthcare services. In parts of sub-Saharan Africa, high population growth rates have strained healthcare systems, making it difficult to ensure access to basic healthcare for all residents.
• Educational Shortages: Overpopulation leads to a surge in the demand for educational facilities and teachers. In countries like Pakistan, the need for more schools and educators to accommodate the growing student population has resulted in overcrowded classrooms and limited access to quality education.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the subject of this faq.

The subject of this FAQ is the impact of overpopulation in certain countries on the United Nations’ Agenda for Sustainable Development.

What does the term “overpopulation” refer to?

Overpopulation is when the number of people in a specific area exceeds the available resources and infrastructure to support them.

Which countries are known for their overpopulation concerns?

Some of the most populous countries in the world, such as Nigeria, are known for their overpopulation concerns.

How does overpopulation impact the United Nations’ Agenda for Sustainable Development?

Overpopulation can strain resources, hinder efforts to achieve sustainable development goals and lead to socio-economic challenges.

What population trends are observed in countries with overpopulation concerns?

In countries with overpopulation concerns, population sizes are increasing rapidly, and the rate of population change is high.

What are the consequences of overpopulation?

Consequences of overpopulation include increased pressure on natural resources, environmental degradation, poverty, and inadequate access to basic services.

What are some initiatives to address overpopulation concerns?

Initiatives include family planning programs, reproductive rights advocacy, and population policies to manage population growth.

Are there any specific conferences or events related to overpopulation and sustainable development?

Yes, the United Nations Population Conference, the International Conference on Population and Development, and other similar conferences discuss issues related to overpopulation and its impact on sustainable development.

Are there any countries specifically mentioned as experiencing a population explosion?

While many countries face population growth challenges, some of the most notable cases are called the “seven countries,” including Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Indonesia, Egypt, and Pakistan.

What is the role of organizations like the Pew Research Center in studying overpopulation trends?

Organizations like the Pew Research Center conduct research and provide data on population trends, fertility rates, and other related aspects to contribute to understanding overpopulation issues.

How do fertility rates impact overpopulation concerns?

Fertility rates, which represent the average number of births per woman, are one of the key indicators of population growth. High fertility rates can contribute to population increases and overpopulation concerns.

In summary, overpopulation is a critical global issue that pressures resources, infrastructure, food, water, healthcare, and education. Urgent collective action is vital, especially with the global population nearing 8 billion.

The United Nations faces the challenge of addressing overpopulation’s effects, including resource scarcity, environmental damage, social and economic consequences, and strains on healthcare and education. Strategies balancing population management and sustainable development are necessary, like empowering communities with family planning, promoting education, gender equality, and responsible resource use.

International collaboration among governments, civil society, and individuals is crucial. Joint efforts are the path to mitigate overpopulation’s impact and work toward a more equitable, resilient, and sustainable future in line with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Agenda. 

Related articles

• Energy and Environment

Top 10 Sustainability Consultants

Explore the breadth and depth of sustainability consulting. Discover how top sustainability consultants empower businesses to grow and scale responsibly while maximizing positive societal impact and staying ahead in a rapidly evolving world.

Is CBD Sustainable & Eco-friendly?

New lawsuits take Big Oil to Court

The Scoop Two new cases in Minnesota and Washington, D.C. add to the growing body of lawsuits trying to hold Big Oil accountable for deliberately concealing their role in harming environmental and human health. 

Breaking down the lawsuits

• Minnesota’s Attorney General (AG) is suing Exxon Mobil Corporation, Koch Industries and the American Petroleum Institute for violating Minnesota laws against consumer fraud, deceptive trade practices, and false advertising. The lawsuit claims that oil and gas companies were aware of the environmental and health effects of their products as far back as the 1970s and 80s, but launched a “campaign of deception.”
• Washington D.C.’s AG similarly is suing ExxonMobil, Chevron, BP and Shell for “systematically and intentionally misl[eading] consumers in Washington, D.C. about the central role their products play in causing climate change.” in violation of Washington D.C.’s Consumer Protection Procedures Act.

Why it matters By charging Big Oil with consumer fraud, Minnesota and Washington D.C.’s cases closely resemble lawsuits against Big Tobacco in the 1990s which charged Big Tobacco with suppressing evidence for the dangers of smoking and misleading the public. With the clear similarities between these cases, there is hope for similar verdicts; including, heavy penalties (up to $6.5 billion) that could fund climate change resiliency programs.

Dig deeper → 5 min

A practical message of unity for Biden this new year

Biden re-signed the Paris accord this week. Like I wrote about last week, the next four years will have major implications about the role of federal governance in climate mitigation.

Here at SR, we don’t endorse politicians but we certainly criticize them. Expect us to watch this administration closely and keep you up-to-date on America’s progress on environment-related issues.

Breaking down the Green New Deal

Big picture

• The GND was founded on the belief that environmental issues are overlooked and underfunded
• The GND gained traction in 2018, when the Democratic Party took control of the house. 
• Biden offered support to the GND, but differs on some policies like an immediate ban on all fracking activities. 

Between the lines Biden has been urged to beef up his climate policy platform by climate advocacy groups to deal with the challenges global warming presents. 

Legislative precedents

• Theodore Roosevelt’s Square Deal prioritized conservation of natural resources, control of corporations and consumer protection. 
• Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal prioritised relief for poor, economic recovery and financial reform. 
• Johnson’s Great Society aimed at alleviating social justice and education reform. 

Key talking points

• It helps secure a sustainable future.
• Our society needs a paradigm shift towards the clean energy sector, this legislation could be among the last chances to make that happen.
• The GND is perhaps the encouragement voters need to mitigate the effects of global warming by utilizing the power of voting.

Dig deeper → 4 min

How to Make an Edible Water Bottle

Learn the step-by-step process to create eco-friendly Ooho water bottles, reducing plastic waste and embracing innovative hydration solutions.

• Better Business

Launch Your Career in Sustainability: Exploring Dynamic Entry-Level Sustainability Jobs

Explore a wealth of new entry-level sustainability jobs available for hire in September 2023. Discover exciting opportunities with competitive salaries, added daily, and get hired in the field of sustainability. Don't miss out on these fresh career prospects

Some revealing notes on the Chevron oil spill

Busy try the speed read..

The scoop: 600 gallons of oil spilled into the San Francisco Bay yesterday from a Chevron refinery.

Some notes on the disaster:

• Solutions exist, restoration efforts are more innovative, why does this keep happening?
• Media tends to direct focus on corporations and federal government, but what role do local politics play in preventing environmental disasters?

Food for thought:

Looking back at the Chevron oil spill of 2021, we should be asking ourselves:

• Why did the oil spill happen?
• What actors played a role in this disaster?
• What steps can these actors take to prevent it from ever happening again?

Bottom line: If the answer is primarily political, sadly, it may not happen fast enough to stop the next disaster.

Dig deeper → 3 min

Weekly Sustainability News!

By subscribing you agree to our Privacy Policy .

Sustainable Review is copyright material. All rights reserved.

The Geography Study School

Geographically on par for your a star.

• Agriculture
• Case Studies
• Energy, water and the environment
• Industrial systems
• Map Skills-Paper 2
• Paper 4: Alternative to coursework
• Plate tectonics
• River processes
• Weather, Climate & Ecosystems
• Recommended Resources
• Option G: Urban Environments
• Populations in Transition
• Changing space-the shrinking world
• Contact and Copyright

Overpopulation in Bangladesh

Lack of resources, poor infrastructure and under-developed technology coupled with the high population have been responsible for decreasing the carrying capacity of the region.

Problems of overpopulation:

Overpopulation in Bangladesh resulted in overcrowded areas with traffic congestion as there are too many vehicles on the the roads, especially in cities such as Dhaka. Vehicle emissions, industrial discharge and burning of fossil fuels have resulted in air pollution , while the ground water has been polluted due to arsenic. Furthermore, shortage of food lead to overcultivation on the flood plains of the Ganges river , causing lower yields and soil exhaustion. Another major problem is the widespread deforestation for firewood on the slopes of the Himalayas.

The capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka, also suffers from severe housing shortages due to mass urbanisation.

Canada: Underpopulation

Canada is regarded as an underpopulated country as the carrying capacity is much higher than the current population. The 35 million people in Canada can not fully exploit the available resources and technology.

Problems of underpopulation in Canada:

• Labour shortage: 32% of Canadian employers are encountering difficulties in hiring workers due to a lack of applicants
• Services (eg. schools, hospitals and transport) close down as there are not enough customers.
• Less innovation and development (lee brain power)

Canada has tried to promote immigration to maintain the fairly high standard of living, but in the previous decades less people are migrating to Canada, than during the 1950’s and 1960’s.

• relaxing immigrant policies and visa requirements to encourage migration
• Pro-natal goverment support to increase the birth rate eg. subsidies and parental leave programmes
• allow pensioners to continue working

China: One Family One Child Policy

Anti-natal population policy

China is world’s most populous country with more than 1.3 billion people in 2014. Representing 20% of the world’s people, China suffers from extreme overpopulation.

China became overpopulated since 1960 because of:

• social/cultural desire to have a son
• economical bonus: men could work in the field
• children considered to be social security
• politics: stronger China against America
• previously poor medical infrastructure- high infant mortality rate
• flood 1959-1962: 20 million died

In 1965 the birth rate had grown to 40 births per 1000 until politicians realised the growing problem and launched the One Family One Child Policy in 1979.

Positive consequences of the policy:

• better education and skilled workforce
• average fertility reduced to 1.7
• low urban poverty

Negative consequences of the policy:

• female foeticide
• forced abortion
• abnormal sex ratio/ imbalanced
• more divorce: desire to have a boy
• lack of working population to support old dependents
• girls abandoned, killed, in orphanage

Exceptions to the policy:

• Han-Chinese allowed a second child
• rural areas
• ethnic minorities

Germany: Pro-natal population policy

In Germany, the fertility rate is well below replacement level, having dropped to 1.38 births per woman in 2012. Birth rates have been falling for many years, and the youth plus the immigrants will be unable to support  Germany’s ageing population.

For this reason, Germany has adopted several measures that attempt to encourage families to have more children:

• paid maternity leave and parental leave
• tax breaks to tax payers that have children
• eliminating fees for kindergarden
• free schooling

  Japan: Population distribution in a densely populated country

With a population of around 130 million (2015), and a population density of 336 people per km² (2015),  Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.

Uneven population distribution

Sparsely populated rural areas: very few people live on the mountainous slopes in the centre of Honshu island and the south of Shikoku island, because of:

• Lack of flat land for cultivation
• Thin, infertile and acidic soils
• Extreme climate: long cold winters with heavy snow
• Remoteness and isolation: transport and communication are difficult
• Few jobs available (only in forestry/ primary sector)

Densely populated rural areas : many people live on the flat valleys and gentle slopes of Honshu and Kyushu islands because they:

• provide fertile land for cultivation and thus, have attracted many farmers
• attract commuters who work in the cities through the high standard of living and services such as out-of-town shopping malls and sports facilities.

Densely populated urban areas: many people live in towns and cities along the coast, especially on Honshu island, in the conurbation of Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka; because of:

• flat land with mild winters
• good service provision like universities and technologically advanced hospitals and health facilities
• good transport facilities such as the Port of Tokyo to facilitate the import of raw materials and the export of manufactured goods

Canada: A Sparsely populated country

With a population of around 35 million (2015), and a population density of 3.87 people per km² in 2013, Canada is considered a sparsely populated country.

Canada is sparsely populated due to the following reasons:

• many mountainous areas eg. Canadian Rockies close to the west coast
• permafrost in the Northern areas (high latidtudes) so land is too cold for agriculture
• snow and ice make transport difficult, especially in less developed areas (ie. the inner provinces of Canada)

Canada: Population distribution

The population of Canada is clustered in the Southern areas; because, the cold Arctic climate makes cultivation impossible and it is rather unpleasant to live in those cold areas. Also, more people live in Eastern areas, since the West has mountainous areas such as the Canadian Rockies that are too steep to farm on easily and challenging for construction and transport.

Russia: Population decline

Russia has a population growth rate of -0.3%. This has been caused by factors like:

• high death rate of 13 deaths per 1000, particularly due to alcohol-related deaths
• low fertility rate of 1.6 children per woman
• high rates of abortion
• low levels of immigration
• underuse of health facilities, resulting in rising costs
• education cannot be sustained in all areas (particularly sparsely populated)
• resources not fully exploited, leading to lower GDP
• lack of workers may result in economic recession
• pro-natal population policies, eg. financial support for parents who choose to have a second child
• robotisation/development of tertiary sector to prevent lack of workers

Uganda: High population growth rate

Uganda has a population growth rate of more than 3% due to its high birth rate of 44 births per 1000 people per year. This has been caused by factors such as:

• low socio-economic status of women
• low educational levels, especially among females
• early marriage
• low use of contraception due to limited access and poverty
• political statements encouraging more babies as some areas in Uganda have a low population density

Problems of high population growth:

• Health sector faces human and infrastructural shortages
• Primary education could not be sustained in all areas
• Insufficient employment opportunities, especially for poorly educated
• Threatens agricultural modernisation as population pressure increases deforestation, soil erosion and land degration
• Pressure on resources, especially in urban areas

Solutions to reduce population growth:

• Widespread availability of contraception
• Universal access to education, jobs and health care and female emancipation
• Promotion of scientific and technical development (tertiary sector)
• Promotion of new modes of production (modernisation and commercialisation of agriculture)
• Growth with equity/sustainable development

For more information visit: Population growth rate in Uganda

Uganda: Youthful population

In 2014, 48.7% of Uganda’s population were young dependents under the age of 15.

• high fertility rate (many children per woman) and high birth rate
• high infant mortality rate encourages more births so some will survive
• children considered social and economic asset

• few old dependents that have to be supported
• possibly a large workforce in future
• Overpopulation if growth is not regulated, resulting in overcrowding, construction of shanty towns, lower standard of life, increased pollution, depletion of resources and food shortages (which encourage deforestation resulting in soil exhaustion and lower yields), as wells as future unemployment
• Stress on tax payers to support young dependents and finance development of necessary infrastructure

United Kingdom: Ageing population

The percentage of elderly dependents (+65 years) has increased by 3% from 15% in 1980 to 18% in 2014.

• Elderly people can share skills and knowledge to train the younger generation
• Elderly people promote the development of grey economies (such as health care, specialised facilities, other facilities desired by elderly, etc.)

An increase in the percentage of elderly dependents is a strain on the working population as higher taxation is required to support the pensions of the elderly and to fund services such as health care and specialised homes. Government-funded pensions may have to shrink to cover everybody, leaving many people with less to spend (and some in poverty). In contrast, services for younger people , such as schools, are underused . These services may then have to close (eg. Woodly School in North Yorkshire which shut in 2012 due to a lack of students). As a result, some people may be left unemployed. Also, there are not enough economically active people, causing a lack of workforce and making it harder to defend the country.

HIV/AIDS: Botswana

Botswana is a landlocked country, north of South Africa. UNAIDS estimates that 400,000 people in Botwana live with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).

HIV/AIDS is transferred through bodily fluids. In Botswana, this occurs mainly during sexual intercourse or from mother to child during pregnancy. AIDS can also spread via contaminated blood transfusions or contaminated needle use (usually in drug users).

As a LEDC country Botswana is particularly vulnerable to HIV because of:

• poor sex education (people are unaware of the consequences of unprotected sex)
• low availability of contraception: many people have unprotected sex
• low status of women: women can not disapprove of unprotected sex, as they are perceived as child bearers
• low availabilty of medical treatment and testing: many people are unaware that they are infected so the disease spreads easily
• poverty: few people can afford anti-retroviral drugs to control the severity of the symptoms

Consequences of HIV/AIDS:

• High death rate and lower life expectancy, especially in economically active population
• Falling birth rate due to abstinence (fear of becoming infected), so people have less children
• Decreased labour pool reduces agricultural and industrial output, causing food shortages and poverty, thus preventing economic growth
• AIDS education programme: used mass media to reach 500,000 students and teach them about HIV/AIDS
• Offering free condoms to population
• Improvements in HIV testing and anti-retroviral drugs in government clinics

For more information visit: https://www.patana.ac.th/Secondary/Geography/IB/Population/AIDs%20Botswanna.htm

Syria to Germany: International Refugee Migration

Approximately 13 million Syrians are escaping the war between the Assad regime and non-state armed forces, 800,000 of which have come to Germany so far.

Many are fleeing from barrel bombings and shootings that have destroyed their houses and killed family members. Also, the refugees are attempting to avoid political persecution, as the goverment has arrested and tortured civilians who they think could be working against them. Others are emigrating to prevent being abused by radically religious groups such as IS, who have trained child soldiers and organised kidnappings and extrajudicial executions .

Many seek asylum in Germany, because the country provides economic stability as the current unemployment rate is low, and many sectors will be looking for suitable workers as Germany’s population continues to age. Besides, Germany is perceived as a country that protects and promotes human rights, offering food, shelter and language courses to refugees .

Rural Settlement (LEDC): Korodegaga village

Korodegaga village – near Addis Ababa in Ethiopia – consists of nine small hamlets with 1400 people in total.

The area was first settled in th 20th century because of:

• water supply from two rivers
• flat, fertile soil for cultivation
• extensive forests for building and firewood

Services provided include: a grain mill, mosques and schools. Villagers walk to the neighbouring towns of Dera and Bofa to access a local market and shops.

Braunschweig: Settlement size and service provision

Braunschweig is a district in Lower Saxony, Germany, with a population of around 250,000 inhabitants. The majority ofinhabitants live in the city of Braunschweig, which has the best provision of services (more than 20 schools, 5 hospitals, and a dense network of public transport, which includes, busses, trains and trams). In contrast, the village of Querum, which is also part of the district of Braunschweig, has a population of around 6000 inhabitants only has one doctor’s surgery, and one primary school, as it does not have the threshold population to support higher-order services.

Rural settlement (MEDC): Hötzum, Lower Saxony, Germany

Hötzum has a population of around 900 people. Its function is mainly residential, with most people working in the nearby cities of Braunschweig and Wolfenbüttel.

Map  by: OpenStreetMap und Mitwirkende Source: OpenStreetMap Licence: CC BY-SA 2.0 Mapicons by: Nicolas Mollet Source: Maps Icons Collection Licence: CC BY SA 3.0

The area was first known to be settled by farmers in the 11th century and by the 18th century, the village had 4 arable farms, a shepherd and 6 horsefarms.

The area was initially settled because of:

• water supply from the Hötzumerbach and the Feuergraben
• flat, fertile land for arable and pastoral farming
• extensive forests which provided many logfelling opportunities

Currently there are very few services available (only a church, a community hall, a sports field and a volunteer fire brigade), but villagers can access the neighbouring village of Sickte for basic services and the cities of Wolfenbüttel and Braunschweig for all other needs.

Urban settlement: New York

Currently, New York is the largest city in the US, with a population of around 8 million people.

Site and situation:

• at a sheltered, natural harbour formed by Hudson river, which provided safe, deep anchorage and an extensive waterfront for the development of docks
• Hudson river allowed for transport and communication
• rocky ridge on Island of Manhatten allowed for easy defence

CBD’s:

• Downtown Manhatten: Wall Street (finance district of New York)
• Midtown Manhatten: tourist district, including Fifth Avenue (shopping), Broadway (theatre), hotels, Empire State Building, Chrysler and United Nations Buildings

Urban problems:

• Urban sprawl (middle class moves to the outer areas and lower-income families move into the inner city): due to population growth, relocation of businesses to suburbs for cheaper land and better accessibility
• Poverty and unemployment : around 1 million citizens receive welfare support due to unemployment and poor education caused by a decline in the clothing and harbour induestries in the 1980’s
• Urban decay and housing problems
• Racial conflicts due to a large number of immigrants that become trapped in poverty
• Air pollution as there are too many cars that release toxic exhaust fumes
• Traffic congestion as there are too many vehicles on the road and due to bottlenecks linking various New York Islands
• Water pollution from oil spills

Solution schemes:

• Reduction in air pollution by fitting catalytic converters to the exhausts of diesel city busses and developing a biodiesel plant in Brooklyn to distribute biodiesel to filling stations in the city.
• Reducing energy consumption by using more efficient street light and traffic lights, using renewable energy sources (wind, underwater turbines) to power homes and public buildings
• Waste management plan using barges and trains to export 90% of the city’s waste

Employment structure: Netherlands

Employment in the Netherlands is shifting more and more towards a service-based economy, while the proportion of people working in the primary and secondary sectors is at an all-time low.

While just under 7% of the workforce was employed in agriculture in 1970, this number has dipped to just under 2% in 2020, as machines and new technology have replaced the need for manual labour. Employment in industrial manufacturing and production has also fallen, in this case from over 35% to around 15% of the workforce. This comes as the country outsourced much of its manufacturing to China and East-Asia, and focussed more on highly specialist and complex services. Today, the country is home to several world-leading universities including TU Delft and the University of Amsterdam, and boasts many SaaS start-ups and software companies in urban areas like Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The growth of the tertiary sector may also be explained by favourable tax policies that encourage large service-dominated businesses to relocate to the Netherlands, along with a progressively more skilled workforce, as the number of university graduates has increased substantially between 1950 and 2020.

Squatter settlement in Rio de Janiero

Rio de Janiero is the second largest city in Brazil and has a population of 6 million people, of which nearly 17% – 1 million people- are favela-dwellers, living in the slums (called favelas) due to the extremely uneven distribution of wealth.

There are many problems for the shanty town inhabitants:

• Landslides: As the flat land in Rio de Janiero is inhabited by wealthier communties, most favelas are constructed on the mountainous slopes, where landslides are a common occurence (particularly due to excessive deforestation for firewood)
• Housing is made from scrap material which is vulnerable to flooding
• No clean water supply can lead to diseases such as typhoid, cholera or TB
• Sanitation is undeveloped or non-existent, eg. in Rocinha sewage flows down a large channel in the middle of houses. This allows disease to spread and may attract mosquitoes which are responsible for sicknesses such as malaria
• No proper electricity supply leads to dangerous tapping of electricity from the city’s power net
• Illegal activities and high crime rates due to many drug dealers, gangs and murderers

Slum upgrading strategies include :

• Increasing property rights (providing favela residents with titles to their home)
• Improving access to electricity and clean drinking water
• Local trash collection scheme: a bag of trash can be exchanged for a gallon of milk
• To reduce likelidehood of crime and improve education: toyguns can be exchanged for  comic books

Change in land use and resulting conflict: Stuttgart

In the German city of Stuttgart, the rail network is being redesigned as part of the urban development project Stuttgart 21. The construction of new rail tracks means that some of the surrounding land which was previously used for housing and agriculture is now being used for transportation purposes. This has caused significant conflict between proponents and opponents of the projects. Those in favour of the project argue that it aids urban development, as the new transport network with a high-speed railway track improves economic and social mobility. Meanwhile, those opposing the project argue that it damages the environment by contaminating groundwater, destroys historical monuments and devalues private property in the vicinity of the new railway line. Additionally, they point that the project blocks other transport network extensions in the state of Baden-Württemberg. Because of these different perspectives, Stuttgart 21 is so controversial that it has sparked regular, sometimes even violent, protests in the city.

Volcano: Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, 2010

Image from: http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfmvn=372020.

Eyjafjallajökull is a stratovolcano in Iceland, located approximately 125 km SE of the capital Reykjavik. It is found along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, where new earth crust is created.

Lava eruptions in March 2010 were followed by an explosive eruption on April 14th 2010.The lava flows damaged many homes and roads and services were disrupted due to evacuation measures.

Flooding was caused as glacial ice melted and torrents of water were flowing down the slopes of the land. Also, ash covered large plots of agricultural land, damaging the crops.

The massive ash cloud blocked air traffic in large parts of Europe for several days, leaving tourists and business people stranded at their destinations.

Immediate responses included an emergency evacuation of more than 800 people. Longterm responses are the reconstruction of damages houses and roads and research on the effect of ash on air planes.

Earthquake: Haiti, 2010

On the 12th of January 2010 a 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, the epicentre of the quake being merely 15 km SW of the capital city, Port-au-Prince.

Stress building up along the conservative margin between the North American Plate and the Carribean plate was released by slippage along the fault running parallel to the plate boundary south of Port-au-Prince. The major earthquake was followed by several aftershocks up to a magnitude of 5.0 on the Richter scale.

The earthquake resulted in approximately 230,000 deaths (massive loss of life), destruction of 180,000 homes and around 5,000 schools. It left 19 million cubic metres of debris in Port-au-Prince and many services were badly disrupted or destroyed. A major secondary effect was widespread chlora due to polluted drinking water.

Haiti suffered so much because of the widespread poverty that left more than 80% of the population in poorly constructed, high density concrete buildings. Lack of stable goverment and medical infrastructure limited search and rescue efforts. Furthermore, the earthquake had a shallow focus, resulting in severe ground shaking, and the epicentre was located close to the densely populated capital.

Short-term responses to the earthquake included search and rescue efforts, as well as the the import of food, water and shelter from the USA and Dominican Republic. Longterm responses included reparation of three-quaters of the damaged buildings. Besides, migration was common as people moved away to stay with their families. Also, people received cash or food in exchange for public reconstruction work and the World Bank pledged $US100m to support the reconstruction and recovery.

Tropical storm: Katrina, 2005

Hurricane Katrina was one of the deadliest hurricanes ever to hit the United States.

How did Katrina form?

• Levees failed to resist the force of the waves, causing 80% of New Orleans to become flooded
• More than 1000 people lost their lives
• Half a million houses were damaged in the Gulf Coast region
• Services in New Orleans were badly disrupted: no electricity, gas and sewage system for 6 months after the event
• $ 10.5 billion of immediate financial aid for the victims
• In the first two weeks after the storm, the Red Cross had brought 74,000 volunteers who provided shelter to 160,000 evacuees
• International aid from over 50 countries
• Rebuilding levees destroyed by Katrina

Tsunami in the Indian Ocean, 2004

On December 26th 2004, a tsunami occured in the Indian Ocean.

The tsunami was the direct consequence of a 9.0 magnitude earthquake that was caused by tension along the subduction zone of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. This rupture triggered massive waves that reached an altitude of up to 30m.

The tsunami resulted in 250,000 deaths, with 170,000 fatalities in Indonesia alone. 13 countries were affected by the powerful waves, and an estimated total of 2 million people have been displaced, as their houses have been destroyed.

Created by Cantus

Short term responses included search and rescue efforts in the local communities, while internationally, people sent donations to help those in need.

An early warning system has been developed to predict future tsunamis in the Indian Ocean.

Coastal problems and opportunities: Wadden Sea Islands

The Wadden Sea provides a large diversity of fish species and other seafood animals, making fishery an important industry for the local communities. Besides, tourism is well established in the area, with around 800,000 visitors annually on the Dutch island of Texel alone.

By Aotearoa (Own work)  CC-BY-SA-3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

However, the area is threatened by storm tides, particularly in fall and winter, which may cause floods that damage the unique ecosystem. Furthermore, the continuous eastward shift of the islands has eroded their westmost regions, endangering settlements such as West-Terschelling, which may submerge in future.

Coastal management strategies to protect the islands include dune grass planting and dune fencing. The newly planted grass traps and hold sand thereby reducing coastal erosion and encouraging the formation of new dunes. This makes the islands less vulnerable against erosion from storm surges.

Coral reef: Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier reef is located along the Pacific shores, where water temperatures are above 20°C. The reef grows in shallow areas (not more than 60 m deep) in the Coral sea, off the Australian coast, east of Cairns. It grows in clear water that is free of sediment so sunlight can pass through.

The Great Barrier reef is threatened by global warming, which increases coral bleaching. Besides, declining water quality (due to agricultural run-off from the rivers of North-Eastern Australia and oil from ships in discarded in the Coral Sea) pollutes the ecosystem. Also, overfishing destroys food chains and disbalances the symbiotic relationships. Furthermore, tourists may destroy parts of the reef when they go diving or reef-walking.

Management strategies:

The Australian government has made the Great Barrier reef a protected area by declaring it a marine park. The GBRMPA (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) is the ogranisation who looks after the reef and protects it from human threats while allowing sustainable development to take place. The Marine Park Authority gives out permits for fishing, diving and more and has boats patrol the area to prevent illegal activity. Tourists are educated about how their trip affects the reef and they are not allowed in certain sensitive areas. Also, fines of up to US$ 1 million can be forced on companies that pollute the fragile ecosystem.

Pollution in the North Sea

The North Sea is polluted by oil spillages from tankers in the Thames estuary washing out their tanks. As a result, oil clogs up the gills of fish, casuing them to die. Spillages also pollute the beaches along the British coast (eg. near Essex), which reduces the number of tourists. Besides pollution occurs through the disposal of untreated sewage from large urban areas such as Rotterdam, possibly possessing a human health risk along the Dutch coast. Also, pollutants from industrial waste in the Rhine river may be washed into the sea.

By Halava CC BY-SA 3.0

A spit: spurn head, holderness coast, uk.

Spurn head  is a sand and shingle ridge that extends from the headland south of Easington. It has been formed along the Holderness coast under the influence of prevailing winds from the North which result in wave refraction. Subsequently, longshore drift transports the coastal sediments, which deposit in the sheltered mouth of the Humber estuary.

Spurn Head, Holderness Coast

Ynyslas Dunes, Wales, UK

The Ynyslas Dunes in Wales have been formed by deposition, which occured as energy of winds blowing from Cardigan Bay was reduced. Westerly onshore winds picked up dry sand from the wide beach at the estuary of the Dovey (Dyfi) river. Obstructions on the beach caused a sheltered area. Maram grass colonised dunes and trapped further sand.

Bangladesh: Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta

The Ganges Delta in Bangladesh is the most populous river delta in the world. Around 30% of its population work in agriculture, as rice cultivation is well developed due to the fertile soils. Also, fishing is very prominent, as the distributaries are colonised by shrimps. However, the Ganges Delta is threatened by floods, especially from heavy rainfall during the monsoon season and icewater runoff from the slopes of the Himalaya.

Image of Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta from NASA

Water supply: colorado river basin.

The Colorado river originates from the Rocky Mountains, passing through 7 states before reaching Mexico. It is estimated that 40 million people rely on water from the 2,300 km long stream for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. Many dams and canals have been built to control this extreme demand; therefore, the Colorado river is one of the most controlled rivers in the world.

By Shannon, CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0

In 1922, the Colorado River Compact was introduced to divide the water supply between the states of the Upper and Lower Basin of the river, with each group being allocated 9.25 trillion litres of water each year. In 1944, a treaty was introduced to guarantee 1.85 trillion litres to Mexico.

Despite all these management agreements, problems over the river’s resources have arisen, because:

• River was commited to deliver 20.35 trillion litres per year, but only brought about 17.25 trillion litres anually
• Evaporation from lakes has remove 2.5 trillion litres, and even less during periods of drought
• Demand for water has increased, due to population growth and more irrigation for farmland.

Environmental problems:

• Alluvium becomes trapped behind dams (eg. Hoover Dam), damaging the delta and wetland ecosystem at the mouth of the Colorado river
• Salinity has increased in the lower basin, altering the ecosystem
• Reduction in the population of fish, shrimps and sea mammals

Resource management strategies:

• Reducing leakage from broken pipes
• Use of grey water in domestic homes
• Domestic conservation
• Improving irrigation (using drip irrigation) or growing crops with a lower demand for water
• Extraction water from ground water supplies
• Desalinisation of water from the Pacific ocean

(Information from: Greenfieldgeography )

China: Three Gorges Dam

The Three Gorges Dam is located near Yichang on the Yangtse River in China. It is approximately 180 m high and 2.3 km wide and has taken almost 17 years to construct.

The dam has protected 10 million people from flooding and its 32 generators provide energy for 60 million people (each generagtor produces as much energy as a small nuclear powerplant), enabling China to reduce its dependency on coal. It also allows shipping above the Three Gorges and has 6-folded the water traffic capacity. Also, the dam has created many jobs.

  Model of the Three Gorges Dam

However, the dam meant that 1 million people had to be moved to accomodate the reservoir and power stations. The Three Gorges Dam also interferes with aquatic life, being a major threat to the White Flag Dolphin, which is already at risk from extinction. Furthermore, the large masses of silt transported by the Yangtse deposit behind the dam, which reduces the storage capacity of the reservoir. Besides, the dam lies on a fault line and could be badly affected by an earthquake.

Central European floods 2013

Extreme flooding in Europe began after heavy rainfall in May and early June 2013. Precipitation at the northern rim of the Alps exceeded 300mm over four days. This, along with an already high soil moisture from the wet spring weather, gave rise to severe flood discharges in the Danube and Elbe rivers. Many dykes failed due to the pressure from the water masses, worsening the situation. Flash flooding was recorded in Warsaw as a result of a heavy thunderstorm.

25 fatalities have been recorded due to the 2013 floods. Thousands of people were evacuated in Germany, the Czech Republic and Austria. The total devastation amounted to 12billion €, with crop losses acounting for 1billion € worth of damage.  River traffic was blocked for several weeks and many railway lines were closed due to flood damage and landslides.

By Honza Groh (Jagro) (Own work) CC BY-SA 3.0

Short-term responses included search and rescue efforts and emergency evacuations. Members of the Red Cross built shelter camps for displaced residents. Military soldiers established sand bag walls to control the Elbe and Danube rivers and protect buildings in areas such as Dresden and Passau. In some rural regions, levees were destroyed to allow the water to escape onto flood plains and prevent uncontrolled damage downstream.

The governments of Germany, Austria and the Czech Republik are investigating into longterm measures to reduce the aftermath of future floods. Suggestions include reducing construction activities on flood plains and creating spillways to divert part of the flow in case of high discharge. Some dykes will be raised and stabilised to protect particularly vulnerable regions.

2011 East African Drought

The 2011 drought in Ethiopia,Djibouti, Kenya and Somalia was caused by the La Nina phenomenon, an ocean current in the Pacific which increased the intensity of westerly winds in the Indian ocean, pulling moisture away from East Africa and towards Australia and Indonesia.

• Most crops failed and 60% of cattle perished due to a lack of water
• Severe food crisis: lots of people suffer from starvation or malnourishment
• Thousands fled to refugee camps in hope of food aid from other countries, but many people died of starvation or disease en route

India: Thar Desert, Rajastan

The Thar Desert is dry as hot air rises at the equator and cools. The moistureholding capacity decreases; it rains. As the air moves away from the equator by advection, it cools and sinks at the tropics (where the desert is located). The sinking air warms up and its moisture-holding capacity increases, so the area is very dry. With the low humidity, there are few clouds to reflect the sunlight and as there is no evaporative cooling, most of the sunlight warms the ground surface, creating hot temperatures.

Vegetation:

Low precipitation and temperatures of up to 53°C result in scattered vegetation that has adapted to the extreme conditions. For instance, the Ber tree has a rapidly developing taproot system to survive in drought conditions. However, exept for a few trees, the desert is home to thorny bushes and shrubs. These have spiky leaves to reduce rates of evapotranspiration. Xerophilious grass has a small surface area to reduce water loss. Some species als remain dormant during long dry spells.

The Thar Desert is threatened by excessive irrigation which leads to salinization. Therefore plants can not take up water from th soil, as the soil has greater concentrations of solute than the roots. Soil quality is also decreasing as manure is used as an alternative fuel for firewood rather than to sustain nutrient-rich, fertile soils. Furthermore, population pressure results in overcultivation and overgrazing, especially around cities like Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, damaging the natural vegetation. The desert environment is also threatened by tourist attractions such as dune bashing. The toyotarisation disturbs animals, kills vegetation and creates dust stroms. Also, tourists may dump waste in the desert, poisoning flora and fauna.

Tropical Rainforest in Borneo

Borneo has experienced the fastest tropical rainforest clearance in the world. While 94 % of the island’s land was covered by forest in 1950, less than half of it remains today (44.5% in 2010).

The rainforest has been cleared for the following reasons:

• to boost Malaysia’s economy by exporting timber for furniture and paper production
• population pressure : Indonesia’s transmigration programme caused people to move from overcrowded islands as Java to relatively sparsely populated areas as Kalimantan
• to build palm oil plantations
• HEP : forest clearance to provide space for a reservoir in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo)
• coal mining in Kalimantan

By T. R. Shankar Raman (Own work) CC BY-SA 4.0

Effects of clearance:

• atmospheric pollution – burning of forest releases enermous masses of ash and smoke
• global warming due to the release of Co2 from burning forests and reduction in carbon sink (as burnt trees do not absorb CO2 by photosynthesis)
• loss of biodiversity : loss of plant species through deforestation
• destruction of habitat: some species (eg. orang-utans) are unprotected due to lower forest cover
• loss of soil fertiliy : soil degration due to soil erosion and leaching
• Afforestation/reforestation and selective logging
• Promoting rainforests as destinations for ecotourism , enabling the undisturbed environment to create a source of income for local people without it being damaged or destroyed
• World-wide initiatives including debt-for-nature swaps: debt relief for retaining rainforests

Tourism in Lanzarote

With more than 2 million visitors annually,  tourism represents the major pillar of Lanzarote’s economy

• Climate: average water temperature of 20°C, and average air temperature of 21°C, very little rainfall and 8.5 hours of sunshine each day
• Numerous luxury and package hotels on beaches eg. Playa Blanca
• Jameos del Agua: an underground lagoon in a lava tube
• Timanfaya National Park
• El Golfo: an emerald green lake situated at the base of a crater on the west coast of the island
• Cueva de los Verdes
• Cactus Garden by Cesar Manrique
• Since the 1980’s , package holidays have created a source of income to promote the development of basic infrastructures, such as the extension of the airport runway to allow for international flights
• Employment opportunities in tourist industries eg. hotels, gastronomy, transport, tour guides

Disadvantages:

• Import leakage to fulfil tourist demands such as food, because only few types of vegetation can thrive on Lanzarote’s arid, volcanic soils

  Ecotourism in Belize

With 245 000 tourists annually, in 2007, over 25% of all jobs were in tourism, which made up over 18% of Belize’s GDP.

Primary and secondary attractions:

• Mangrove swamps
• Mountain pine forests and tropical rainforests
• Archaeological sites eg. Mayan civilization
• Wildlife reserves eg. Coxcomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary

How tourist demands are managed:

• Belize Tourist board, Ministry of Tourism and private sector
• Community Baboon Sanctuary to preserve forest habitat and howler monkeys: sustainable farming to increase yield and services for tourists

Problems/Threats:

• Waste dumping and financial leakage due to cruise tourism
• Overfishing
• Coral damage and eutrophication of freshwater from fertilizer runoff
• conserve world heritage site of barrier reef
• increase knowledge of country’s ecosystems through training programmes
• reduce concentration of tourists in specific areas
• support planning and development of a buffer zone
• stricter regulations on cruise ships to reduce waste dumping
• persuade cruise tourists to spend more time on land

Maldives: Tourism as a development strategy

The Maldives are located south-west of India in the Indian ocean and consist of more than 1000 islands.

Tourism accounts for 28% of the Maldives’ GDP and more than 60% of its foreign exchange receipts.

Natural attractions:

• sea-sun-sand combination

Man-made attractions:

• luxury resorts and suites eg. Taj Exotica Resort and Spa on South Male Atoll
• Grand Friday Mosque in Male attracts religious tourists
• Water provided by desalination of sea water
• Energy produced by generators
• Waste dumped in landfill sites or sea (this problem is addressed by the compulsory installation of incinerators, bottle crushers and compactors in all resorts)
• Import leakage due to poor agricultural potential and no economic minerals
• External shocks: sea-level rise, tsunamis, terrorism, etc.
• Depletion of natural resources and climate change

How tourism in damaging the natural environment:

On the Maldives, tropical coconut palms are destroyed for building hotels. Consequently, the ecosystem is threatened as food chains are destroyed or disrupted. For example, lizards loose their natural habitat. Animals are also scared away by traffic. Besides, a ferry from Male every 10 minutes pollutes the seas, threatening the corals. The reefs are also destroyed as tourists take samples home and leave litter on the beaches that may kill reef fish. The atmosphere is polluted by the incineration of waste.

• Encourage linkage between tourism and other sectors as construction, manufacturing and transport (multiplier effect)
• Encourage foreign investment in the development of new resorts
• Increase employment
• Encourage solar and wind power

Global warming management: Maldives

The Maldives are located in the Indian Ocean, only 1,5 m above sea level on average, with 80% percent of the land below 1m.

By Giorgio Montersino on Flickr Licence: CC-BY-SA-2.0

Global warming is a substantial threat to the Maldives, as an increase in temperatures leads to the melting of icebergs, causing sea level rise that may submerge the island group.

The Maldivian Government has built a 3m high sea wall that surrounds the island of Male, to protect it from flooding and preserve its beaches. The sea wall was funded by the Japanese government.

Also, the Maldives plan to be a carbon neutral country by 2019. In other words, they try to avoid adding Co2 to the atmosphere, as carbon dioxide is considered to be responsible for global warming. This should be accomplished by encouraging the development of solar and wind energy.

Fuelwood in Mali:

Image from: Flickr by M Poudyal on 6. April 2007

For local people: The large-scale deforestation that is required to  supply for sufficient energy is problematic, as this energy source is likely to run out if not enough trees will be planted. Besides, deforestation requires people to travel farther to collect enough fuelwood. Deforestation also exposes the soil (as trees cannot trap it) so soil erosion is likely to occur. Furthermore, the burning of fuelwood releases toxic gases which may be trapped in the houses, causing breathing problems or even carbon monoxide poisoning.

Environmental: The widespread deforestation has reduced the humidity of the already dry region, as less plants release water by evapotranspiration.  Also, less roots are anchored in the soil, so the soil is more likely to be eroded. Furthermore, soil salinization is increased, as the cut-down trees no longer provide shade for the soil and the hot temperatures-caused by the desert climate of the Sahel- draw water out of the soil. As an increased soil concentration is poisonous to a large variety of plant species, the natural vegetation will be less likely to grow, and crop cultivation may be hampered.

Two other case studies on fuelwood:

http://geography-student.blogspot.de/2012/06/fuelwood-issues-with-usage-possiblities.html

Geothermal energy in Iceland:

Iceland is located along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, a divergent boundary where heat from the core of the Earth rises to the surface. The energy produced from this heat equates to around 30% of Iceland’s electricity production.

Cold water is pumped down to the igneous rock layers, where it is heated by contact with the hot rocks. The hot water is then piped up and the heat energy is converted to electricity.

Positive aspects:

• emission-free
• sustainable and potentially infinite
• 3/4 of the population live near geothermal sources (in the south-west of Iceland, near Reykjavik)

Negative aspects:

• obstruction that consumes land
• visual pollution
• regional limitations
• may release dangerous underground gases

(More information on: http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/geography/iceland-geothermal-energy-case-study.html )

Solar power in India

India is particularly suitable for solar power due its large mass of land and its tropical location. Besides, solar power is considered a successful means to address India’s development problems.

Advantages of solar power:

• safe and pollution-free
• great potential in rural areas that are isolated from the national electricity grids eg. Dharnai village
• can be used effectively for low power uses as central heating

Disadvantages of solar power

• ineffective in high latitude countries and cloudy areas
• high initial capital input
• less effective for high output uses

Future plans:

• establishing an airport that relies solely on solar power in Cochin
• developing 50 solar cities
• creating world’s largest solar power station in Madhya Pradesh

Wind energy in Germany

Around 9% of the energy produced in Germany comes from wind turbines located both on shore and off-shore (in the North Sea and Baltic Sea).

Wind farms have been built in Germany starting from the 1990s, when awareness of Co2 as a contributing factor to global warming increased.

Primarily, the government fostered the production of onshore wind energy, as technical challenges prevented off-shore farms. The onshore farms were recognised as a cheap form of renewable energy, which does not contribute to air pollution, global warming or acid rain. On the other hand, people did not want to live near wind farms, as these were considered a form of visual pollution.

This issue was resolved by the development of off-shore farms, which are also more productive as there is more wind out at sea. However, the required network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern Germany have not yet been constructed.

Energy Supply in China

China sources most of its energy from non-renewable sources, with coal-powered plants accounting for roughly 65% of the country’s energy supply in 2020, according to data from the International Energy Association . Renewable sources accounted for another 30% of the country’s energy mix. In China, hydropower is the most-widespread source of renewable energy, and the country boasts many dams, including the Three Gorges Dam, which is the largest dam in the world. Wind, nuclear energy and solar power are also becoming more important as the country aims to transition to cleaner and more efficient energy sources, following the president’s call for an energy revolution.

Plantation: Rubber farming in Malaysia

Plantations are large farms producing a single cash crop (monoculture).

• tropical climate (21-28°C,  around 2000mm rainfall)
• Chinese and Indian labour imported to increase labour force
• location: lower mountain slopes forming the backbone of Malay peninsula; near railway lines and main port

• Planting in germination beds
• Tapping 5-7 years after planting to collect latex
• Latex is coagulated using acid
• Raw rubber washed and rolled to remove acid ad moisture
• Rubber is dried and smoked for stabilisation

Extensive commercial farming: Canadian prairies

• deep, fertile Chernozem soils
• large expanse of flat land (nearly 2 million square kilometres) to grow wide variety of cereals such as wheat, oats etc. in the provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan
• able to use large machinery for harvesting
• below zero temperatures in winter break up soil to allow ease of ploughing
• good railway link to Great Lakes allowing export of cereal crops

Human inputs:

There is a very heavy reliance on machinery for ploughing, planting, spraying the crop and harvesting. A large proportion of expenditure goes toward machinery, chemicals and other equipment. Most of the work can be handled by just a few workers using machines such as combine harvesters and harrows. One or two extra helpers may be hired during planting or harvest time.

from: http://www.geoforcxc.com/economic-activities/wheat-farming-in-canada/

Intensive farming: Rice cultivation in Ganges Valley

• Alluvial (silt) soils
• Large labour force
• Temperatures: >21°C
• Monsoon rainfall and dry spells

• Bufallo manure for fertilising
• Weather conditions such as flooding or drought may threaten rice yields
• Monopoly of land: best farmland is owned by few wealthy people, other land owners struggle to cultivate rice in more difficult conditions, especially as they do not have the technology to increase soil fertility
• Little use of machinery and modern methods
• Food shortages: Overpopulation results in overcultivation on flood plains, leading to soil exhaustion and lower yields

Information from: http://geographyfieldwork.com/RiceFarm.htm

Pastoral farming in New Zealand

New Zealand is well known for its agricultural output from sheep farming and dairy farming.

Sheep farming inputs:

• Sheep were brought to New Zealand in the 1800s by British sailors. Initially, the sheep had few natural enemies, so their numbers increased rapidly.
• The sheep are also well adapted to the mild climate and the rich pasture, particularly on the mountainous slopes of South Island.

• Shearing to obtain wool

Sheep farming outputs:

• Meat: beaf and veel
• Sheep manure for fertilizing

Dairy farming inputs:

• Mild climate with high rates of precipitation
• Alluvial and volcanic soils on the flat planes of New Zealand

Dairy farming processes:

Dairy farming outputs:

Subsistence farming: Shifting cultivation in Amazon Rainforest, Brazil

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural practice in which areas of land are cultivated temporarily and abandoned as they become infertile. This allows the land to revert to its natural vegetation and is a sustainable farming technique. Shifting cultivation is mainly practised by indigineous tribes.

Subsistence farming in Lesotho

Lesotho is a landlocked country that borders South Africa. It relies heavily on subsistence farming, with an estimated 86% of the country’s population growing their own crops and maintaining livestock.

Subsistence farming is common in the lowlands northwest of Maseru, where the terrain is flat and thus suited for the cultivation of crops. In mountainous areas, many farmers also raise livestock to compensate for the lower yields from cultivation on mountain slopes.

Additionally,  subsistence farmers in vast parts of Lesotho raise livestock, which can be sold during drought years when crop yields are low. This provides food security for the farmer’s family.

Food shortages in South Sudan

In South Sudan, nearly 4 million people are severely affected by food shortages.

• Drought: Long-term decline in rainfall in southern Sudan (by 20% since 1970s)
• High population growth (4% in 2013) increases demand for food, so unsustainable farming practices such as overgrazing and overcultivation are used, resulting in land degradation and soil erosion
• Reliance on food imports from neighbouring countries: Uganda, Kenya and Sudan
• Civil war between government and rebel forces disrupts planting and harvesting and insecurity along transport routes has hampered the delivery of food and other humanitarian supplies

Water supply in Puglia, Italy

Puglia is one of the most water-scarce regions in Italy, and has very few fresh streams or natural rivers. Its aquifers are vulnerable to contamination by seawater, and so the area’s inhabitants b uilt a large aqueduct to tap into the fresh drinking water from an underground spring in the Campania region , located more than 160 km away. 

Today, cities in the Puglia region (such as Bari) still receive some of their water for domestic use from this original aqueduct. However, precipitation in the Campania region has become less frequent in recent years, and so less water is draining into the aquifer that feeds the acqueduct.

Therefore, Puglia also gets around 250 million cubic meters of water every year from the neighboring region of Basilicata . The local authorities have even considered piping water in across the Adriatic Sea from Albania, to help the region cope with supply shortages.

Soil erosion in Nepal

25% of Nepalese forest was removed between 1990 and 2005 and this trend continues at a rate of 3% per year.

Causes of land degradation in Nepal:

• Deforestation for fuelwood exposes soil to heavy monsoon rainfalls as there will be less vegetation to protect it, causing it to be washed away by extreme surface runoff. Besides, soil is not held together by tree roots, so it can be eroded by icewater runoff from melting glaciers.
• Soil dries out in areas of low rainfall and strong winds can then remove the loose particles
• Agricultural mismanagemnet: poor farming practises such as overcultivation and overgrazing (which deplete the soil’s nutrients) damage the ground vegetation and result in the compaction of topsoil
• Soil pollution through excessive use of persticides poisons bacteria and fungi and thereby disrupts symbiotic relationships

• Crop rotation prevents depletion of nutrients and replenishes soil fertility
• Contour ploughing rather than ploughing up and down the slopes to prevent rapid run-off, gully formation and loss of soil
• Fuelwood conservation: replacing trees where deforestation has taken place or is going to occur
• Environmental education: restrict tourist visits and demand larger fee for use of heating and cooking facilities; environmental education in schools

Transport risks and benefits: Expansion of Heathrow

Discussions about an expansion of Heathrow Airport, Europe`s busiest airport by passenger traffic, arose in 2006, and still, no final decision has been made, as supporters and opposition have been arguing about the benefits and disadvantages for 10 years.

Benefits of an expansion:

• Enhancing economic growth in the UK: Heathrow functions as a major transport hub for both business travellers and tourists, transporting around 70 million passengers annually
• Benefits for financial services industry in London and other independent firms eg. inflight catering, security services
• Better connectivity to other international cities, as more destinations can be scheduled
• Waiting times would be reduced as the airport operates at a lower capacity
• Construction provides up to 100,000 jobs

Disadvantages of an expansion:

• Increase in emission of greenhouse gases from additional flights
• Community destruction: removal of 4000 houses to make space for a runway
• Increased noise and air pollution in West London due to an increase in flights: roaring airplane engines and their exhaust fumes
• Impact on wildlife

High technology industry: Cambridge Science Park

Cambridge Science Park is a Europe’s largest centre for commercial research and development. It is located near Cambridge in the United Kindom, as Cambridge University provides a large supply of expert labour and allows for the sharing of technology. Besides, a large plot of land (152 acres/61.5 hectares) had been available for a low cost, as the facility is located outside of the urban area around London. Nevertheless, good transport facilities exist, including the M11 motorway link to London for the export of finished products and London Stansted International Airport which allows for worldwide trade.

Manufacturing industry: Pakistan’s Iron and Steel Industry

• flat, cheap land available at Pipri, near Gharo Creek
• near Port Qasim, which has a natural harbour to import raw materials and export steel
• close to market: steel-using industries in Karachi, such as tool making
• energy source from Pipri thermal power station and Karachi nuclear power station
• availability of cheap labour from Karachi
• along a railway: Karachi-Pipri-Kotri and metalled roads
• economic assistance from USSR: technical expertise and capital
• water required for making steel brought from Lake Haleji
• heating of ore to separate iron
• burning coke
• rolling into sheets and cutting into lenghts
• cast iron and pig iron
• gases: sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide
• noise pollution from machinery disturbs wildlife
• visual pollution due to large, ugly factory buildings
• air pollution from burning iron ore, which releases carbon dioxide
• water pollution from contaminated cooling water, scrubber effluent and ships supplying raw materials
• depletion of freshwater supplies due to excessive requirement of water in production
• risk of fire and explosions

MNC: MC Donald’s

MC Donald’s is a company at the forefront of globalisation, with more than 35,000 outlets in 121 countries world wide. Founded in the United States in 1940, the company began as a barbecue restaurant operated by Richard and Maurice McDonald. Mc Donald’s employes nearly 2 million people to sell fast food.

• Each new store that is build creates jobs (eg. opening of Mc Donalds at Kennedybrücke in Vienna created 30 new jobs)
• Mc Donalds is involved in youth sports, local charities, and other inspiring events by donating via its charities.
• Salaries vary per country, and are generally low
• Sometimes considered to have poor working conditions

Facebook: A Transnational Corporation and its global links

Facebook is the biggest social network and social media platform in the world, connecting more than 2.8 billion people in the world.

Facebook has close links to businesses all of over the world, as it not only owns the messenger service Whatsapp and the social media platform Instagram, but also offers advertising space through its Facebook Ads service, and allows retailers and people to sell and trade goods in its market place.

In the past, Facebook has also come under fire for data partnerships with other TNCs including, but limited to, Amazon, Microsoft, Yahoo and Spotify. However, amidst privacy concerns, the company has had to reduce the strength of its global links, and is instead shifting towards a slightly more localised global approach.

Nonetheless, Facebook continues to maintain and develop strong global links through mergers and acquisitions, its headquarter location in Silicon Valley near other high-tech, and software firms, and its relationships with goverments and business networks all around the world.

Nike: A multinational company and its impact on less developed countries

Nike is a global sportswear company headquartered in Oregon in the United States. The company employs around 75.000 people around the world, with an additional 500.000 people working for companies to which Nike subcontracts most of its manufacturing in Eastern Asia.

Benefits for LEDCs:

• Nike factories create new jobs in countries like China, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia, allowing poorer people to earn a wage. The standard of living for many people improves, increasing the ability to access food and quality housing.
• Nike has invested in and promoted the development of transport infrastructure in the areas near the factories. Better roads make it easier for the population to get around, and this has a positive ripple effect on other economic activity.
• Poor health and safety standards are a major threat to people employed in the factories.
• Short-term contracts and payment below the national living wage also have a devastating impact on the local community. For example, in one Cambodian factory that produced apparel for Nike, several women collapsed after working 10 hour days, six days a week , and they reported feeling hungry and exhausted.
• Natural resources such as oil are being overexploited, as they are required for manufacturing. This has a negative impact on the local environment.
• Factories are often footloose. This means Nike could relocate to another less developed area if the local conditions or government policies are deemed unfavourable – with a devastating impact on employment and the local economy.

You can find out more about Nike and its impact on LEDCs here .

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)

170 thoughts on “ Case Studies ”

May 1, 2024 at 3:26 pm

Can you send me a PDF file? I really need this urgently, I have my paper 1s tomorrow and I want to print this out to help me!

May 2, 2024 at 11:11 am

Hi Sunny, I’ve sent you the PDF. All the best for your Paper 1 tomorrow.

May 1, 2024 at 8:02 am

hi thanks so much for providing this, it’s going to be such a huge help for geo this year do you mind sending a pdf copy 🙂

May 2, 2024 at 11:12 am

Should be on its way 🙂

April 28, 2024 at 12:07 pm

do you have case studies on river formations as well (ex: levees, canyons, v shaped valleys etc) and coast formation (ex: spit, bars, etc)

May 2, 2024 at 11:32 am

Hi ella, There is a case study on the formation of a spit: Spurn Head, Holderness Coast, UK on this page. as well as the Ganges delta. As far as I am aware, you only need case studies on the opportunities presented by a river/area of coast, the associated hazards and their management in the current CIE IGCSE syllabus. Best, Carina

April 28, 2024 at 12:03 pm

thank you. can i please have a pdf. also, how can i memorise all these before the test in 3 days??😭

May 2, 2024 at 11:14 am

Sure, sent it to you. I’m sure you’ll do fine – if you know the core stuff well, just focus on memorising locations/place specific info and I’m sure you’ll do fine. Most examiners don’t bother to fact check what you write anyway, so if in doubt, write what you think you remember and you might still get a point even if you’re somewhat off.

April 24, 2024 at 12:03 pm

Hi can I have to pdf copy of this. Also do you have any tips for memorising the case study

P.S Keep up the fantastic work its much appreciated 🙂

April 24, 2024 at 7:09 pm

Thanks Johnathon, I’m glad you find it helpful. I’ve sent you a PDF.

As for memorising the case studies: If you know the core material well, all you need to really remember is a place-specific reference, or something specific to that location. For example, if you have a case study on flooding, and you know a little bit about the general area where the flood occurred, you can quite easily deduce that houses may have been damaged or destroyed, railway lines and other modes of transport blocked, etc. Then all you’d have to remember is some specific fact related to the flood. What really helped me was having 2-3 specific things I knew about the location already, so I didn’t have to memorise one specific fact and hope that I remember. For example, for the Central European floods I knew (because I saw this on TV at the time) that a dike near the town of Deggendorf broke, and water rose to a record-breaking 8 metres causing the town to flood, while the Austrian stretch of the Danube saw all shipping halted. So having some kind of personal connection to or interest in the location of the case studies really helps.

Apart from that, I would just practice with a lot of past papers, and check my answers against the mark scheme. If you do 1-2 case study questions a day, you become quite good at them quickly.

Best wishes and good luck with the case studies Carina

April 19, 2024 at 12:23 pm

Please can you kindly send a pdf copy of the case studies and notes? Thank you

April 24, 2024 at 6:58 pm

Sent it to you 🙂

April 16, 2024 at 5:10 pm

do you know what the case studies 7 marker questions could be in IGCSE CIE geography 2024 may/june

April 24, 2024 at 7:27 pm

Hi Josiah, I don’t know what will come up, but my guess is something on ageing population, urban land use, coral reefs, energy use in a country, and a specific agricultural system or deforestation. Hope this helps. Best wishes, Carina

March 22, 2024 at 4:54 pm

Hi Carina! i’m new to teaching the course and after the first assessment with my students I realise they are struggling with the case study questions. Would you allow if I share these as notes with my students? If yes, may i request for a pdf, thank you so much.

Like Liked by 1 person

March 23, 2024 at 10:39 am

Hi Nikhat, Sure, feel free to share the notes with your class. I’ve sent you the PDF as well. All the best teaching the course!

March 21, 2024 at 11:27 am

can i have a pdf copy plssss

March 23, 2024 at 10:38 am

Yes, sent it to you.

March 16, 2024 at 11:33 pm

Please can you kindly send a pdf copy of the case studies? Thank you.

March 17, 2024 at 9:50 am

March 15, 2024 at 1:51 am

Hey i like this, thank you. Can i get a pdf copy of this?

March 17, 2024 at 9:51 am

Sure, is on its way 🙂

January 22, 2024 at 2:29 pm

can i have a pdf copy pls

March 17, 2024 at 9:53 am

January 15, 2024 at 11:44 pm

Very helpful notes eyy can l kindly get a PDF of these case studies please l will really appreciate

March 17, 2024 at 9:54 am

Thank you, PDF is on its way.

December 9, 2023 at 5:09 pm

Hi, Do you have case studies for flooding of a river? Thanks.

March 17, 2024 at 9:57 am

Hi Z, yes, just look for the “Central European floods” or “Danube” and “Elbe” on this page. Best, Carina

November 29, 2023 at 7:46 pm

Very useful, thank you! May I have a pdf copy?

March 17, 2024 at 9:55 am

Thanks Paula. PDF is on its way.

November 15, 2023 at 5:32 am

Thank you，it is really helpful. May I have a pdf copy of this?

November 26, 2023 at 9:51 am

Sure, sent you an e-mail

September 28, 2023 at 1:19 am

Hi. Do you have any predictions for 7 mark questions (case study) for October/November IGCSE paper 1?

September 28, 2023 at 10:06 am

Hi Y, You could get case studies on a rapidly growing urban area in a developing country, over- or underpopulation, tropical areas or hot deserts, the risks and management of coastlines, a TNC and its global links and agricultural systems. As always, please take these predictions with a grain of salt, as I have no way of knowing what will be on the exams Best of luch for your revision 🙂 Carina

August 22, 2023 at 5:03 pm

Do yo have an case studies on coasts and the causes of overpopulation and eruption in eyjajjallojokull

September 28, 2023 at 9:50 am

Hi Tanatswa, Yes, you can find the case studies on this page: https://igcsegeography.wordpress.com/revision-materials/case-studies/

August 17, 2023 at 12:01 pm

This is great and i recommend it to my students. So helpful.

June 16, 2023 at 2:22 pm

hi is there a igcse workbook with answers

June 21, 2023 at 5:33 pm

Hi Renee, Some providers such as Hodder Education seem to have IGCSE workbooks and then offer a subscription service to teachers that include answers for those workbooks. But generally the answers are very hard to get as a student – this is one of the reasons why I recommend practising with past papers, as mark schemes are usually published online if you search hard enough 🙂 Best, Carina

June 4, 2023 at 7:16 pm

These are wonderful study notes

May 9, 2023 at 6:38 pm

So useful so detailed

April 24, 2023 at 8:09 am

Hi, Do you have any case studies on urban sprawl? if so please send it.

May 1, 2023 at 10:43 am

Hi J, You can find some information on urban sprawl in Nottingham on this page: https://igcsegeography.wordpress.com/2016/06/06/case-study-answer-series-summer-2008/ Hope this helps. Best, Carina

June 21, 2023 at 4:37 am

Please send me a pdf of these case studies . They are really helpful

June 21, 2023 at 5:23 pm

Hi Gladys, Just sent you an email Best of luck Carina

April 16, 2023 at 12:15 pm

Hi, Any predictions for the IGCSE CIE Paper 1, 2 and 4? Especially for Paper 1; there is so much heavy content!!I have my first exam, paper 1 in about two weeks- Thank you!:)

April 16, 2023 at 12:26 pm

Hey Martina, Did you see my reply from February yet? I would guess that in Paper 1, you’ll see a case study on either energy or development, questions around rivers and earthquakes or volcanoes, and perhaps birth and death rates, and international migration, as well as settlement types or land use. Best, Carina

April 16, 2023 at 12:46 pm

Did not! Just checked! Thank you anyhow for answering again:)! What kind of questions could they ask us in terms of rivers earthquakes or volcanoes?

March 30, 2023 at 11:51 am

Hello. Will this apply for the 2023 October/November IGCSEs?

April 16, 2023 at 11:59 am

Hello Tshepi, These case studies might apply in October 2023, but you’re always best off checking the official syllabus: https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/Images/596947-2023-syllabus.pdf Best, Carina

March 7, 2023 at 2:48 pm

hi, do you have any predictions for march 2024 paper1?

April 16, 2023 at 11:57 am

Hey Anvi, It’s a bit early for predictions for March 2024, as the Summer 2023 papers still haven’t been completed. But feel free to ask me again in late Autumn. Best, Carina

March 20, 2024 at 1:01 am

Hey! Do you have any predictions for the march 2024 paper 1 now? I would also love it if you sent me the pdf💓

March 29, 2024 at 3:37 pm

Hi, do you have predictions for P1 May 2024?

April 24, 2024 at 7:21 pm

Hi Hanzo, I have no way of knowing what questions will be on the May 2024 paper, so please do not rely solely on my predictions as you prepare for exams. That said, I would expect population-related questions (e.g. population growth/decline, ageing population), coasts and tropical rainforests/desert environments to come up. You might also have questions about food and energy production or water supply. For case studies, I wouldn’t be surprised if they on urban land use, coral reefs, energy use in a country, and a specific agricultural system or deforestation. But please do take these predictions with a grain of salt. Best wishes for your exams Carina

February 21, 2023 at 9:18 am

Thank you so much for this! It was so so so helpful:) Any predictions for the May/June Exams this year? All of the extended papers(no course work)

February 26, 2023 at 10:19 am

Hi Martina, I don’t know what questions will come up in the May /June 2023 exams, so please take these predictions with a grain of salt. My best guess is that you might see some questions around birth and death rates, international migration, settlement types and/or land use. I wouldn’t be surprised if there was something on earthquakes and volcanos, and perhaps rivers and or a case study on coral reefs. You could also have questions around water supply, perhaps with a case study on energy, and tourism or development is likely to come up as well.

January 9, 2023 at 7:45 am

Hi! Do you have any predictions for the May/June 2023 Paper 1? Like, which case studies do you think are likely to come up?

February 26, 2023 at 10:21 am

Hey Livia, sorry for the delay in replying I’ve just made a few predictions – you can find them if you look for my reply to Martina on this page. Best, Carina

July 3, 2022 at 10:04 am

Thanks so much i found this very helpful.

May 30, 2022 at 6:27 pm

Thank you so much, this information has been really helpful to me in my Geography

May 3, 2022 at 10:36 pm

what are your predictions on the may june 2022 paper 1?

May 11, 2022 at 7:45 pm

Hi eisha, You can find my prediction in the comments section of this page: https://igcsegeography.wordpress.com/revision-materials/industrial-systems/ Best, Carina

May 1, 2022 at 5:33 pm

Also, is it really okay if I got stuck in the test and had to invent a place specific reference. I’ve always wondered how they correct the papers given all those student responses on different countries, tho

May 11, 2022 at 7:37 pm

Hi Jana, you’ll probably be fine inventing something if you really do get stuck, as long as it is remotely reasonable. Just keep in mind that examiners can Google stuff, or may even be from your country, so whatever you do invent probably shouldn’t be contradicted by a quick online search 🙂

May 1, 2022 at 5:21 pm

Hi Carina! Love your website! Do you have any tips or recommendations on the May Jun 2022 series for geography?

May 1, 2022 at 11:03 am

Hi, this might be a dumb question but would you recommend memorising all these case studies, or should we only need to know a certain amount, and in certain areas for the exams?

May 11, 2022 at 7:41 pm

Hi Luke, I would recommend learning the core concepts very well and at least memorising a case study for all frequently occuring topics (e.g. 1 volcano, one earthquake, one river with certain features, one coastal area, one country with population change, urban vs. rural settlement, etc.). I would try to memorise especially those case studies that you can’t find an example for in your local area,, as you probably know your city and surrounding area well enough to come up with something reasonable on at least some of the questions in the exam. Best, Carina

April 30, 2022 at 12:11 pm

thanks so much for this, exams are in less than a week and this i just what i needed :)))

May 11, 2022 at 7:43 pm

April 25, 2022 at 5:52 am

Paper 1 is almost a week away and I had very little knowledge on any case studies prior to just a few days ago. This compilation of case studies has been a great help to me, so I’d just like to say thanks!

May 11, 2022 at 7:46 pm

Thanks Ezad, I am glad you found the case studies helpful!

March 28, 2022 at 11:22 am

Dear Carina who compiles this – this is a mother trying to help her 13 years old to review – this is AMAZING resource!!!!!!!!!!!! THANK YOU!

May 11, 2022 at 7:49 pm

Thanks Grace, it means a lot to me! Best, Carina

January 23, 2022 at 6:21 pm

Hello, Are the case studies grouped, for example, are all the ones about tourism together? Thank you very much

March 20, 2022 at 9:49 am

Hi salman, the case studies are loosely grouped, so you will find all the case studies related to a particular topic after each other. Best, Carina

November 3, 2021 at 2:18 pm

This is a great resource. well done!

Leave a comment Cancel reply

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Top Posts & Pages

• Revision materials IGCSE
• Paper 4: Alternative to coursework
• Weather, Climate & Ecosystems

Recent Posts

• Revision Secrets Revealed: How to Be A Straight-A Student
• A Comprehensive Guide on IB Subject Choices
• Do you need an IB revision course – and how to tell?
• A Star Student’s Secret Study Tactics
• Scheduled: Your Revision Timetable for Cramming

Subscribe to Blog via Email

Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

Email Address:

Website Powered by WordPress.com .

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

• TOP CATEGORIES
• AS and A Level
• University Degree
• International Baccalaureate
• Uncategorised
• 5 Star Essays
• Study Tools
• Study Guides
• Meet the Team
• Population & Settlement

Case Study: An Overpopulated Country - Bangladesh

Done by: Yeo Yong Huat

What is meant by ‘aging population’? Discuss and explain its economic and social impacts.

Aging population occurs as a result of age imbalance, where there is a large and increasing proportion of population aged 65 and above. This demographic problem can be seen in some MEDCs such as UK and Japan. The cause can be attributed to declines in total fertility rate to below replacement level of between 2.1 and 2.5, and high average life expectancy at birth. For example, Japan has a total fertility rate of 1.3 and average life expectancy at birth of 83. UK has a total fertility rate of 1.7 and average life expectancy at birth of 79.

Aging population is a demographic problem with much negative economic and social impacts. Looking first at the negative social impacts, an aging population can lead to a decrease in the proportion of economically-active, resulting in problems such as lack of local labour, decreases in labour pool and lack of young for national defense. Also, with reduced proportion of the young in the population, services and facilities for the young will decrease as demand falls, reducing the quality of life for the young.

This is a preview of the whole essay

An increased dependency ratio is seen in an aging population, resulting in the young burdened by the need to support the aged. This reduces family disposable income, and thus causes standard of living to fall. Also, increases in tax reduce the disposable income of the young. Together with the negative economic impacts, the low income group will find it harder to break out of the poverty cycle. This can lead to increased crime rates and incidences of social unrest as a result of dissatisfaction or desperation due to poverty and unemployment. These can further compound the problem of aging population, as the unsatisfied young migrate to other countries.

Now us look at the negative economic impacts. With decreases in labour pool and aging population, labour cost will increase as a result of increased wages and increase in medical costs. Also, an aging population can lead to reduction in profit as productivity and efficiency of workers decreases due to increase in the number of sick days associated with an aging workforce. Investors may pull out of the country due to the increase in labour cost, lower productivity and lower efficiency of workers.

With increased proportion of the aged in the population, there will be increased government spending on welfare services for the aged. In addition, with increased dependency ratio, there will be fewer economically active to support the aged, straining the income of the economically active. There will be a decrease in tax base as proportion of economically active in the population falls. The government may end up upping tax rates for the economically active to offset the increase in government spending for the welfare services for the aged. The employment of foreign workers to compensate the decrease in labour pool can lead to leakages of income to foreign countries through remittances of wages by the foreign workers.

Regional imbalance and uneven distribution of social burden can become more profound, leading to regional disparities. This is the result of the migration of rich aged migrants to retirement towns and inner city having a higher percentage of poor aged migrants.

However, an aging population does have its positive impacts. Firstly, there will be increased employment choices in the short term as a result of decrease in labour pool. Also, there will be increased wages in the short term as a result of decrease in labour pool. As demand for labour exceeds supply, wages tend to go up.

In conclusion, as can be seen, an aging population is a long term problem that brings about many negative impacts. Although there are some positive impacts associated with an aging population, these tend to be short term.

Document Details

• Word Count 645
• Page Count 1
• Level AS and A Level
• Subject Geography

Related Essays

Case study on Bangladesh.

Mexico City Case Study.

To contrast population density variation in a country Case Study: Brazil

The Bangladesh Floods

Overpopulation: Cause and Effect

Conversations about overpopulation can quickly become controversial because they beg the question: Who exactly is the cause of the problem and what, if anything, should be done about it? Many population experts worry discussions around overpopulation will be abused by small-minded people to suggest some are the “right people” to be on the planet (like themselves), and some people are “the wrong people” (usually people in poverty, people of color, foreigners, and so on—you get the drift). But there are no “right” or “wrong” people on the planet, and discussing the problems of global overpopulation can never be an excuse, or in any way provide a platform, for having that type of conversation.

Each human being has a legitimate claim on a sufficient and fair amount of Earth’s resources. But with a population approaching 8 billion, even if everyone adopted a relatively low material standard of living like the one currently found in Papua New Guinea , it would still push Earth to its ecological breaking point. Unfortunately, the “average person” on Earth consumes at a rate over 50% above a sustainable level. Incredibly, the average person in the United States uses almost five times more than the sustainable yield of the planet.

When we use the term “overpopulation,” we specifically mean a situation in which the Earth cannot regenerate the resources used by the world’s population each year. Experts say this has been the case every year since 1970, with each successive year becoming more and more damaging. To help temper this wildly unsustainable situation, we need to understand what’s contributing to overpopulation and overconsumption and how these trends are affecting everything from climate change to sociopolitical unrest.

Download our free whitepaper

The causes of overpopulation.

Today the Earth is home to over 8 billion people. By 2100 the population is on track to hit 10.8 billion , according to the United Nations — and that’s assuming steady fertility declines in many countries. Interestingly, if extra progress is made in women’s reproductive self-determination, and fertility falls more than the United Nations assumes is likely, the population in 2100 might be a relatively smaller 7.3 billion.

For now, the world’s population is still increasing in huge annual increments (about 80 million per year), and our supply of vital non-renewable resources are being exhausted. Many factors contribute to these unsustainable trends , including falling mortality rates, underutilized contraception, and a lack of education for girls.

Falling Mortality Rate

The primary (and perhaps most obvious) cause of population growth is an imbalance between births and deaths. The infant mortality rate has decreased globally, with 4.1 million infant deaths in 2017 compared to 8.8 million in 1990, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). This is welcome public health news, of course.

At the same time, lifespans are increasing around the world. Those of us who are alive today will likely live much longer than most of our ancestors. Global average life expectancy has more than doubled since 1900 , thanks to advancements in medicine, technology, and general hygiene. Falling mortality rates are certainly nothing to complain about either, but widespread longevity does contribute to the mathematics of increasing population numbers.

Underutilized Contraception 

The global fertility rate has fallen steadily over the years, down from an average of 5 children per woman in 1950 to 2.4 children per woman today, according to the UN Population Division . Along with that promising trend, contraceptive use has slowly but steadily increased globally, rising from 54% in 1990 to 57.4% in 2015. Yet, on the whole, contraceptive use is still underutilized. For example, according to the WHO, an estimated 214 million women in developing countries who want to avoid pregnancy are not using modern contraceptives.

These women aren’t using contraceptives for a variety of reasons, including social norms or religious beliefs that discourage birth control, misconceptions about adverse side effects, and a lack of agency for women to make decisions around sex and family planning. An estimated 44% of pregnancies were unintended worldwide between 2010-2014. Getting more women the access and agency to utilize family planning methods could go a long way in flattening the population curve.

Lack of Female Education    

Although female access to education has increased over the years, the gender gap remains. Roughly 130 million girls worldwide are out of school currently, and an estimated 15 million girls of primary school age will never   learn to read and write, compared with 10 million boys.

Increasing and encouraging education among women and girls can have a number of positive ripple effects, including delayed childbearing , healthier children, and an increase in workforce participation. Plenty of evidence suggests a negative correlation between female education and fertility rates.

If increased female education can delay or decrease fertility and provide girls with opportunities beyond an early marriage, it could also help to mitigate current population trends. 

The Effects of Overpopulation

It is only logical that an increase in the world’s population will cause additional strains on resources. More people means an increased demand for food, water, housing, energy, healthcare, transportation, and more. And all that consumption contributes to ecological degradation, increased conflicts, and a higher risk of large-scale disasters like pandemics.  

Ecological Degradation 

An increase in population will inevitably create pressures leading to more deforestation, decreased biodiversity, and spikes in pollution and emissions, which will exacerbate climate change . Ultimately, unless we take action to help minimize further population growth heading into the remainder of this century, many scientists believe the additional stress on the planet will lead to ecological disruption and collapse so severe it threatens the viability of life on Earth as we know it. 

Each spike in the global population has a measurable impact on the planet’s health. According to estimates in a study by Wynes and Nicholas (2017) , a family having one fewer child could reduce emissions by 58.6 tonnes CO2-equivalent per year in developed countries.

Increased Conflicts 

The scarcity brought about by environmental disruption and overpopulation has the potential to trigger an increase in violence and political unrest. We’re already seeing wars fought over water, land, and energy resources in the Middle East and other regions, and the turmoil is likely to increase as the global population grows even larger.

Higher Risk of Disasters and Pandemics 

Many of the recent novel pathogens that have devastated humans around the world, including COVID-19, Zika virus, Ebola, and West Nile virus, originated in animals or insects before passing to humans. Part of the reason the world is entering “ a period of increased outbreak activity ” is because humans are destroying wildlife habitats and coming into contact with wild animals on a more regular basis. Now that we’re in the midst of a pandemic, it has become clear how difficult it is to social distance in a world occupied by nearly 8 billion people.   

Discover the real causes and effects of overpopulation

What can be done about overpopulation.

When addressing overpopulation, it’s crucial to take an approach of providing empowerment while mobilizing against anybody advocating for the use of coercion or violence to solve our problems. The combined efforts of spreading knowledge about family planning, increasing agency among women , and debunking widely held myths about contraception will measurably change the trajectory of the world’s population.

As we carry out our work at Population Media Center (PMC), we see first-hand that spreading awareness about family planning methods and the ecological and economic benefits of having smaller families can change reproductive behavior. For example, listeners of our Burundian radio show Agashi (“Hey! Look Again!”) were 1.7 times more likely than non-listeners to confirm that they were willing to negotiate condom use with a sexual partner and 1.8 times more likely than non-listeners to say that they generally approve of family planning for limiting the number of children.

CELEBRATING EARTH DAY WITH CONVERSATIONS ON OVERPOPULATION

In the spirit of Earth Day, it’s crucial to approach discussions about overpopulation with sensitivity and inclusivity. Overpopulation conversations should focus on the collective responsibility to steward Earth’s resources sustainably, rather than assigning blame or dividing communities. By fostering understanding and promoting access to education and reproductive health services, we can work towards a more equitable and sustainable future for all.

At PMC we harness the power of storytelling to empower listeners to live healthier and more prosperous lives, which in turn contributes to stabilizing the global population so that people can live sustainably with the world’s renewable resources. Discover how PMC is taking action against overpopulation today!

We’re Focused on Making an Impact. Learn More About Our Work.

Global sustainability.

Women’s Rights

More Readings

How do overpopulation and overconsumption damage the environment what you need to know.

How Is Population Growth Responsible for the Growing Problem of Water Scarcity

What lies ahead after the world’s population reaches 8 billion , how does overpopulation affect the economy, join us in promoting the equitable, sustainable world we’re all fighting for, one action at a time..

Public Health and Overpopulation: The United Nations Takes Action

With the world’s population rising faster than ever before, will our population growth outpace our resource reserves? How can the dangerous effects of overpopulation be managed without diminishing the major improvements in our quality of life that come about thanks to population growth?

The UN projects that over half of the Earth’s population growth in the next three decades will occur in the continent of Africa. This is due to the fact that, from 2010 to 2015, Africa’s population grew at a rate of 2.55 percent annually, with the continent still maintaining the highest pace of population growth among other continents. The UN predicts that, behind Africa, Asia will be the second greatest donor to future international population growth, with an expected addition of approximately one billion people by 2050. In contrast, within every European nation, fertility rates are currently below the population replacement level, which is approximately two children per woman. In most of Europe, fertility rates have remained beneath replacement level for decades. The global population grew fourfold in the past 100 years, so what impact could increased population growth have in the future? Will there be mass-migration? Overcrowding in already densely populated or resource-rich areas? Poor living conditions and sanitation similar to Industrial Revolution era slums?

The global population is currently rising at a steady rate. The number of humans existing on Earth has never been as high as it is now. In 1800, Earth had approximately 1 billion inhabitants, which rose to 2.3 billion in 1940, then 3.7 billion in 1970, and approximately 7.5 billion today. In the last five decades, Earth has experienced an extreme population boom. This phenomenon is known as overpopulation, where the condition in which the amount of humans currently existing on Earth outstrips future resource availability and earth’s carrying capacity. Throughout human history, birth and death rates have always counterbalanced each other, which ensured that Earth had a maintainable population growth level. However, in the 1960s, the global population increased at an unparalleled rate. This brought about a variety of apocalyptic predictions, most prominently, a revival of the Malthusian trap panic.

Paul R. Ehrlich’s 1968 novel, The Population Bomb , eerily echoes Thomas R. Malthus’s landmark 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population . Ehrlich’s novel proposes theories regarding potential outcomes for when agricultural growth does not keep pace with population growth. Ultimately his theories say that the world’s food supply will inevitably become inadequate for feeding the general population, whose numbers would continue to swell until famine, disease epidemics, war, or other calamities took root. These Malthusian predictions about out-of-control population growth have resulted in a variety of detrimental global impacts, particularly the emergence of extreme reproductive control measures, which have taken center stage on an international scale. Today, despite the fact that population scientists mostly agree that Malthus’s forecasts were overblown, the lingering prevalence of these fears have contributed to millions of forced sterilizations in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, Indonesia, Bangladesh and India, as well as China’s two-child policy . Overall, this has left many wondering whether extreme population growth projections are legitimate or merely groundless panic perpetuated by alarmists.

The Demographic Transition

In reality, rising birth rates and population booms are components of a four-step process called the demographic transition, which the Earth is currently undergoing. Most developed nations have already made this transition, but other countries are currently experiencing this change. In the 1700s, the entire world was undergoing the first stage of the demographic transition. During this time, the continent of Europe was in even poorer condition than the modern-day definition of a developing region, and was afflicted with inferior public health, sustenance, and medical facilities. Birth rates were higher; however, death rates were also higher. For this reason, population growth remained largely stagnant.

Statistically, in the 1700s, women birthed four to six children. However, on average, only two survived to adulthood. When the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, the Earth experienced the most significant shift in human lifestyles since the Agricultural Revolution. The Industrial Revolution altered every aspect of society, and fostered a greater sense of global interconnectedness. For example, many peasants became factory workers, manufactured products became widely available due to mass production, and countless scientific advancements improved existing methods of transportation, communication, and medicine.

Gradually, this economic development created a middle class and, after the work of union activists, ultimately raised the standard of living and health care for the impoverished labor demographic. Thus began the second transition stage. The increased availability of better foodstuffs, sanitation, and medicine directly contributed to lower death rates, causing a population explosion that doubled Great Britain’s population from 1750 to 1850. In the past, families tended to have more children because not all were expected to survive, but when child mortality rates decreased, the third transition stage was launched. This stage involves reduced conception rates and slowing population growth. Ultimately, a balance was established, with fewer deaths and births, creating a stable population growth rate and signifying the attainment of the fourth and final stage of the demographic transition.

Even as birth rates have decreased dramatically, Earth’s population is still rising at an alarming rate because the humans conceived during the population boom of the 1970s and 1980s are currently having more children; however, the current average number of children per family remains two and a half, while it was five during the late 1970s. As this generation ages and its fertility diminishes, the rate of population growth will likely continue to decrease in every nation. Most of the world’s countries have reached the fourth stage of the demographic transition. In approximately 80 years, developed countries will experience a reduction in fertility from over six children to fewer than three children. Malaysia and South Africa reached this point in 34 years, Bangladesh in 20 years,  and Iran in 10 years. If developing countries are afforded more support, they will reach this point much faster.

Overall, most scientists postulate that human population growth will eventually come to an end, and the UN predicts that Earth’s population will not exceed twelve billion. Some of the major causes of population growth are reduced infant mortality rates, increased lifespans, higher fertility rates, advances in science and technology, and improved access to proper medical care. With the UN’s continued assistance, concurrent with overpopulation, the development level of the global community will increase, and the number of people living in poverty will decrease. Nonetheless, an ever-expanding human population is an immense social and economic challenge that necessitates the alignment of different national interests, especially with regards to reproductive rights, resource availability, and environmental concerns.

The United Nations Takes Action

In 1969, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) was established in order to lead the UN in implementing population programs fundamentally based on the notion of family planning, or the “human right of individuals and couples to freely determine the size of their families” without governmental interference or legislation. In 1994, at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, Egypt, the designated objectives of the UNFPA were determined in greater depth. It was decided that the UNFPA would specifically focus on the gender and human rights elements of population issues; consequently, the UN Population Fund was granted the lead role in aiding nations in fulfilling the Conference’s Programme of Action.

The three most significant sections of the UN Population Fund mandate are “Reproductive Health,” “Gender Equality,” and “Population and Development.” The United Nations Population Division (UNPD) works to confront the interconnected global issues posed by population growth, which is primarily fueled by rising fertility rates, increased longevity, and greater international migration. The UN produces the official demographic approximations and predictions for every country and all regions of the world. The UNFPA specifically addresses global population by compiling data and statistics regarding migration, fertility, marriage, regional development, urbanization, world population projections, and national population policies.

In November 2012, the UNFPA declared family planning a global human right; however, approximately 12 percent of 15 to 49-year-old women internationally are not afforded access to family planning. This is considered an egregious modern-day human rights infringement. The UNFPA aids various UN bodies like the Commission on Population and Development, and endorses the implementation of the Programme of Action undertaken by the International Conference on Population and Development (IPCD) in 1994. The UNFPA has been successful in urging international cooperation on the issue of securing family planning as a human right, pushing the UN to hold three conferences concerning the issue of population, along with two special sessions of the General Assembly and a summit in 2019 .

The Way Forward

Ultimately, apocalyptic population growth fears are overblown, and as such, draconian population control regulations are unnecessary. We have witnessed progress on an international scale in this area, perhaps most notably with China revoking its infamous, longstanding one-child policy just seven years ago. However, a broader global focus on guaranteeing family planning as a human right remains essential. In the words of economist Julian Simon, “Whatever the rate of population growth is, historically it has been that the food supply increases at least as fast, if not faster.” Since Ehrlich’s initial fear-mongering regarding an overpopulation-​induced Armageddon, the planet’s population has more than doubled . However, annually, famine deaths have dropped by millions. Today’s famines are war-induced, not caused by natural resource consumption. As production rose, prices fell and calorie consumption increased, which decreased malnutrition worldwide. In Simon’s words, human ingenuity is the “ ultimate resource .” Therefore, the enactment of heavy-handed population-​control regulations is not only abhorrent, but is also irrational and unsupported by scientific evidence.

Sophia Scott

Sophia Scott is a staff writer for the Harvard International Review. She is interested in global health & health equity, along with the intersections between science and policy.

Recent Posts

Germany's energy crisis: europe's leading economy is falling behind.

Russian Narrative: Constitutional Amendments, Civilizationism and Multipolarity

Nickel and Dimed: The Green Metal Gamble in New Caledonia

In Comparative Perspective: Interview with COFR President Emeritus Richard Haass

Bloodied Blossoms: Can Afghanistan Grow Past Its Opioid Industry?

You Might Be Interested In

Defying dictatorships: an interview with garry kasparov, cambodia’s triumph and tragedy: the un’s greatest experiment 30 years on, on atlantic alliances and autocrats: an interview with jeanne shaheen.

• No category

caie-igcse-geography-0460-case-studies-v1

Related documents

Add this document to collection(s)

You can add this document to your study collection(s)

Add this document to saved

You can add this document to your saved list

Suggest us how to improve StudyLib

(For complaints, use another form )

Input it if you want to receive answer

• 0 Shopping Cart

A country which is under-populated - Australia

A country which is under-populated – Australia

Australia has one of the lowest population densities in the world. With a low population of 23 million and a land area of over 7.6 million km² its density is around 3 people per km². This is very low compared to the Monoco, the most densely populated area in the world with 26150 people per km².

Australia is rich in natural resources with large reserves of natural gas, oil, gold, uranium and metal ores. Uranium is important in the development of nuclear power around the world. Australia attracts migrant workers to support the exploitation of these natural resources. Australia has the 9th highest immigrant population in the world with 6.7 million, which makes up 28.2% of its population.

The 15 countries with the most immigrants – Gilles Pison, based on United Nations data

Australia has more resources available than it uses, which means surplus resources can be exported. Exports in 2017 we worth over $220 billion. This contributes to Australia’s high GDP per capita of over $49,000 per person. The unemployment rate in Australia is very low.

With low birth and death rates, Australia’s natural increase is low. Health care provision is very good which contributes towards the low infant mortality rates. Adult literacy is high at 99%.

Population density is higher around the coast where climates are more favourable. Moving inland the land becomes desert and semi-desert. Semi-desert areas could be developed for future population growth. However, water shortages could limit population growth and development in the future.

Premium Resources

Please support internet geography.

If you've found the resources on this page useful please consider making a secure donation via PayPal to support the development of the site. The site is self-funded and your support is really appreciated.

Related Topics

Use the images below to explore related GeoTopics.

A country which is over-populated – Bangladesh

Topic home, a country with a low rate of population growth or decline – japan, igcse units, share this:.

• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window)
• Click to print (Opens in new window)

If you've found the resources on this site useful please consider making a secure donation via PayPal to support the development of the site. The site is self-funded and your support is really appreciated.

Search Internet Geography

Top posts and pages.

Latest Blog Entries

Pin It on Pinterest

• Click to share
• Print Friendly