research on children's emotional development

Handbook of Emotional Development

• © 2019
• Vanessa LoBue 0 ,
• Koraly Pérez-Edgar 1 ,
• Kristin A. Buss 2

Department of Psychology, Rutgers University—Newark, Newark, USA

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Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA

Department of psychology, the pennsylvania state university, university park, usa.

Reviews classic and current research on emotion development

Explores expression of basic (e.g., happiness, anger) and more complex (e.g., self-consciousness, prosocial) emotions that appear during adolescence

Addresses emotional development across cognitive and social domains in the context of morality, culture, and education

Discusses problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) that may result from maltreatment or deprivation

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Table of contents (30 chapters)

Front matter, introduction: emotional development, past, and present.

• Vanessa LoBue, Koraly Pérez-Edgar, Kristin A. Buss

Theories and Biological Foundations of Emotional Development

Theories of emotional development: where have we been and where are we now.

• Kristin A. Buss, Pamela M. Cole, Anna M. Zhou

Get Bent Into Shape: The Non-linear, Multi-system, Contextually-embedded Psychophysiology of Emotional Development

• Paul D. Hastings, Sarah Kahle

A Neuroscience Perspective on Emotional Development

• Santiago Morales, Nathan A. Fox

Facial Expressions Across the Life Span

• Linda A. Camras

The Perception of Facial Emotion in Typical and Atypical Development

• Laurie Bayet, Charles A. Nelson

Through the Looking Glass: Temperament and Emotion as Separate and Interwoven Constructs

Koraly Pérez-Edgar

Expression of Individual Emotions

Happiness and joy.

• Daniel Messinger, Samantha G. Mitsven, Yeojin Amy Ahn, Emily B. Prince, Lei Sun, Camila Rivero-Fernández

The Development of Anger

• Jessica M. Dollar, Susan D. Calkins

Sadness in Youth: Socialization, Regulation, and Adjustment

• Janice Zeman, Margaret Cameron, Natalee Price

Fear in Development

• Vanessa LoBue, Emily Kim, Mauricio Delgado

Developing Disgust: Theory, Measurement, and Application

• Joshua Rottman, Jasmine DeJesus, Heather Greenebaum

The Self-Conscious Emotions and the Role of Shame in Psychopathology

• Michael Lewis

Prosocial Emotions

• Tracy L. Spinrad, Nancy Eisenberg

Cognition and Context in Emotional Development

Cognition and emotion in development.

• Martha Ann Bell, Christy D. Wolfe, Anjolii Diaz, Ran Liu

Emotion Regulation

• Cynthia Stifter, Mairin Augustine
• Anxiety and emotional development
• Autism and emotional development
• Cultural variation in emotional expression
• Depression and emotional development
• Deprivation and emotional development
• Emotion and development of theory of mind
• Emotion in childhood education
• Emotional development across the lifespan
• Emotional development in adolescence and emerging adulthood
• Emotional development in infancy and early childhood
• Facial expressions in infants
• Infant behavior and development
• Infant emotional development
• Language and emotional development
• Maltreatment and emotional development
• Measuring emotions throughout development
• Morality and emotional development
• Neuroscience of emotional development
• Prosocial emotions in childhood
• Self-conscious emotions throughout development

About this book

This handbook offers a comprehensive review of the research on emotional development. It examines research on individual emotions, including happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust, as well as self-conscious and pro-social emotions. Chapters describe theoretical and biological foundations and address the roles of cognition and context on emotional development. In addition, chapters discuss issues concerning atypical emotional development, such as anxiety, depression, developmental disorders, maltreatment, and deprivation. The handbook concludes with important directions for the future research of emotional development.

Topics featured in this handbook include:

• The physiology and neuroscience of emotions.
• Perception and expression of emotional faces.
• Prosocial and moral emotions.
• The interplay of emotion and cognition.
• The effects of maltreatment on children’s emotional development.
• Potential emotional problems that result from early deprivation.

The Handbook of Emotional Development is an essential resource for researchers, clinicians/professionals, and graduate students in child and school psychology, social work, public health, child and adolescent psychiatry, pediatrics, and related disciplines.

Editors and Affiliations

Vanessa LoBue

Kristin A. Buss

About the editors

Koraly Pérez-Edgar, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the Pennsylvania State University. She received her A.B. from Dartmouth College and her M.A. and Ph.D. from Harvard University. Dr. Perez-Edgar’s training was under the mentorship of Dr. Jerome Kagan at Harvard University, Dr. Nathan A. Fox at the University of Maryland, and Dr. Daniel S. Pine at the NIMH. Dr. Perez-Edgar’s research focuses on the relations between temperament and psychopathology. In particular, she examines how individual differences in attention can work to ameliorate or exacerbate early temperament traits.

Kristin A. Buss, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at the Pennsylvania State University. She received her B.S. in Child Development at the University of Minnesota and her M.S. and Ph.D. in psychology from University of Wisconsin. She is interested in emotional development and temperamental variation from birth through early adolescence. Her work spans multiple areas of research within social development, psychobiology, and neuroscience. Her current work is focused on the development of risk for adjustment problems, such as anxiety symptoms in toddlers with fearful temperaments. This work has demonstrated significant effects for types of situations where children show fear as well as how biomarkers, such as physiological stress reactivity, increase risk for maladaptive outcomes for these children.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Handbook of Emotional Development

Editors : Vanessa LoBue, Koraly Pérez-Edgar, Kristin A. Buss

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology , Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-17331-9 Published: 18 July 2019

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-17334-0 Published: 14 August 2020

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-17332-6 Published: 04 July 2019

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVII, 836

Number of Illustrations : 15 b/w illustrations, 7 illustrations in colour

Topics : Child and School Psychology , Social Work , Public Health

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• Published: 02 November 2023

Child psychology

Fostering child development through perinatal emotion regulation

• Kelsey Magee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4220-3984 1  

Nature Reviews Psychology volume  2 ,  page 720 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour
• Paediatric neurological disorders

Child development is a dynamic and complex phenomenon. Children’s emotional development is layered between personal and broader challenges, including the tolls of a global pandemic, rising rates of racism and gun violence, and the devastating effects of climate change. In turn, caregivers try their best to provide emotional guidance and support while encouraging autonomy and self-efficacy.

As a clinical psychologist, I have unique opportunities to share in the lives of children and their caregivers as they navigate some of their most challenging life circumstances. As a researcher, I set out to identify the earliest risk factors to prevent mood disorders and promote well-being in mothers and their children.

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Original article

Ostlund, B. D. et al. Intergenerational transmission of emotion dysregulation: part II. Developmental origins of newborn neurobehavior. Dev. Psychopathol. 31 , 833–846 (2019)

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Lester, B. & Tronick, E. The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). Pediatrics 113 , 631–699 (2004)

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Magee, K. Fostering child development through perinatal emotion regulation. Nat Rev Psychol 2 , 720 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-023-00252-2

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Promoting Young Children’s Social and Emotional Health

You are here

In a preschool classroom, some of the 3- and 4-year-old children smile, laugh, and giggle during free play; are curious about what happens next during story time; ask what and why questions while doing hands-on activities; and use words to express feelings and needs. In the toy area, Tom and Juan both reach for a small blue car. Tom says, “May I please have it first, then you have it later?” Juan replies, “You have it for five minutes and then I have it for five minutes.” Noticing this exchange, their teacher says, “Tom and Juan, you are talking about taking turns. What a great way to play together!”

Tom, Juan, and their classmates are a model of social and emotional health in preschool. Children who are socially and emotionally healthy tend to demonstrate, and continue to develop, several important behaviors and skills (adapted from McClellan & Katz 2001 and Bilmes 2012). They

• Are usually in a positive mood
• Listen and follow directions
• Have close relationships with caregivers and peers
• Care about friends and show interest in others
• Recognize, label, and manage their own emotions
• Understand others’ emotions and show empathy
• Express wishes and preferences clearly
• Gain access to ongoing play and group activities
• Are able to play, negotiate, and compromise with others

Why social and emotional health matters

Teachers can promote children’s social and emotional health in many ways, for example, by organizing a material-rich environment to stimulate social interactions among children. This article focuses on two of the most important practices: building trusting relationships and conducting intentional teaching.

Establish trusting relationships

Young children develop and learn in the context of relationships. A trusting and caring teacher–child relationship is essential for children’s optimum development (Raikes & Edwards 2009). Children who have trusting relationships with their teachers are, on average, more willing to ask questions, solve problems, try new tasks, and express their thinking than their peers without such relationships (O’Connor & McCartney 2007). In her work supervising student teachers, Ho (the first author) often sees children developing positive social and emotional health as a result of close relationships with their teachers. For example, children learn to use words to express their feelings—such as Amy saying to Emily, “I am sad when you use hurting words!”—and to show empathy—as when Arjun gently pats Brian’s head and says, “Are you okay? Do you want to hold the teddy bear?”

Children benefit socially, emotionally, and academically when teachers intentionally create close, trusting relationships (Palermo et al. 2007). But gaining the trust of every child is not as simple as being nice and engaging. How can teachers create trusting relationships with all of the children? Consistently offering warmth, affection, respect, and caring is essential.

Showing warmth and affection consistently

Warmth and affection—even on bad days and when children are misbehaving—are critical to children’s well-being in early education settings (Ostrosky & Jung 2005). They contribute to developing secure relationships between children and adults, provide models of gentle behavior, and are linked with children’s ability to interact positively with peers (Twardosz 2005). The preschoolers we observed used gentle hands and kind words and positively interacted with peers most of the time. Their social and emotional well-being was nourished by their teachers’ warmth and affection, which is shown in the following examples:

• Ms. Johnson displays a pleasant facial expression throughout the day. She smiles when greeting children in the morning, says goodbye in the afternoon, and acknowledges children’s appropriate behaviors.
• Mr. Logan uses the appropriate tone of voice at all times. His speech is at normal pitch and volume; his tone is relaxed and soft. Even when he has to redirect a child’s behavior, he remains calm and warm to convey that his concern is with the behavior—not the child.
• Ms. Aragon gives appropriate touches when necessary, such as a pat on the back, a handshake, hugs, and brief tickles.
• Ms. Lizama moves physically close to the children and bends or crouches to be at the children’s eye level while talking to them.
• Mr. Sharma often uses loving comments to show he cares: “I am so happy to see you this morning!,” “I missed you yesterday,” “I love seeing your smile!” And he is careful to make such comments to all of the children in his classroom.

Respecting and caring about every child

Showing respect is a key way to connect with children and strengthen positive relationships. It helps children feel more confident and competent to explore and learn (Dombro, Jablon, & Stetson 2011). Ms. Carnes establishes and maintains close personal bonds with every child in her classroom by consistently acting in respectful and caring ways. Specifically, she

• Listens with full attenti on and restates what children say (often also seizing the opportunity to expose the children to new vocabulary).  Jason, a 4-year-old, says, “Look, I made a truck with lots of Legos!” Ms. Carnes replies, “Oh, I see, Jason. You built a truck with dozens of Legos.” Jason adds, “I use this truck to deliver apples and bananas to the grocery store.” Ms. Carnes responds, “Using a truck to deliver nutritious fruits to the grocery store is helpful.” Listening to children attentively and reflectively enhances their self-worth and confidence. When teachers actively listen to children, they convey that they care about what the children have to say, and the children are more likely to share their thoughts, ideas, feelings, and stories.  
• Accepts and reflects children’s feel ings.  Frowning, Jasper says to the teacher, “Michael has all the big blocks!” Ms. Carnes responds, “Jasper, you seem upset that there are no more large blocks to build with right now. It is difficult to wait!” Amy says with enthusiasm, “We are about to go outside!” Ms. Carnes answers, “The sparkles in your eyes tell me you can hardly wait to go outside. You are excited.” When they accept and reflect children’s feelings, teachers exhibit sensitivity and caring in a way children understand. Teachers’ acknowledgments make children feel heard and accepted (Duffy 2008). As a result, children feel safe to express their emotions—and receive support in identifying, labeling, and better understanding their emotions.  
• Spends private, quality time with individual chi ldren through one-on-one activities, such  as story reading and game pla ying.  Emily is sad when her mom leaves. Ms. Carnes reads her a book in a cozy corner with soft pillows and stuffed animals. Afterward, Emily is ready to explore and play in the classroom. Judy complains that no one wants to play with her at the tactile table. Ms. Carnes sits at the table and plays with Judy until another child joins the play. In addition, Ms. Carnes spends quality time with individual children by putting aside other work, moving to the child’s level, and conversing openly with the child. Ms. Carnes keeps track to ensure that she speaks with each child regularly, which deepens their relationship and builds trust (Gartrell 2007). Ms. Carnes finds time for these conversations throughout the day, especially during greeting, free play, snack, lunch, and departure time.

Teach social and emotional skills intentionally

Helping children develop social and emotional skills is the heart and soul of any good program for young children (Gordon & Browne 2014). Teachers (and all caregivers) play key roles in helping children develop social and emotional competence (Kostelnik et al. 2015). Teachers can intentionally support children’s social and emotional health by using children’s books, planning activities, coaching on the spot, giving effective praise, modeling appropriate behaviors, and providing cues.

Warmth and affection—even on bad days and when children are misbehaving—are critical to children’s well-being in early education.

Using children’s books

To connect the characters and situations in the book with the children’s experiences, Ms. Coz plans to read the book at least twice and also add it to the classroom library. During the second reading, she asks meaningful questions: “What do you think the characters are feeling?,” “How would you solve the problem?,” “Can you use words from the story to explain how you feel when you . . .?,” “What could we do differently if this happens in our classroom?” These open-ended questions enable children to talk about their own experiences, learn new vocabulary words, and practice social and emotional skills.

Planning activities

To extend and apply what children learn from reading stories, Ms. Coz plans follow-up activities, such as hands-on crafts, games, and songs. She often uses Book Nook guides, created by the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning ( http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/strategies.html#booknook ). These guides help her embed social and emotional development activities into daily routines, including read-alouds. (See “ Activities for Supporting Children’s Social and Emotional Learning ” for some ideas adapted from Book Nook guides.)

Coaching on the spot

When they coach children on the spot, teachers help children realize what they are doing, understand how their actions affect others, and choose positive alternatives (Riley et al. 2008). For example, when Ryan and Ethan build a firehouse in the block area, Ethan grabs the fire truck from Ryan, and Ryan cries. Ms. Coz crouches down at Ethan’s level to look into his eyes; calmly and warmly, she says, “Ryan was still using the truck. When you took it away from him, he got upset. What could you do to make Ryan feel better?” After Ethan says he is sorry and gives back the fire truck, Ms. Coz says, “Next time if you want to play with the toy Ryan is using, could you ask if he will share?” Ms. Coz follows up by observing Ethan and providing immediate positive feedback on his desirable behavior.

Giving effective praise

Meaningful feedback pertinent to the task at hand in the form of effective praise is a powerful strategy for fostering children’s social and emotional development (Kostelnik et al. 2015). To make praise effective, teachers describe specifically what they see—without generalizing, evaluating, or making comparisons. When Emily finishes her drawing, Ms. Coz notices her picture and her smile. Ms. Coz says, “I see a blue sky, a yellow sun, and green grass around the big brown tree. This picture makes you happy, doesn’t it?” This praise is effective because Ms. Coz offers detailed, positive comments immediately after desirable behavior occurs. Noticing Ethan asking Ryan politely for a policewoman figure, Ms. Coz says, “Ethan, you used the magic words  May I plea se?  to ask for that policewoman while you and Ryan were building the firehouse together. Great job!” Smiling, Ethan responds, “We are friends and we can share things.”

Modeling appropriate behavior

Children learn by observing other people, getting ideas about how new behaviors are formed, and using the ideas to guide their actions (Bandura 1977). Many studies have found that modeling—or demonstrating appropriate behaviors—teaches and enhances children’s social and emotional skills (Katz & McClellan 1997; Hyson 2004). This research-based conclusion is evidenced in Ms. Coz’s and Ms. Carnes’s classes. Both teachers implement several noninvasive strategies—including modeling—that their center administrators created to support teachers in promoting socially and emotionally healthy behaviors. They display the strategies on the classroom wall and put them into action by

• Moving closer to children, when needed, as a nonverbal cue to rethink behaviors
• Modeling appropriate warm and respectful behavior throughout the day and at specific moments when a gentle reminder is needed
• Using nonverbal gestures and contact (e.g., nodding the head, giving thumbs-up signs, and touching children gently on the shoulder) to send messages
• Employing simple language (e.g., “Walking feet, please” and “Use gentle hands”) to set expectations and give reminders
• Acknowledging a kind act on the spot or praising a group effort for a job well done
• Placing a hand—gently—on a child’s hand to redirect attention and behavior

When children see teachers demonstrate these noninvasive strategies, they often smile, use their gentle hands, say please and thank you, give hugs and high fives, and use words to express their feelings.

In addition to being role models, the teachers use the children’s appropriate behaviors to model social and emotional skills. They carefully observe and record details about how children apply the target skills, and they share their observations with the children through puppet shows during circle time. Using puppets to demonstrate children’s appropriate behaviors helps children learn social and emotional skills meaningfully.

Providing cues

Providing cues to engage children in appropriate social behavior has been shown over time to improve their social behavior with their peers (Bovey & Strain 2005). Ms. Coz and Ms. Carnes often provide verbal cues to help some children participate in activities. Before playtime, for example, Ms. Carnes asks, “James, who are you going to ask to play with you at center time?” During playtime, she suggests, “Saanvi, can you ask Anna to build an airplane with you?” To teach sharing and turn taking, Ms. Coz asks Steven, who has been waiting to play with a toy dolphin for a while, “What magic words could you use to have a turn with the dolphin John is using?”

Both Ms. Coz and Ms. Carnes prominently display visual cues in their classrooms to assist children’s social and emotional interactions. For example, they provide teacher-made hand puppets to guide children to use quiet voices, helping hands, and walking feet. To help children calm down, they also created a “push wall”—a designated spot on the wall to push anger out—and use puppets to demonstrate the strategy. These puppets, demonstrations, and explanations are essential for clarifying and modeling appropriate behavior—and the visual cues are essential for reminding the children to practice what they have learned. Long-term visual cues function like a third teacher in the sense that children use the cues to remind one another of solutions and appropriate actions.

Children’s Books for Teaching Social and Emotional Skills 

• Can You Be a Friend?,  by Nita Everly 
• Care Bears Caring Contest,  by Nancy Parent, illus. by  David Stein 
• Fox Makes Friends,  by Adam Relf 
• How Do Dinosaurs Play with Their Friends?,  by Jane Yolen and Mark Teague 
• How I Feel Frustrated,  by Marcia Leonard 
• I Can Do It Myself  (a Sesame Street Series), by Emily Perl Kingsley, illus. by Richard Brown 
• I’m in Charge of Me!,  by David Parker, illus. by Sylvia Walker 
• Mouse Was Mad,  by Linda Urban, illus. by Henry Cole 
• My Many Colored Days,  by Dr. Seuss, illus. by Steve Johnson and Lou Fancher 
• Sharing: How Kindness Grows,  by Fran Shaw, illus. by Miki Sakamoto 
• When I’m Feeling Sad,  by Trace Moroney 
• When Sophie Gets Angry—Really, Really Angry,  by Molly Bang

Activities for Supporting Children’s Social and Emotional Learning 

Helping hands chain : Trace and cut out multiple hands for each child. Place them in a pocket or baggie that is easily accessible. As you recognize a child’s helping hand behavior, have the child get a hand from their pocket and connect it to the class’s helping hand chain. The hands can be placed on the wall to wrap around the room. On a regular basis, celebrate how long the helping hand chain is getting! 

Hand puppets : Create character puppets by having children color or paint the pictures, cut them out, and glue them to craft sticks. Once dry, children can bring their puppets to circle time and act out the story while you read the story aloud. Later, they can take the puppets to the story area or puppet center. 

Moving to music : Choose songs with lyrics that encourage movement. Before you start, remind the children that they need to listen closely to the words so they know what actions to take. Classic songs like “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes” work well. Many children’s CDs have great songs that involve following directions (try “My Ups and Downs,” and “Hands Are for Clapping,” by Jim Gill). Do the motions with the children as you listen to the songs. After listening to each song several times, children will build confidence and know which motions to do on their own. Point out to the children that they know what to do because they are being such good listeners.

Pass the feeling bag : Place an assortment of scenario picture cards in a bag. As music plays, the children pass the bag. When the music stops, one child picks out a card and identifies it. Have the child talk about how each scenario or item makes him feel and why. Allow children to take turns pulling out picture cards. 

Feeling faces collage : Have children cut out different feeling faces from magazines. Mix nontoxic glue and water together in a small bowl. The children put the pictures on top of a piece of paper, take a paintbrush and dip it in glue solution, and paint over their pictures. They can hang their feeling faces collages on the wall. 

Share box : Create a special share box that is only introduced during circle time. Children can decorate the box with primary colors or with a bold pattern. Inside the box, place items that can be shared, such as musical instruments, a box of chunky sidewalk chalk, playdough, or several sensory bottles.

Singing : After a story about sharing with friends, sing “Share, share, share your toys; share them with a friend. Share, share, share your toys, let’s all play pretend,” to the tune of “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.” After a story about feelings, sing “If You’re Happy and You Know It” with a variety of emotions and body gestures. 

Note: Adapted with permission from Book Nook, created by the Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. To use Book Nook guides at no cost, visit http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/strategies.html#booknook .

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Bilmes, J. 2012.  Beyond Behavior Manage ment: The Six Life Skills Childre n Need,  2nd ed. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf.

Bovey, T., & P. Strain. 2005. “Strategies for Increasing Peer Social Interactions: Prompting and Acknowledgment.” Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. What Works Briefs. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb17.pdf .

Dombro, A.L., J. Jablon, & C. Stetson. 2011.  Powerful  Interactions: How to Connect with   Children to Extend Their Learning.  Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

Duffy, R. 2008. “Are Feelings Fixable?”  Exchange  30 (6): 87–90.

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Kostelnik, M.J., A.K. Soderman, A.P. Whiren, M.L. Rupiper, & K.M. Gregory. 2015.  Guiding Children’s Social Development and L earning: Theory and Skills,  8th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage.

McClellan, D., & L.G. Katz. 2001. “Assessing Young Children’s Social Competence.” Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED450953.pdf .

O’Connor, E., & K. McCartney. 2007. “Examining Teacher–Child Relationships and Achievement as Part of an Ecological Model of Development.”  American Educational R esearch Journal  44 (2): 340–69.

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Palermo, F., L.D. Hanish, C.L. Martin, R.A. Fabes, & M. Reiser. 2007. “Preschoolers’ Academic Readiness: What Role Does the Teacher–Child Relationship Play?”  Early Childhood Research Quarterly  22 (4): 407–22. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3856866 .

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Riley, D., R.R. San Juan, J. Klinkner, & A. Ramminger. 2008.  Social and Emotional   Developm ent: Connecting Science and Practice in Early Childhood Settings . St. Paul, MN: Redleaf; Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Roberts, S.K., & P.A. Crawford. 2008. “Real Life Calls for Real Books: Literature to Help Children Cope with Family Stressors.”  Young Children  63 (5): 12–17.

Twardosz, S. 2005. “Expressing Warmth and Affection to Children.” Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. What Works Briefs. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb20.pdf .

Photographs: © Getty Images; courtesy of Geneva Day School

Jeannie Ho , EdD, is a professor and early childhood education program coordinator at Montgomery College, in Rockville, Maryland. Her teaching and research focus is teaching practices and children’s social and emotional development.  [email protected]

Suzanne Funk , MSEd, is director of Geneva Day School, in Potomac, Maryland, and is an adjunct professor in early childhood education at Montgomery College. She works with local child center directors to enhance the quality of services available for young children.  [email protected]

Vol. 73, No. 1

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Childhood maltreatment responsible for up to 40 percent of mental health conditions

A study examining childhood maltreatment in Australia has revealed the shocking burden for Australians, estimating it causes up to 40 percent of common, life-long mental health conditions.

The mental health conditions examined were anxiety, depression, harmful alcohol and drug use, self-harm and suicide attempts. Childhood maltreatment is classified as physical, sexual and emotional abuse, and emotional or physical neglect before the age of 18.

Childhood maltreatment was found to account for 41 percent of suicide attempts in Australia, 35 percent for cases of self-harm and 21 percent for depression.

The analysis, published in JAMA Psychiatry is the first study to provide estimates of the proportion of mental health conditions in Australia that arise from childhood maltreatment.  

The researchers said the results are a wakeup call for childhood abuse and neglect to be treated as a national public health priority.

“The results are devasting and are an urgent call to invest in prevention – not just giving individual support to children and families, but wider policies to reduce stress experienced by families,” said Dr Lucinda Grummitt , from the University of Sydney’s Matilda Centre , who led the study.

The analysis also found that if childhood maltreatment was eradicated in Australia, more than 1.8 million cases of depression, anxiety and substance use disorders could be prevented.

“Investments to address childhood maltreatment have the potential to avert millions of cases of mental disorders in Australia.”

The study also found elimination of childhood maltreatment in Australia would, in 2023, have prevented 66,143 years of life lost (death) and 118,493 years lived with disability, totaling 184,636 years of healthy life lost through mental health conditions.

Researchers examined data that included national surveys provided by the Australian Child Maltreatment Study in 2023 (8500 participants), the Australian National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing 2020-2022 (15,893 participants) and the Australian Burden of Disease study 2023.

The study made use of analytical methods to investigate the link between child maltreatment and mental health, which isolated other influential factors such as genetics or social environments. This provides stronger evidence that childhood maltreatment causes some mental health conditions.

Mental health conditions are currently the leading cause of disease burden globally and affect 13 percent of the global population. In Australia, suicide is the leading cause of death for young people.

Previous research  (independent to the University of Sydney study) found over half (53.8 percent) of Australians experienced maltreatment during their childhood.

Dr Grummitt said there are effective interventions, such as programs to support children experiencing maltreatment or parent education programs, but the most sustainable solution to prevent child maltreatment is policy-driven prevention.

“Policies to alleviate stress experienced by families, such as paid parental leave, affordable childcare, income support like Jobseeker, and making sure parents have access to treatment and support for their own mental health could make a world of difference for Australian children.

“Addressing the societal and economic conditions that give rise to child maltreatment can play a large part in preventing mental disorders at a national level,” Dr Grummitt said.

The researchers cite an  example  in the United States where the introduction of state paid parental leave policies and timely access to subsidised childcare were strongly linked to reduced rates of child maltreatment.

If you or anyone needs help:

• Lifeline  on 13 11 14
• Kids Helpline  on 1800 551 800
• MensLine Australia  on 1300 789 978
• Suicide Call Back Service  on 1300 659 467
• Beyond Blue  on 1300 22 46 36
• Headspace  on 1800 650 890
• QLife  on 1800 184 527
• ReachOut  at  au.reachout.com

Declaration:  The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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What Every Gig Worker Needs to Know

Dealing with the social and emotional expanse of gig work in a new era.

By Dr. Rodney Luster

In Part I of this blog series blog on Gig working , we explored the roots of gig work and its revitalized emergence recently. But, there is much more to understand and explore about the nature of gig working and most especially, how gig workers "experience" the role and what they will need to successfully embrace it. In this post, we will also explore the facets of components that every gig worker should consider and plan for so that they are well-prepared as they continue to work in the gig economy.

Experience becomes the teacher

Here is what we know, and that is that those working and living in the gig economy will require much more when it comes to successfully navigating the market and the role (Ashford et al., 2018). Success in the gig economy is layered with uncertainty, and it is dependent on an array of variables such as the intrinsic motivation of the gig worker to self-initiate in areas such as marketing one’s self, engaging the public proactively, working confidently amidst issues, balancing life and personal issues, and more. This is all done while meeting the demands and needs of the urban economy for services being offered. The entrepreneurial spirit is, however, very alive in these practices, despite their challenges. So how should we nurture our professional life as a gig worker to ensure that we are positively engaging the experience? Here we will explore five primary components every gig worker needs to pay attention to if they want to thrive in today's work world.

The Gig worker and "social anchoring"

Loneliness is inherent in the role as gig workers as they move from job to job and client to client based on the various “micro” needs of the client. One of my friends who is a DoorDasher mentions “loneliness on the job” this way,

Although I like being on the road and doing this my way, I am often left to my thoughts between orders. Sometimes that may not be good depending on the kind of day I am having.”

Our psychology is built around meaningful interaction. The “autonomy” of gig work sets up a dual psychological experience of feeling bereft of organizational attachments alongside identity-based challenges amidst the desire for freedom and autonomy. Normally we would engage a community at work, but gig workers do experience a sense of “aloneness” in what they do, which can spiral into loneliness and further into depression. This aspect of autonomy and lack of attachments can be an undermining factor if left unchecked (Kunda et al., 2002). Having good social anchors outside of work, whether it is friend groups, church or other socializing activities is a good refueling device for gig workers.

"Bricolage" and applying resources

Bricolage is about engaging and applying resources available, building from diverse materials, to handle issues or tackle goals, and is imperative for gig workers (Ashford et. al., 2007). Bricolage may occur when we assess and combine resources creatively for issues such as the sudden loss of a job or job resources, or interruptions in the day. Bricolage helps the gig worker build behaviorally adaptative skills by thinking creatively through sudden issues rather than falling back on formerly rehearsed alternatives and actions.

Bricolage requires proactivity . Harnessing proactive states of behavior in an anticipatory action-oriented way. This means proactivity harnessing a “self-starting” type of behavior that is not only present-focused but future-focused as well, to make the necessary modifications in “self” and one's resourcing that will help build resilience, self-efficacy, and create sustainable business practices to assist in preparing for unanticipated external shocks.

Proactivity in in fact is already present in gig workers because of the inherent nature of such environments that are built on autonomy, accountability, ambiguity, and discrepant events. These aforementioned conditions are present and foster proactivity most of the time, so adding bricolage practices to that palette will help gig workers become more prepared for a variety of situations.

Creatively enhancing “skill development” for the gig worker

Gig workers must come to embrace the idea of self-initiating or self-starting behaviors throughout their career and this applies to enhancing one’s development and competencies due to frequently changing marketplace conditions. Gig workers should not count on their employers for skills development since such connections are fleeting and unpredictable. Instead, those who engage in gig work must learn to embrace self-initiating behaviors where they take the reigns of development and learning “on the side,” which will also help foster multi-core competencies.

Pursuing opportunities outside one’s comfort zone to learn new routines is the first step to kick-starting the self-initiating process. Additionally, finding and seeking out newer ways of doing things can help build core competencies in areas such as communication, marketing, and digital skills. Self-initiated kick-starting will be important for those who want to remain salient and viable in the new gig economy.

Building "relational" networks

I mentioned earlier the challenges of “psychical" loneliness for gig workers given their autonomy in work, however, the conditions that foster loneliness in gig work are modifiable . We know that relationships shape individuals' perceptions of work. Gig workers, with a little planning and strategic efforts, can engage their “relational connectedness” by developing relational supports through crafting what is referred to as a relational network that ties both “inside work” to “outside work.” Such efforts help grow one's human connectedness and also help mitigate the loneliness and stress of the role.

For some, gig work may align with a natural predisposition towards introverted tendencies, but there is still an important aspect to fostering a support network. This may mean for those who chose gig work based on the desire to work alone, to work on developing one’s relational agility further. These would be skills relative to cultivating relationships quickly, forming new relationships, and maintaining current ones. Our professional acumen takes on a more purposeful and renewed focus when we learn to utilize relationships more productively, and in this case, perhaps more so for their "seasonal" natures (Petriglieri, 2011).

Learning to regulate “oscillating” emotional content

Surface acting , where one controls or inhibits emotions to manage impressions, may be something of a necessity in the short term for gig workers to engage their jobs productively (Diefendorff et. al., 2003). But it is also a “superficial” way to regulate emotional affect, and most often leads to suppression of emotions, alongside a feeling of cognitive dissonance . For gig workers, it is and will be imperative that they work towards a form of “deeper acting” thinking which is the more innate opportunity one has to regulate emotions by truly attenuating to one’s feelings and emotional states (Diefendorff et. al., 2003).

For example, a gig worker may smile and look a certain way on the "outside" but may be hurting on the inside, suppressing emotional content and ultimately creating internal health issues. Deeper acting is not a “fake it until you make it” attitude, but rather, a self-initiated reflective awareness such as acknowledging things like, “I feel sad , so then, what actionable steps can I take to modify this feeling state?” This could mean that gig workers build the necessary resourcing for down-regulating stress such as "practiced" methods using focused breathing , mindfulness approaches, or periodic therapy check-ins, to assist. There are many ways to steward in deep acting if we take "actionable" steps and account for the potential that one day, we may feel the "burdens" that may come with the role.

The need for more research

Ultimately, leadership and organizational research will need to look at these areas and measure the opportunities in the current climate of an ever-increasing gig economy. For researchers, there is also the prospect of understanding if , and how gig workers will build and utilize resources, helping us understand more about deficits and prospects. In the end, surviving and thriving in the new gig economy will require much more from the individuals who decide that "gigging" is where they want to remain.

Ashford, S. J., Caza, B. B., & Reid, E. M. (2018). From surviving to thriving in the gig economy: A research agenda for individuals in the new world of work.  Research in Organizational Behavior ,  38 (0191-3085), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2018.11.001

Ashford, S. J., George, E., & Blatt, R. (2007). 2 Old Assumptions, New Work.  Academy of Management Annals ,  1 (1), 65–117. https://doi.org/10.5465/078559807

Diefendorff, J. M., & Gosserand, R. H. (2003). Understanding the emotional labor process: A control theory perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior , 24 (8), 945-959. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMP.2006.19873409

Kunda, G., Barley, S. R., & Evans, J. (2002). Why Do Contractors Contract? The Experience of Highly Skilled Technical Professionals in a Contingent Labor Market.  ILR Review ,  55 (2), 234–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390205500203

Petriglieri, J. L. (2011). Under Threat: Responses to and the Consequences of Threats to Individuals’ Identities.  Academy of Management Review ,  36 (4), 641–662. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2009.0087

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Rodney Luster, Ph.D.

Dr. Rodney Luster has been with the University since 2012. Rodney Luster is the Senior Director of Research Strategy, Innovation, and Development for the Research Center Enterprise (RSE) within the College of Doctoral Studies. In this role Dr. Luster helps lead innovation in research, as well as connecting the pragmatics of research to industry. A major part of this role is communicating out the research potentials inside the RSE.

He also runs his own private practice known as Inspirethought Therapy and is a contributing writer with his own Blog at Psychology Today.

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In a decade of drug overdoses, more than 320,000 American children lost a parent

Rhitu Chatterjee

Esther Nesbitt lost two of her children to drug overdoses, and her grandchildren are among more than 320,000 who lost parents in the overdose epidemic. Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis via Getty Images hide caption

Esther Nesbitt lost two of her children to drug overdoses, and her grandchildren are among more than 320,000 who lost parents in the overdose epidemic.

More than 320,000 children across the United States lost a parent due to a drug overdose between 2011 and 2021. That's according to a new study published in JAMA Psychiatry Wednesday.

"It's a call to arms to pay close attention to the consequences of a parent who dies due to a drug overdose," saysHarvard neuroscientist Charles Nelson III , who wasn't involved in the new study.

The impact of the country's overdose epidemic on children is something "we really don't speak much about," says Dr. Nora Volkow , director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse and an author of the new study.

"The [overdose] numbers and mortality are so high that it attracts all of the attention and urgency to address it, to protect people from dying," she adds. "But at the same time, we've basically neglected to realize that when someone dies, there is a family that's left behind. And if the family has young children, that makes them very, very vulnerable."

Several federal agencies including the Substance Abuse and Mental Health administration and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conducted the study.

Kids who experience the death of a parent or a primary caregiver are at risk of a range of poor health and educational outcomes, according to previous research.

For example, the death of a parent makes children more likely to do poorly at school and even drop out . A 2018 study found that children who experienced the sudden death of a parent are more likely to have trouble functioning and have symptoms of depression and post traumatic stress disorder.

The new paper was inspired by recent studies on estimates of children who lost a parent or primary caregiver to Covid-19 , says Volkow, drawing attention to the multigenerational effects of the pandemic.

Volkow and her co-authors found that the rate of children who lost a parent from an overdose rose by 134% during the study period – from 27 per 100,000 children in 2011 to 63 per 100,000 in 2021.

More children — over 192,000 — lost a father to drug overdose compared to the 129,000 who lost a mother.

More than half of these bereaved kids had parents who died between the ages of 26 to 40 years, followed by 41 to 64 years, and 18 to 25 years.

The largest number of parents who died were non-Hispanic White, followed by Hispanic and Black. However, the highest rate of parental drug overdose losses were among American Indian and Alaska Native children.

"Children that come from underrepresented groups with higher adversity, economic and social, which already puts them at higher risk for behavioral health disorders and mental health disorders," says Volkow. Those risks can be further exacerbated by the death of a parent due to overdose, she adds.

"When I read the [new] paper, I had this sense of déja vu," says Nelson, who is an author of a 2021 study that estimated the number of children in the United States who lost a parent due to COVID-19-related causes.

However, the long term risks may be even greater for kids who lost a parent due to a drug overdose, says Nelson.

A memorial for those lost to the opioid epidemic in Binghamton, NY, in Aug. 2021. A study in JAMA Psychiatry Wednesday tallies how many children lost parents to overdoses. Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis via Getty Images hide caption

A memorial for those lost to the opioid epidemic in Binghamton, NY, in Aug. 2021. A study in JAMA Psychiatry Wednesday tallies how many children lost parents to overdoses.

"There's so many factors involved so that kids could get very, very tangled up in their thinking about why their parent overdosed," says Nelson.

For example, a child might get preoccupied with questions like "Was it preventable? Why did my father do this? Why didn't they stop taking drugs?" he says.

Besides, as the study points out, growing up in a household where a parent uses substances is itself a childhood trauma with potential for long-term health consequences for a child. "There's all the neglect that goes along with that, with certain substances. That's very common," says Nelson. "There is the abuse that sometimes travels with that."

As a result, a child whose parent died from a drug overdose may experience complex grief, and need more specialized mental health care, he adds.

There are other factors adding more stress to the lives of these bereaved children, says Nelson. "The worst of it is the stigma associated with having lost a parent to an overdose," he says. "So that would mean that these kids could be stigmatized in school."

Then there is the risk of future substance use. "As these kids get to adolescence, they too might start using drugs," says Nelson. "It gets really complicated."

Volkow hopes the study will spur actions to better address the needs of these children, so their long-term risks can be minimized. For example, she hopes there will be efforts made to keep children with their siblings and/or other relatives, with families receiving the supports and services they need to address these children's mental health needs.

"If a child loses a parent, [and] the child welfare system comes in and they remove them and take them away from other siblings, and then they lose not just the parent, they lose the sibling, they lose the school system that they have," says Volkow.

And there is a lot more to be done to prevent the death of parents due to overdoses in the first place, says Volkow, through policies that encourage parents to seek treatment for their substance use.

However, parents, especially mothers (and pregnant women) face tremendous stigma and punitive state laws which discourage them from seeking treatment, she says.

'As a physician, if someone comes to me and they are actually taking drugs and say they are pregnant, I have to report that," Volkow says.

In some states, such reporting eventually leads to the child being taken away from the mother soon after birth. Laws like these discourage women from seeking treatment for substance use, she adds. "Seeking treatment should not be something that people should be afraid of."

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How night shift work can raise risk of diabetes, obesity

Just a few days on a night shift schedule throws off protein rhythms related to blood glucose regulation, energy metabolism and inflammation, processes that can influence the development of chronic metabolic conditions.

The finding, from a study led by scientists at Washington State University and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, provides new clues as to why night shift workers are more prone to diabetes, obesity and other metabolic disorders.

"There are processes tied to the master biological clock in our brain that are saying that day is day and night is night and other processes that follow rhythms set elsewhere in the body that say night is day and day is night," said senior study author Hans Van Dongen, a professor in the WSU Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine. "When internal rhythms are dysregulated, you have this enduring stress in your system that we believe has long-term health consequences."

Though more research is needed, Van Dongen said the study shows that these disrupted rhythms can be seen in as little as three days, which suggests early intervention to prevent diabetes and obesity is possible. Such intervention could also help lower the risk of heart disease and stroke, which is elevated in night shift workers as well.

Published in the Journal of Proteome Research , the study involved a controlled laboratory experiment with volunteers who were put on simulated night or day shift schedules for three days. Following their last shift, participants were kept awake for 24 hours under constant conditions -- lighting, temperature, posture and food intake -- to measure their internal biological rhythms without interference from outside influences.

Blood samples drawn at regular intervals throughout the 24-hour period were analyzed to identify proteins present in blood-based immune system cells. Some proteins had rhythms closely tied to the master biological clock, which keeps the body on a 24-hour rhythm. The master clock is resilient to altered shift schedules, so these protein rhythms didn't change much in response to the night shift schedule.

However, most other proteins had rhythms that changed substantially in night shift participants compared to the day shift participants.

Looking more closely at proteins involved in glucose regulation, the researchers observed a nearly complete reversal of glucose rhythms in night shift participants. They also found that processes involved in insulin production and sensitivity, which normally work together to keep glucose levels within a healthy range, were no longer synchronized in night shift participants. The researchers said this effect could be caused by the regulation of insulin trying to undo the glucose changes triggered by the night shift schedule. They said this may be a healthy response in the moment, as altered glucose levels may damage cells and organs, but could be problematic in the long run.

"What we showed is that we can really see a difference in molecular patterns between volunteers with normal schedules and those with schedules that are misaligned with their biological clock," said Jason McDermott, a computational scientist with PNNL's Biological Sciences Division. "The effects of this misalignment had not yet been characterized at this molecular level and in this controlled manner before."

The researchers' next step will be to study real-world workers to determine whether night shifts cause similar protein changes in long-term shift workers.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Washington State University . Original written by Judith Van Dongen. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Jason E. McDermott, Jon M. Jacobs, Nathaniel J. Merrill, Hugh D. Mitchell, Osama A. Arshad, Ryan McClure, Justin Teeguarden, Rajendra P. Gajula, Kenneth I. Porter, Brieann C. Satterfield, Kirsie R. Lundholm, Debra J. Skene, Shobhan Gaddameedhi, Hans P. A. Van Dongen. Molecular-Level Dysregulation of Insulin Pathways and Inflammatory Processes in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells by Circadian Misalignment . Journal of Proteome Research , 2024; 23 (5): 1547 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.3c00418

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