how to maintain physical fitness as a student essay

Essay on Physical Fitness

Students are often asked to write an essay on Physical Fitness in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

What is physical fitness.

Physical fitness is about having a body that can do many activities without getting too tired. It means your heart, muscles, and bones are strong. When you are fit, you can run, jump, and play without feeling out of breath quickly.

Why is Fitness Important?

Being fit is good for your health. It helps you stay away from sickness. Kids who are fit can focus better in school. It also makes you feel happy and gives you more energy to enjoy life.

How to Get Fit

To get fit, you should be active. Run, swim, or play sports. Also, eat healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, and grains. Drink plenty of water and sleep well to help your body grow strong.

Staying Safe While Exercising

When you exercise, it’s important to be safe. Wear the right shoes and clothes. Start slow and learn the right way to move. Always listen to your body and rest if you feel pain or are very tired.

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250 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness means being in good health and shape. It’s when your body can do activities like running, jumping, and playing games without getting too tired quickly. Being fit is important for everyone, no matter how old they are. It helps us stay strong and healthy.

Parts of Physical Fitness

There are two main parts of being fit: aerobic fitness and muscle strength. Aerobic fitness is about how well your heart and lungs work when you exercise. When you can run for a long time without stopping, that’s good aerobic fitness. Muscle strength is when your muscles can lift things or do work without getting tired fast.

Why Being Fit Matters

Being fit is great for your body. It helps you not get sick often and can make you feel happier. When you’re fit, you can play with your friends and not feel like you need to stop and rest all the time. It also means you might not get hurt as often.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports, dance, swim, or even just go for walks. Eating healthy foods like fruits and vegetables helps too. It’s important to exercise a few times a week and not sit around too much.

Staying Fit

Once you’re fit, you have to keep exercising to stay that way. It’s like a game where you have to keep practicing to be good at it. Remember to stay active and eat well, and being fit will become a part of your life.

500 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is about keeping your body in good shape. It means having the energy and strength to do daily activities without getting too tired. Just like a car needs fuel and a good engine to run smoothly, your body needs healthy food and exercise to work well.

Why is Being Fit Important?

Being fit is key to a happy and healthy life. When you are fit, you can play, run, and do your school work better. Your body fights off sickness easier, and you feel good about yourself. It’s not just about how you look; it’s about taking care of your body so that it can take care of you.

Types of Fitness

Fitness is not just one thing. There are different types, like strength, which lets you lift things; endurance, which is the power to keep going without stopping; flexibility, which helps you move your body in different ways; and balance, which keeps you from falling. Doing a mix of activities that help all these areas is the best way to stay fit.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports like soccer or basketball, swim, dance, or even just walk or bike around your neighborhood. It’s important to find activities you enjoy so that you will keep doing them. Try to move your body for at least an hour every day. This doesn’t have to be all at once; it can be spread out through the day.

Eating Right

Eating healthy foods helps your fitness too. Imagine your body is like a plant. Plants need water and good soil to grow. Your body needs healthy food and water to grow strong and stay fit. Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins, and drink lots of water. Try to eat less junk food, which is like giving your plant the wrong kind of soil.

Rest and Sleep

Rest is just as important as exercise. Your body needs to sleep and take breaks to rebuild and get ready for the next day. Make sure you get enough sleep each night. This helps your body heal and gives you the energy to be active and fit.

Staying Motivated

Sometimes it’s hard to stay on track with fitness. Setting goals can help. Maybe you want to be able to run a mile without stopping or learn a new sport. Write down your goals and how you plan to reach them. Celebrate when you meet them, and set new ones.

Physical fitness is a big part of a healthy life. It keeps your body strong and gives you the energy to do all the things you love. Remember, being fit isn’t just about how you look. It’s about taking good care of your body by moving around, eating well, resting, and setting goals to keep yourself motivated. Start taking steps towards being fit today, and your body will thank you for years to come.

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Importance of Exercise Essay

500 words essay on exercise essay.

Exercise is basically any physical activity that we perform on a repetitive basis for relaxing our body and taking away all the mental stress. It is important to do regular exercise. When you do this on a daily basis, you become fit both physically and mentally. Moreover, not exercising daily can make a person susceptible to different diseases. Thus, just like eating food daily, we must also exercise daily. The importance of exercise essay will throw more light on it.

Importance of Exercise

Exercising is most essential for proper health and fitness. Moreover, it is essential for every sphere of life. Especially today’s youth need to exercise more than ever. It is because the junk food they consume every day can hamper their quality of life.

If you are not healthy, you cannot lead a happy life and won’t be able to contribute to the expansion of society. Thus, one needs to exercise to beat all these problems. But, it is not just about the youth but also about every member of the society.

These days, physical activities take places in colleges more than often. The professionals are called to the campus for organizing physical exercises. Thus, it is a great opportunity for everyone who wishes to do it.

Just like exercise is important for college kids, it is also essential for office workers. The desk job requires the person to sit at the desk for long hours without breaks. This gives rise to a very unhealthy lifestyle.

They get a limited amount of exercise as they just sit all day then come back home and sleep. Therefore, it is essential to exercise to adopt a healthy lifestyle that can also prevent any damaging diseases .

Benefits of Exercise

Exercise has a lot of benefits in today’s world. First of all, it helps in maintaining your weight. Moreover, it also helps you reduce weight if you are overweight. It is because you burn calories when you exercise.

Further, it helps in developing your muscles. Thus, the rate of your body will increases which helps to burn calories. Moreover, it also helps in improving the oxygen level and blood flow of the body.

When you exercise daily, your brain cells will release frequently. This helps in producing cells in the hippocampus. Moreover, it is the part of the brain which helps to learn and control memory.

The concentration level in your body will improve which will ultimately lower the danger of disease like Alzheimer’s. In addition, you can also reduce the strain on your heart through exercise. Finally, it controls the blood sugar levels of your body so it helps to prevent or delay diabetes.

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Conclusion of Importance of Exercise Essay

In order to live life healthily, it is essential to exercise for mental and physical development. Thus, exercise is important for the overall growth of a person. It is essential to maintain a balance between work, rest and activities. So, make sure to exercise daily.

FAQ of Importance of Exercise Essay

Question 1: What is the importance of exercise?

Answer 1: Exercise helps people lose weight and lower the risk of some diseases. When you exercise daily, you lower the risk of developing some diseases like obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure and more. It also helps to keep your body at a healthy weight.

Question 2: Why is exercising important for students?

Answer 2: Exercising is important for students because it helps students to enhance their cardiorespiratory fitness and build strong bones and muscles. In addition, it also controls weight and reduces the symptoms of anxiety and depression. Further, it can also reduce the risk of health conditions like heart diseases and more.

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Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013)

Chapter: 3 physical activity and physical education: relationship to growth, development, and health.

Physical Activity and Physical Education: Relationship to Growth, Development, and Health

Key Messages

•  Regular physical activity promotes growth and development and has multiple benefits for physical, mental, and psychosocial health that undoubtedly contribute to learning.

•  Specifically, physical activity reduces the risk for heart disease, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, obesity, and metabolic syndrome; improves various other aspects of health and fitness, including aerobic capacity, muscle and bone strength, flexibility, insulin sensitivity, and lipid profiles; and reduces stress, anxiety, and depression.

•  Physical activity can improve mental health by decreasing and preventing conditions such as anxiety and depression, as well as improving mood and other aspects of well-being.

•  Physical activity programming specifically designed to do so can improve psychosocial outcomes such as self-concept, social behaviors, goal orientation, and most notably self-efficacy. These attributes in turn are important determinants of current and future participation in physical activity.

•  Sedentary behaviors such as sitting and television viewing contribute to health risks both because of and independently of their impact on physical activity.

•  Health-related behaviors and disease risk factors track from childhood to adulthood, indicating that early and ongoing opportunities for physical activity are needed for maximum health benefit.

•  To be effective, physical activity programming must align with the predictable developmental changes in children’s exercise capacity and motor skills, which affect the activities in which they can successfully engage.

•  Frequent bouts of physical activity throughout the day yield short-term benefits for mental and cognitive health while also providing opportunities to practice skills and building confidence that promotes ongoing engagement in physical activity.

•  Distinct types of physical activity address unique health concerns and contribute in distinct ways to children’s health, suggesting that a varied regimen including aerobic and resistance exercise, structured and unstructured opportunities, and both longer sessions and shorter bouts will likely confer the greatest benefit.

T he behaviors and traits of today’s children, along with their genetics, are determinants of their growth and development; their physical, mental, and psychosocial health; and their physical, cognitive, and academic performance. Technological advances of modern society have contributed to a sedentary lifestyle that has changed the phenotype of children from that of 20 years ago. Children today weigh more and have a higher body mass index (BMI) than their peers of just a generation earlier (Ogden et al., 2012). Behaviorally, most children fail to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for the recommended 60 minutes or more each day, with as many as one-third reporting no physical activity in the preceding 5 days (CDC, 2012). This lack of participation in physical activity has contributed to a greater prevalence of pediatric obesity, a decrease in fitness (e.g., flexibility, muscular strength, cardiorespiratory capacity), and a greater risk for disease (Boreham and Riddoch, 2001; Eisenmann, 2003; Malina, 2007; Steele et al., 2008). (See Box 3-1 for an overview of the relationship between physical activity and physical fitness.)

Physical Activity and Physical Fitness

As noted in Chapter 1 (see the box titled “Key Terms Used in This Report” on p. 17), physical activity, a behavior, is defined as bodily movement that increases energy expenditure, whereas fitness is a physiologic trait, commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption), although other components of fitness have been defined (IOM, 2012b). Exercise, a subset of physical activity, is “planned, structured and repetitive” (Carpersen et al., 1985, p. 128) and designed to target a particular outcome, for example, cardiorespiratory capacity or another component of fitness. Physical education provides opportunities for developmentally appropriate physical activity, usually structured to promote motor skill development, fitness, and health.

The relationship between physical activity and physical fitness is complex and bidirectional. Numerous studies have shown a significant relationship between physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness, which may mean that physical activity improves fitness or that physically fit individuals choose to engage in physical activity more than their less fit peers, or both. Experimental studies have shown that exercise training improves fitness (Malina et al., 2004), although the response is variable and clearly influenced by genetics (Bouchard, 2012), and physical activity and fitness are independently related to health and academic performance (see the figure below).

Conceptual framework illustrating relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, health, and academic performance.

While more can always be learned, the evidence for the health benefits of physical activity is irrefutable (HHS, 1996, 2008). Adults engaged in regular physical activity have lower rates of chronic disease (e.g., coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, and some cancers) and are less likely to die prematurely (HHS, 1996, 2008; Bauman, 2004). And while the ill effects of chronic disease are manifested mainly in adults, it is increasingly better understood that the development of these conditions starts in childhood and adolescence (Hallal et al., 2006; Cook et al., 2009; Halfon et al., 2012). It appears evident, then, that promotion of health-enhancing behaviors must also start early in life. Indeed, growing evidence points to long-term effects of child and adolescent physical activity on adult morbidity and mortality in addition to its more immediate effects (Hallal et al., 2006) (see Figure 3-1 ).

Evidence for both direct and indirect health effects of physical activity has been reported (Hallal et al., 2006), and the need for ongoing participation in physical activity to stimulate and maintain the chronic adaptations that underlie those benefits is well documented. To understand the relation-

FIGURE 3-1 Conceptual model of how physical activity in childhood and adolescence is beneficial to health. Physical activity has both immediate and long-term health benefits: (a) Physical activity tends to track; early physical activity is associated with physical activity in subsequent life stages. (b) Physical activity reduces morbidity risk in childhood and adolescence. (c) Physical activity may be important in treating and slowing some diseases in children and adolescents. (d) Early physical activity influences future morbidity (e.g., physical activity in childhood and adolescence may reduce fracture risk later in life). SOURCE: Adapted from Hallal et al., 2006.

ship of physical activity and aerobic fitness to health during childhood, it is important first to recognize the developmental changes that occur throughout maturation. During the early stages of adolescence, for example, participation in physical activity and corresponding physical fitness begin to decline (Duncan et al., 2007). Such differences across stages of development highlight the importance of examining the effects of growth and maturation on physical and cognitive health. Accordingly, this chapter reviews how physical activity may influence developmental processes and other aspects of somatic growth and maturation. A complete review of the effects of physical activity on all tissues and systems is beyond the scope of this report. Rather, the focus is on components of body composition and systems that underlie engagement in physical activity, physical fitness, and chronic disease risk and that in turn influence other aspects of health and academic performance (discussed in Chapter 4 ). Addressed in turn is the relationship between physical activity and physical, psychosocial, and mental health. Structural and functional brain maturation and how physical activity may influence those developmental processes and cognitive health are also reviewed in Chapter 4 .

PHYSICAL HEALTH

This section reviews what is known about the relationship between physical activity and (1) somatic growth, development, and function and (2) health- and performance-related fitness.

Somatic Growth, Development, and Function

Growth occurs through a complex, organized process characterized by predictable developmental stages and events. Although all individuals follow the same general course, growth and maturation rates vary widely among individuals. Just as it is unrealistic to expect all children at the same age to achieve the same academic level, it is unrealistic to expect children at the same age to have the same physical development, motor skills, and physical capacity. Regular physical activity does not alter the process of growth and development. Rather, developmental stage is a significant determinant of motor skills, physical capacity, and the adaptation to activity that is reasonable to expect (see Box 3-2 ).

Developmental Stages

Postnatal growth is commonly divided into three or four age periods. Infancy spans the first year of life. Childhood extends from the end of infancy to the start of adolescence and is often divided into early child-

Growth, Development, and Maturation

Growth is the normal process of increase in size as a result of accretion of tissues characteristic of the organism; growth is the dominant biological activity for most of the first two decades of life. Changes in size are the outcome of an increase in cell number (hyperplasia), an increase in cell size (hypertrophy), and an increase in intercellular substances (accretion).

Development

Encompassing growth and maturation, development denotes a broader concept; when used in a biological context, development refers to differentiation and specialization of stem cells into different cell types, tissues, organs, and functional units. Development continues as different systems become functionally refined. Development also refers to the acquisition and refinement of behavior relating to competence in a variety of interrelated domains, such as motor competence and social, emotional, and cognitive competence.

Maturation is the timing and tempo of progress toward the mature state and varies considerably among individuals; variation in progress toward the mature state over time implies variation in the rate of change. Two children may be the same size but at different points on the path to adult size or maturity.

hood, which includes the preschool years, and middle childhood, which includes the elementary school years, into the 5th or 6th grade. Adolescence is more difficult to define because of variation in its onset and termination, although it is commonly defined as between 10 and 18 years of age (WHO, 1986). The rapid growth and development of infancy continue during early childhood, although at a decelerating rate, whereas middle childhood is a period of slower, steady growth and maturation. Differences between boys and girls are relatively small until adolescence, which is marked by accelerated growth and attainment of sexual maturity (Tanner, 1962).

Across developmental stages, neurological development and control of movement advance in cephalocaudal and proximodistal directions; that is, they advance “head to toe” (cephalocaudal) and “midline to periphery” (proximodistal), while predictable changes in body proportions also occur. For example, the head accounts for 25 percent of recumbent length in an infant and only 15 percent of adult height, while the legs account for 38 percent of recumbent length at birth and 50 percent of adult height. These changes in body proportions occur because body parts grow at different rates. From birth to adulthood, as the head doubles in size, the trunk triples in length, and arm and leg lengths quadruple.

Coincident with these changes in body proportions, and in part because of them, the capacity to perform various motor tasks develops in a predictable fashion. For example, running speed increases are consistent with the increase in leg length. Neurological development also determines skill progression. Young children, for example, when thrown a ball, catch it within the midline of the body and do not attempt to catch it outside the midline or to either side of the body. As proximodistal development proceeds, children are better able to perform tasks outside their midline, and by adolescence they are able to maneuver their bodies in a coordinated way to catch objects outside the midline with little effort.

Physically active and inactive children progress through identical stages. Providing opportunities for young children to be physically active is important not to affect the stages but to ensure adequate opportunity for skill development. Sound physical education curricula are based on an understanding of growth patterns and developmental stages and are critical to provide appropriate movement experiences that promote motor skill development (Clark, 2005). The mastery of fundamental motor skills is strongly related to physical activity in children and adolescents (Lubans et al., 2010) and in turn may contribute to physical, social, and cognitive development. Mastering fundamental motor skills also is critical to fostering physical activity because these skills serve as the foundation for more advanced and sport-specific movement (Clark and Metcalfe, 2002; Hands et al., 2009; Robinson and Goodway, 2009; Lubans et al., 2010). Physical activity programs, such as physical education, should be based on developmentally appropriate motor activities to foster self-efficacy and enjoyment and encourage ongoing participation in physical activity.

Biological Maturation

Maturation is the process of attaining the fully adult state. In growth studies, maturity is typically assessed as skeletal, somatic, or sexual. The same hormones regulate skeletal, somatic, and sexual maturation during adolescence, so it is reasonable to expect the effect of physical activity on

these indicators of maturity to be similar. Skeletal maturity is typically assessed from radiographs of the bones in the hand and wrist; it is not influenced by habitual physical activity. Similarly, age at peak height velocity (the most rapid change in height), an indicator of somatic maturity, is not affected by physical activity, nor is the magnitude of peak height velocity, which is well within the usual range in both active and inactive youth. Discussions of the effects of physical activity on sexual maturation more often focus on females than males and, in particular, on age at menarche (first menses). While some data suggest an association between later menarche and habitual physical activity (Merzenich et al., 1993), most of these data come from retrospective studies of athletes (Clapp and Little, 1995). Whether regular sports training at young ages before menarche “delays” menarche (later average age of menarche) remains unclear. While menarche occurs later in females who participate in some sports, the available data do not support a causal relationship between habitual physical activity and later menarche.

Puberty is the developmental period that represents the beginning of sexual maturation. It is marked by the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and their underlying hormonal changes, with accompanying sex differences in linear growth and body mass and composition. The timing of puberty varies, beginning as early as age 8 in girls and age 9 in boys in the United States and as late as ages 13-15 (NRC/IOM, 1999). Recent research suggests that the onset of puberty is occurring earlier in girls today compared with the previous generation, and there is speculation that increased adiposity may be a cause (Bau et al., 2009; Rosenfield et al., 2009). Conversely, some data suggest that excess adiposity in boys contributes to delayed sexual maturation (Lee et al., 2010). Pubescence, the earliest period of adolescence, generally occurs about 2 years in advance of sexual maturity. Typically, individuals are in the secondary school years during this period, which is a time of decline in habitual physical activity, especially in girls. Physical activity trends are influenced by the development of secondary sex characteristics and other physical changes that occur during the adolescent growth spurt, as well as by societal and cultural factors. Research suggests that physical inactivity during adolescence carries over into adulthood (Malina, 2001a,b; CDC, 2006).

It is critical that adolescents be offered appropriate physical activity programs that take into account the physical and sociocultural changes they are experiencing so they will be inspired to engage in physical activity for a lifetime. As discussed below, adequate physical activity during puberty may be especially important for optimal bone development and prevention of excess adiposity, as puberty is a critical developmental period for both the skeleton and the adipose organ.

Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. The adolescent growth spurt, roughly 3 years of rapid growth, occurs early in this period. An accelerated increase in stature is a hallmark, with about 20 percent of adult stature being attained during this period. Along with the rapid increase in height, other changes in body proportions occur that have important implications for sports and other types of activities offered in physical education and physical activity programs. As boys and girls advance through puberty, for example, biacromial breadth (shoulder width) increases more in boys than in girls, while increases in bicristal breadth (hip width) are quite similar. Consequently, hip-shoulder width ratio, which is similar in boys and girls during childhood, decreases in adolescent boys while remaining relatively constant in girls (Malina et al., 2004). Ratios among leg length, trunk length, and stature also change during this period. Prior to adolescence, boys have longer trunks and shorter legs than girls (Haubenstricker and Sapp, 1980). In contrast, adolescent and adult females have shorter legs for the same height than males of equal stature. Body proportions, particularly skeletal dimensions, are unlikely to be influenced by physical activity; rather, body proportions influence performance success, fitness evaluation, and the types of activities in which a person may wish to engage. For example, there is evidence that leg length influences upright balance and speed (Haubenstricker and Sapp, 1980). Individuals who have shorter legs and broader pelvises are better at balancing tasks than those with longer legs and narrower pelvises, and longer legs are associated with faster running times (Dintiman et al., 1997). Also, longer arms and wider shoulders are advantageous in throwing tasks (Haubenstricker and Sapp, 1980), as well as in other activities in which the arms are used as levers. According to Haubenstricker and Sapp (1980), approximately 25 percent of engagement in movement-related activities can be attributed to body size and structure.

Motor Development

Motor development depends on the interaction of experience (e.g., practice, instruction, appropriate equipment) with an individual’s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial status and proceeds in a predictable fashion across developmental periods. Clark and Metcalfe (2002) provide an eloquent metaphor—“the mountain of motor development”—to aid in understanding the global changes seen in movement across the life span. Early movements, critical for an infant’s survival, are reflexive and dominated by biology, although environment contributes and helps shape reflexes. This initial reflexive period is followed quickly by the preadapted period , which begins when an infant’s movement behaviors are no longer reflexive and ends when the infant begins to apply basic movement skills (e.g.,

crawling, rolling, standing, and walking) that generally are accomplished before 12 months of age. The period of fundamental motor patterns occurs approximately between the ages of 1 and 7 years, when children begin to acquire basic fundamental movement skills (e.g., running, hopping, skipping, jumping, leaping, sliding, galloping, throwing, catching, kicking, dribbling, and striking). Practice and instruction are key to learning these skills, and a great deal of time in elementary school physical education is devoted to exploration of movement. Around age 7, during the so-called context-specific period of motor development, children begin to refine basic motor skills and combine them into more specific movement patterns, ultimately reaching what has been called skillfulness . Compensation , the final period of motor development, occurs at varying points across the life span when, as a result of aging, disease, injury, or other changes, it becomes necessary to modify movement.

While all children need not be “expert” in all movement skills, those who do not acquire the fundamental motor skills will likely experience difficulty in transitioning their movement repertoire into specific contexts and engagement in physical activity (Fisher et al., 2005; Barnett et al., 2009; Cliff et al., 2009; Robinson et al., 2012). A full movement repertoire is needed to engage in physical activities within and outside of the school setting. Thus, beyond contributing to levels of physical activity, physical education programs should aim to teach basic fundamental motor skills and their application to games, sports, and other physical activities, especially during the elementary years (i.e., the fundamental motor patterns and context-specific periods). At the same time, it is important to be mindful of the wide interindividual variation in the rate at which children develop motor skills, which is determined by their biological makeup, their rate of physical maturation, the extent and quality of their movement experiences, and their family and community environment.

An increasing amount of evidence suggests that people who feel competent in performing physical skills remain more active throughout their lives (Lubans et al., 2010). Conversely, those who are less skilled may be hesitant to display what they perceive as a shortcoming and so may opt out of activities requiring higher levels of motor competence (Stodden et al., 2008). Children who are less physically skillful tend to be less active than their skillful counterparts (Wrotniak et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2008; Robinson et al., 2012) and thus have a greater risk of overweight and obesity (Graf et al., 2004). Fundamental skills are the building blocks of more complex actions that are completed in sports, physical activities, and exercise settings. For example, throwing is a fundamental skill that is incorporated into the context-specific throw used in activities such as handball, softball, and water polo. Fundamental skills are of primary interest to both physical education teachers and coaches, and physical

education classes should be designed to challenge learners to develop their motor skills.

In 1998 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity organized a workshop to determine future directions for research on physical activity. The workshop convened 21 experts from a wide range of academic disciplines. One recommendation resulting from the proceedings was for future research to describe the temporal relationship between motor development and physical activity (Fulton et al., 2001), signifying the importance of better understanding of the nature of the relationship between motor competence and physical activity. The assumption of this relationship is implied in multiple models of motor development (Seefeldt, 1980; Clark and Metcalfe, 2002; Stodden et al., 2008), which emphasize the importance of motor competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span.

Two models that are commonly used to examine this relationship are Seefeldt’s (1980) hierarchical order of motor skills development and the dynamic association model of Stodden and colleagues (2008). Seefeldt proposed a hierarchical order of motor skills development that includes four levels: reflexes, fundamental motor skills, transitional motor skills (i.e., fundamental motor skills that are performed in various combinations and with variations and that are required to participate in entry-level organized sports, such as throwing for distance, throwing for accuracy, and/or catching a ball while in motion), and specific sports skills and dances. With improved transitional motor skills, children are able to master complex motor skills (e.g., those required for playing more complex sports such as football or basketball). At the end of this developmental period, children’s vision is fully mature. The progression through each level occurs through developmental stages as a combined result of growth, maturation, and experience. Seefeldt hypothesized the existence of a “proficiency barrier” between the fundamental and transitional levels of motor skills development. If children are able to achieve a level of competence above the proficiency barrier, they are more likely to continue to engage in physical activity throughout the life span that requires the use of fundamental motor skills. Conversely, less skilled children who do not exceed the proficiency barrier will be less likely to continue to engage in physical activity. Thus, it is assumed that “a confident and competent mover will be an active mover” (Clark, 2005, p. 44). For example, to engage successfully in a game of handball, baseball, cricket, or basketball at any age, it is important to reach a minimum level of competence in running, throwing, catching, and striking. The assumption of the existence of a relationship between motor competence and physical activity is at the “heart of our physical education programs” (Clark, 2005, p. 44). A thorough understanding of how this

relationship changes across developmental stages is crucial for curriculum development and delivery and teaching practices.

Lubans and colleagues (2010) recently examined the relationship between motor competence and health outcomes. They reviewed 21 studies identifying relationships between fundamental motor skills and self-worth, perceived physical competence, muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness, weight status, flexibility, physical activity, and sedentary behavior. Overall, the studies found a positive association between fundamental motor skills and physical activity in children and adolescents, as well as a positive relationship between fundamental motor skills and cardiorespiratory fitness. Other research findings support the hypothesis that the most physically active preschool-age (Fisher et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2008; Robinson et al., 2012), elementary school–age (Bouffard et al., 1996; Graf et al., 2004; Wrotniak et al., 2006; Hume et al., 2008; Lopes et al., 2011), and adolescent (Okely et al., 2001) youth are also the most skilled.

An advantage of the “proficiency barrier” hypothesis proposed by Seefeldt (1980) is its recognition that the relationship between motor competence and physical activity may not be linear. Rather, the hypothesis suggests that physical activity is influenced when a certain level of motor competence is not achieved and acknowledges that below the proficiency barrier, there is bound to be substantial variation in children’s motor competence and participation in physical activity. The proficiency barrier is located between the fundamental and transitional motor skills periods. The transition between these two levels of motor competence is expected to occur between the early and middle childhood years. Stodden and colleagues (2008) suggest that the relationship between motor competence and physical activity is dynamic and changes across time. In their model the “development of motor skill competence is a primary underlying mechanism that promotes engagement in physical activity” (p. 290).

The relationship between skills and physical activity is considered reciprocal. It is expected that as motor skills competence increases, physical activity participation also increases and that the increased participation feeds back into motor skills competence. The reciprocal relationship between motor skills competence and physical activity is weak during the early childhood years (ages 2-8) because of a variety of factors, including environmental conditions, parental influences, and previous experience in physical education programs (Stodden et al., 2008). Also, children at this age are less able to distinguish accurately between perceived physical competence and actual motor skills competence (Harter and Pike, 1984; Goodway and Rudisill, 1997; Robinson and Goodway, 2009; Robinson, 2011), and thus motor skills are not expected to strongly influence physical activ-

ity. The literature supports this hypothesis, as indicated by low to moderate correlations between motor skills competence and physical activity

in preschool (Sääkslahti et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2008; Cliff et al., 2009; Robinson and Goodway, 2009; Robinson, 2011) and early elementary school–age (Raudsepp and Päll, 2006; Hume et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 2008; Houwen et al., 2009; Ziviani et al., 2009; Lopes et al., 2011) children.

In older children, perceived competence is more closely related to actual motor skills competence. Older, low-skilled children are aware of their skills level and are more likely to perceive physical activity as difficult and challenging. Older children who are not equipped with the necessary skills to engage in physical activity that requires high levels of motor skills competence may not want to display their low competence publicly. As children transition into adolescence and early adulthood, the relationship between motor skills competence and physical activity may strengthen (Stodden et al., 2008). Investigators report moderate correlations between motor skills competence and physical activity in middle school–age children (Reed et al., 2004; Jaakkola et al., 2009). Okely and colleagues (2001) found that motor skills competence was significantly associated with participation in organized physical activity (i.e., regular and structured experiences related to physical activity) as measured by self-reports. A strength of the model of Stodden and colleagues (2008) is the inclusion of factors related to psychosocial health and development that may influence the relationship between motor skills competence and physical activity, contributing to the development and maintenance of obesity. Other studies have found that perceived competence plays a role in engagement in physical activity (Ferrer-Caja and Weiss, 2000; Sollerhed et al., 2008).

Motor skills competence is an important factor; however, it is only one of many factors that contribute to physical activity. For instance, three studies have reported negative correlations between girls’ motor competence and physical activity (Reed et al., 2004; Cliff et al., 2009; Ziviani et al., 2009), suggesting that sex may be another determining factor. A possible explanation for these findings is that since girls tend to be less active than boys, it may be more difficult to detect differences in physical activity levels between high- and low-skilled girls. It is also possible that out-of-school opportunities for physical activity are more likely to meet the interests of boys, which may at least partially explain sex differences in physical activity levels (Le Masurier et al., 2005). Previous research suggests that in general boys are more motor competent than girls (Graf et al., 2004; Barnett et al., 2009; Lopes et al., 2011) and that this trend, which is less apparent in early childhood, increases through adolescence (Thomas and French, 1985; Thomas and Thomas, 1988; Thomas, 1994), although one study reports that girls are more motor competent than boys (Cliff et al., 2009).

One component of motor competence is the performance of gross motor skills, which are typically classified into object control and

locomotor skills. Consistent evidence suggests that boys are more competent in object control skills, while girls are more competent in locomotor skills (McKenzie et al., 2004; Morgan et al., 2008; Barnett et al., 2009). In light of these sex differences, it is important to examine the relationships of object control and locomotor skills with physical activity separately for boys and girls. For boys, object control skills are more related to physical activity than are locomotor skills (Hume et al., 2008; Morgan et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2008; Cliff et al., 2009), whereas evidence suggests that the reverse is true for girls (McKenzie et al., 2002; Hume et al., 2008; Cliff et al., 2009; Jaakkola et al., 2009). Three studies report a significant relationship between balance and physical activity for girls but not boys (Reed et al., 2004; Ziviani et al., 2009). Cliff and colleagues (2009) suggest that object control and locomotor skills may be more related to boys’ and girls’ physical activity, respectively, because of the activity type in which each sex typically engages.

The relationship between motor competence and physical activity clearly is complex. It is quite likely that the relationship is dynamic and that motor competence increases the likelihood of participating in physical activity while at the same time engaging in physical activity provides opportunities to develop motor competence (Stodden et al., 2008). Despite some uncertainty, the literature does reinforce the important role of physical education in providing developmentally appropriate movement opportunities in the school environment. These opportunities are the only means of engaging a large population of children and youth and providing them with the tools and opportunities that foster health, development, and future physical activity.

Regular physical activity has no established effect on linear growth rate or ultimate height (Malina, 1994). Although some studies suggest small differences, factors other than physical activity, especially maturity, often are not well controlled. It is important to note that regular physical activity does not have a negative effect on stature, as has sometimes been suggested. Differences in height among children and adolescents participating in various sports are more likely due to the requirements of the sport, selection criteria, and interindividual variation in biological maturity than the effects of participation per se (Malina et al., 2004).

Body Weight

Although physical activity is inversely related to weight, correlations are generally low (~r –0.15), and differences in body weight between active and inactive boys and girls tend to be small (Mirwald and Bailey, 1986;

Saris et al., 1986; Beunen et al., 1992; Lohman et al., 2006;), except in very obese children and adolescents. Similarly, physique, as represented in somatotypes, does not appear to be significantly affected by physical activity during growth (Malina et al., 2004). In contrast, components of weight can be influenced by regular physical activity, especially when the mode and intensity of the activity are tailored to the desired outcome. Much of the available data in children and adolescents is based on BMI, a surrogate for composition, and indirect methods based on the two-compartment model of body composition in which body weight is divided into its fat-free and fat components (Going et al., 2012). While studies generally support that physical activity is associated with greater fat-free mass and lower body fat, distinguishing the effects of physical activity on fat-free mass from expected changes associated with growth and maturation is difficult, especially during adolescence, when both sexes have significant growth in fat-free mass. The application of methods based on the two-compartment model is fraught with errors, especially when the goal is to detect changes in fat-free mass, and no information is available from these methods regarding changes in the major tissue components of fat-free mass—muscle and skeletal tissue.

Muscle Skeletal muscle is the largest tissue mass in the body. It is the main energy-consuming tissue and provides the propulsive force for movement. Muscle represents about 23-25 percent of body weight at birth and about 40 percent in adults, although there is a wide range of “normal” (Malina, 1986, 1996). Postnatal muscle growth is explained largely by increases in cell size (hypertrophy) driving an increase in overall muscle mass. The increase in muscle mass with age is fairly linear from young childhood until puberty, with boys having a small but consistent advantage (Malina, 1969, 1986). The sex difference becomes magnified during and after puberty, driven primarily by gender-related differences in sex steroids. Muscle, as a percentage of body mass, increases from about 42 percent to 54 percent in boys between ages 5 and 11, whereas in girls it increases from about 40 percent to 45 percent between ages 5 and 13 and thereafter declines (Malina et al., 2004). It should be noted that absolute mass does not decline; rather, the relative decline reflects the increase in the percentage of weight that is fat in girls. At least part of the sex difference is due to differences in muscle development for different body regions (Tanner et al., 1981). The growth rate of arm muscle tissue during adolescence in males is approximately twice that in females, whereas the sex difference in the growth of muscle tissue in the leg is much smaller. The sex difference that develops during puberty persists into adulthood and is more apparent for the musculature of the upper extremities.

Sex-related differences in muscular development contribute to differences in physical performance. Muscle strength develops in proportion to the cross-sectional area of muscle, and growth curves for strength are essentially the same as those for muscle (Malina and Roche, 1983). Thus the sex difference in muscle strength is explained largely by differences in skeletal muscle mass rather than muscle quality or composition. Aerobic (endurance) exercise has little effect on enhancing muscle mass but does result in significant improvement in oxygen extraction and aerobic metabolism (Fournier et al., 1982). In contrast, numerous studies have shown that high-intensity resistance exercise induces muscle hypertrophy, with associated increases in muscle strength. In children and adolescents, strength training can increase muscle strength, power, and endurance. Multiple types of resistance training modalities have proven effective and safe (Bernhardt et al., 2001), and resistance exercise is now recommended for enhancing physical health and function (Behringer et al., 2010). These adaptations are due to muscle fiber hypertrophy and neural adaptations, with muscle hypertrophy playing a more important role in adolescents, especially in males. Prior to puberty, before the increase in anabolic sex steroid concentrations, neural adaptations explain much of the improvement in muscle function with exercise in both boys and girls.

Skeleton The skeleton is the permanent supportive framework of the body. It provides protection for vital organs and is the main mineral reservoir. Bone tissue constitutes most of the skeleton, accounting for 14-17 percent of body weight across the life span (Trotter and Peterson, 1970; Trotter and Hixon, 1974). Skeletal strength, which dictates fracture risk, is determined by both the material and structural properties of bone, both of which are dependent on mineral accrual. The relative mineral content of bone does not differ much among infants, children, adolescents, and adults, making up 63-65 percent of the dry, fat-free weight of the skeleton (Malina, 1996). As a fraction of weight, bone mineral (the ash weight of bone) represents about 2 percent of body weight in infants and about 4-5 percent of body weight in adults (Malina, 1996). Bone mineral content increases fairly linearly with age, with no sex difference during childhood. Girls have, on average, a slightly greater bone mineral content than boys in early adolescence, reflecting their earlier adolescent growth spurt. Boys have their growth spurt later than girls, and their bone mineral content continues to increase through late adolescence, ending with greater skeletal dimensions and bone mineral content (Mølgaard et al., 1997). The increase in total body bone mineral is explained by both increases in skeletal length and width and a small increase in bone mineral density (Malina et al., 2004).

Many studies have shown a positive effect of physical activity on intermediate markers of bone health, such as bone mineral content and density.

Active children and adolescents have greater bone mineral content and density than their less active peers, even after controlling for differences in height and muscle mass (Wang et al., 2004; Hind and Burrows, 2007; Tobias et al., 2007). Exercise interventions support the findings from observational studies showing beneficial effects on bone mineral content and density in exercise participants versus controls (Petit et al., 2002; Specker and Binkley, 2003), although the benefit is less than is suggested by cross-sectional studies comparing active versus inactive individuals (Bloomfield et al., 2004). The relationship between greater bone mineral density and bone strength is unclear, as bone strength cannot be measured directly in humans. Thus, whether the effects of physical activity on bone mineral density translate into similar benefits for fracture risk is uncertain (Karlsson, 2007). Animal studies have shown that loading causes small changes in bone mineral content and bone mineral density that result in large increases in bone strength, supporting the notion that physical activity probably affects the skeleton in a way that results in important gains in bone strength (Umemura et al., 1997). The relatively recent application of peripheral quantitative computed tomography for estimating bone strength in youth has also provided some results suggesting an increase in bone strength with greater than usual physical activity (Sardinha et al., 2008; Farr et al., 2011).

The intensity of exercise appears to be a key determinant of the osteogenic response (Turner and Robling, 2003). Bone tissue, like other tissues, accommodates to usual daily activities. Thus, activities such as walking have a modest effect at best, since even relatively inactive individuals take many steps (>1,000) per day. Activities generating greater muscle force on bone, such as resistance exercise, and “impact” activities with greater than ordinary ground reaction forces (e.g., hopping, skipping, jumping, gymnastics) promote increased mineralization and modeling (Bloomfield et al., 2004; Farr et al., 2011). Far fewer randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining this relationship have been conducted in children than in adults, and there is little evidence on dose response to show how the type of exercise interacts with frequency, intensity, and duration. Taken together, however, the available evidence supports beneficial effects of physical activity in promoting bone development (Bailey et al., 1996; Modlesky and Lewis, 2002).

Physical activity may reduce osteoporosis-related fracture risk by increasing bone mineral accrual during development; by enhancing bone strength; and by reducing the risk of falls by improving muscle strength, flexibility, coordination, and balance (Bloomfield et al., 2004). Early puberty is a key developmental period. Approximately 26 percent of the mineral content in the adult skeleton is accrued during the 2 years around the time of peak height velocity (Bailey et al., 2000). This amount of mineral accrual represents approximately the same amount of bone mineral

that most people will lose in their entire adult lives (Arlot et al., 1997). The increase in mineral contributes to increased bone strength. Mineral is accrued on the periosteal surface of bone, such that the bone grows wider. Increased bone width, independent of the increased mineral mass, also contributes to greater bone strength. Indeed, an increase of as little as 1 mm in the outer surface of bone increases strength substantially. Adding bone to the endosteal surface also increases strength (Parfitt, 1994; Wang et al., 2009). Increases in testosterone may be a greater stimulus of periosteal expansion than estrogen since testosterone contributes to wider and stronger bones in males compared with females. Retrospective studies in tennis players and gymnasts suggest structural adaptations may persist many years later in adulthood and are greatest when “impact” activity is initiated in childhood (Kannus et al., 1995; Bass et al., 1998). RCTs on this issue are few, although the available data are promising (McKay et al., 2000; Fuchs et al., 2001; MacKelvie et al., 2001, 2003; Lindén et al., 2006). Thus, impact exercise begun in childhood may result in lasting structural changes that may contribute to increased bone strength and decreased fracture risk later in life (Turner and Robling, 2003; Ferrari et al., 2006).

Adipose tissue The adipose “organ” is composed of fat cells known as adipocytes (Ailhaud and Hauner, 1998). Adipocytes are distributed throughout the body in various organs and tissues, although they are largely clustered anatomically in structures called fat depots, which include a large number of adipocytes held together by a scaffold-like structure of collagen and other structural molecules. In the traditional view of the adipocyte, the cell provides a storage structure for fatty acids in the form of triacylglycerol molecules, with fatty acids being released when metabolic fuel is needed (Arner and Eckel, 1998). While adipocytes play this critical role, they are also involved in a number of endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine actions and play a key role in regulating other tissues and biological functions, for example, immunity and blood pressure, energy balance, glucose and lipid metabolism, and energy demands of exercise (Ailhaud and Hauner, 1998; Frühbeck et al., 2001). The role of adipocytes in regulation of energy balance and in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and the potential effects of physical activity on adipocyte function are of particular interest here, given growing concerns related to pediatric and adult obesity (Ogden et al., 2012) and the associated risk of cardiometabolic disease (Weiss et al., 2004; Eisenmann, 2007a,b; Steele et al., 2008). Metabolic differences among various fat depots are now well known (Frühbeck et al., 2001), and there is significant interest in the distribution of adipose tissue, the changes that occur during childhood and adolescence, and their clinical significance.

Adipocytes increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia) from birth through childhood and adolescence and into young adulthood

to accommodate energy storage needs. The number of adipocytes has been estimated to increase from about 5 billion at birth to 30 billion to 50 billion in the nonobese adult, with an increase in average diameter from about 30-40 μm at birth to about 80-100 μm in the young adult (Knittle et al., 1979; Bonnet and Rocour-Brumioul, 1981; Chumlea et al., 1982). In total the adipose organ contains about 0.5 kg of adipocytes at birth in both males and females, increasing to approximately 10 kg in average-weight-for-height males and 14 kg in females (Malina et al., 2004). There is wide interindividual variation, however, and the difficulty of investigating changes in the number and size of adipocytes is obvious given the invasiveness of the required biopsy procedures; understandably, then, data on these topics are scarce in children and adolescents. Also, since only subcutaneous depots are accessible, results must be extrapolated from a few sites.

Based on such information, the average size of adipocytes has been reported to increase two- to threefold in the first year of life, with little increase in nonobese boys and girls until puberty (Malina et al., 2004). A small increase in average adipocyte size at puberty is more obvious in girls than in boys. There is considerable variation in size across various subcutaneous sites and between subcutaneous and internal depots. The number of adipocytes is difficult to estimate. Available data suggest that the cellularity of adipose tissue does not increase significantly in early postnatal life (Malina et al., 2004). Thus, gain in fat mass is the result of an increase in the size of existing adipocytes. From about 1-2 years of age and continuing through early and middle childhood, the number of adipocytes increases gradually two- to threefold. With puberty the number practically doubles, followed by a plateau in late adolescence and early adulthood. The number of adipocytes is similar in boys and girls until puberty, when girls experience a greater increase than boys.

The increases in the number of adipocytes during infancy and puberty are considered critical for enlargement of the adipose tissue organ and for the risk of obesity. Since size and number are linked, the number of adipocytes can potentially increase at any age if fat storage mechanisms are stimulated by chronic energy surfeit (Hager, 1981; Chumlea et al., 1982). Energy expenditure through regular physical activity is a critical element in preventing energy surfeit and excess adiposity. While cellularity undoubtedly is strongly genetically determined, regular physical activity, through its contribution to energy expenditure, can contribute to less adipocyte hyperplasia by limiting hypertrophy.

Fat distribution Fat distribution refers to the location of fat depots on the body. The metabolic activities of fat depots differ, and small variation can have a long-term impact on fat distribution. Differences in metabolic properties across depots also have clinical implications. Visceral adipose tissue

in the abdominal cavity is more metabolically active (reflected by free fatty acid flux) than adipose tissue in other areas (Arner and Eckel, 1998), and higher amounts of visceral adipose tissue are associated with greater risk of metabolic complications, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Daniels et al., 1999; He et al., 2007; Dencker et al., 2012). In contrast, subcutaneous fat, particularly in the gluteofemoral region, is generally associated with a lower risk of cardiometabolic disease. Age- and sex-associated variations in fat distribution contribute to age- and sex-associated differences in cardiometabolic disease prevalence. Girls have more subcutaneous fat than boys at all ages, although relative fat distribution is similar. After a rapid rise in subcutaneous fat in the first few months of life, both sexes experience a reduction through age 6 or 7 (Malina and Roche, 1983; Malina and Bouchard, 1988; Malina, 1996). Girls then show a linear increase in subcutaneous fat, whereas boys show a small increase between ages 7 and 12 or 13 and then an overall reduction during puberty. The thickness of subcutaneous fat on the trunk is approximately one-half that of subcutaneous fat on the extremities in both boys and girls during childhood. The ratio increases with age in males during adolescence but changes only slightly in girls. In males the increasing ratio of trunk to extremity subcutaneous fat is a consequence of slowly increasing trunk subcutaneous fat and a decrease in subcutaneous fat on the extremities. In girls, trunk and extremity subcutaneous fat increase at a similar rate; thus the ratio is stable (Malina and Bouchard, 1988). As a consequence, the sex difference in the distribution of body fat develops during adolescence. It is important to note that changes in subcutaneous fat pattern do not necessarily represent changes in abdominal visceral adipose tissue.

Tracking of subcutaneous fat has been investigated based on skinfold thicknesses and radiographs of fat widths in males and females across a broad age range (Katzmarzyk et al., 1999; Campbell et al., 2012). Results indicate that subcutaneous fat is labile during early childhood. After age 7 to 8, correlations between subcutaneous fat in later childhood and adolescence and adult subcutaneous fat are significant and moderate. Longitudinal data on tracking of visceral adipose tissue are not available, but percent body fat does appear to track. Thus children and especially adolescents with higher levels of body fat have a higher risk of being overfat at subsequent examinations and in adulthood, although variation is considerable, with some individuals moving away from high fatness categories, while some lean children move into higher fatness categories.

In cross-sectional studies, active children and adolescents tend to have lower skinfold thicknesses and less overall body fat than their less active peers (Loftin et al., 1998; Rowlands et al., 2000; Stevens et al., 2004; Lohman et al., 2006), although the correlations are modest, reflecting variation in body composition at different levels of physical activity, as

well as the difficulty of measuring physical activity. Longitudinal studies indicate small differences in fatness between active and inactive boys and girls. Although some school-based studies of the effects of physical activity on body composition have reported changes in BMI or skinfolds in the desired direction (Gortmaker et al., 1999; McMurray et al., 2002), most have not shown significant effects. High levels of physical activity are most likely needed to modify skinfold thicknesses and percent body fat. In adults, visceral adipose tissue declines with weight loss with exercise. In contrast, in a study of obese children aged 7-11, a 4-month physical activity program resulted in minimal change in abdominal visceral adipose tissue but a significant loss in abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue (Gutin and Owens, 1999). In adults, decreases in fatness with exercise are due to a reduction in fat cell size, not number (You et al., 2006); whether this is true in children is not certain but appears likely. Given that adipocyte hypertrophy may trigger adipocyte hyperplasia (Ballor et al., 1998), energy expenditure through regular physical activity may be important in preventing excess adipose tissue cellularity. Regular physical activity also affects adipose tissue metabolism so that trained individuals have an increased ability to mobilize and oxidize fat, which is associated with increased levels of lipolysis, an increased respiratory quotient, and a lower risk of obesity (Depres and Lamarche, 2000).

Cardiorespiratory System

The ability to perform sustained activity under predominantly aerobic conditions depends on the capacity of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems to deliver oxygenated blood to tissues and on the ability of tissues (primarily skeletal muscle) to extract oxygen and oxidize substrate. By age 2 the systems are fully functional, although young children lack the cardiorespiratory capacity of older children and adults because of their small size (Malina et al., 2004). Children’s aerobic capacity and consequently their ability to exercise for longer periods of time increase as they grow. Maximal aerobic power (liters per minute) increases fairly linearly in boys until about age 16, whereas it increases in girls until about age 13 and then plateaus during adolescence (Malina et al., 2004; Eisenmann et al., 2011). Differences between boys and girls are small (~10 percent) during childhood and greater after the adolescent growth spurt, when girls have only about 70 percent of the mean value of boys. Changes with age and sex differences are explained largely by differences in the size of the relevant tissues. Dimensions of the heart and lungs enlarge with age in a manner consistent with the increase in body mass and stature (Malina et al., 2004). The increase in the size of the heart is associated with increases in stroke volume (blood pumped per beat) and cardiac output (product of stroke vol-

ume and heart rate, liters per minute), despite a decline in heart rate during growth. Similarly, increase in lung size (proportional to growth in height) results in greater lung volume and ventilation despite an age-associated decline in breathing frequency. From about age 6 to adulthood, maximal voluntary ventilation approximately doubles (50-100 L/min) (Malina et al., 2004). The general pattern of increase as a function of height is similar in boys and girls. In both, lung function tends to lag behind the increase in height during the adolescent growth spurt. As a result, peak gains in lung function occur about 2 years earlier in girls than in boys.

Blood volume is highly related to body mass and heart size in children and adolescents, and it is also well correlated with maximal oxygen uptake during childhood and adolescence (Malina et al., 2004). Blood volume increases from birth through adolescence, following the general pattern for changes in body mass. Both red blood cells and hemoglobin have a central role in transport of oxygen to tissues. Hematocrit, the percentage of blood volume explained by blood cells, increases progressively throughout childhood and adolescence in boys, but only through childhood in girls. Hemoglobin content, which is related to maximal oxygen uptake, heart volume, and body mass, increases progressively with age into late adolescence. Males have greater hemoglobin concentrations than females, especially relative to blood volume, which has functional implications for oxygen transport during intense exercise.

Growth in maximal aerobic power is influenced by growth in body size, so controlling for changes in body size during growth is essential. Although absolute (liters per minute) aerobic power increases into adolescence relative to body weight, there is a slight decline in both boys and girls, suggesting that body weight increases at a faster rate than maximal oxygen consumption, particularly during and after the adolescent growth spurt (Malina et al., 2004). Changes in maximal oxygen consumption during growth tend to be related more closely to fat-free mass than to body mass. Nevertheless, sex differences in maximal oxygen consumption per unit fat-free mass persist, and maximal oxygen consumption per unit fat-free mass declines with age.

Improvements in cardiorespiratory function—involving structural and functional adaptations in the lungs, heart, blood, and vascular system, as well as the oxidative capacity of skeletal muscle—occur with regular vigorous- and moderate-intensity physical activity (Malina et al., 2004). Concern about the application of invasive techniques limits the available data on adaptations in the oxygen transport system in children. Nevertheless, it is clear that aerobic capacity in youth increases with activity of sufficient intensity and that maximal stroke volume, blood volume, and oxidative enzymes improve after exercise training (Rowland, 1996). Training-induced changes in other components of the oxygen transport system remain to be determined.

Health- and Performance-Related Fitness

Physical fitness is a state of being that reflects a person’s ability to perform specific exercises or functions and is related to present and future health outcomes. Historically, efforts to assess the physical fitness of youth focused on measures designed to evaluate the ability to carry out certain physical tasks or activities, often related to athletic performance. In more recent years, the focus has shifted to greater emphasis on evaluating health-related fitness (IOM, 2012a) and assessing concurrent or future health status. Health- and performance-related fitness, while overlapping, are different constructs. Age- and sex-related changes in the components of both are strongly linked to the developmental changes in tissues and systems that occur during childhood and adolescence. Although genetic factors ultimately limit capacity, environmental and behavioral factors, including physical activity, interact with genes to determine the degree to which an individual’s full capacity is achieved.

Health-Related Fitness

Cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition are components of health-related fitness historically assessed in school-based fitness assessment programs (IOM, 2012a). These components of health-related fitness are considered important since they can be linked to the risk of cardiometabolic disease and musculoskeletal disability, chronic hypokinetic-related diseases.

Cardiorespiratory endurance Cardiorespiratory (aerobic) endurance reflects the functioning of the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems to deliver oxygen and the ability of tissues (primarily skeletal muscle) to extract oxygen from the blood. Defined clinically as the maximum oxygen consumption during a maximal graded exercise test, in practice it is usually measured indirectly as performance on a field test of endurance, such as 1- or 2-mile run time (IOM, 2012a). During childhood, aerobic capacity approximately doubles in both boys and girls, although girls on average possess a lower capacity. Males continue to improve during adolescence, up to ages 17-18, while aerobic capacity plateaus around age 14 in females (Malina et al., 2004), resulting in an approximately 20 percent difference between males and females (Rowland, 2005).

Favorable associations have been found between aerobic endurance and high-density lipoproteins, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, BMI, measures of fatness, arterial stiffness, and measures of insulin sensitivity (Boreham et al., 2004; Imperatore et al., 2006; Hussey et al., 2007; Ondrak et al., 2007). Some evidence suggests a decline in aerobic endurance among U.S. youth in recent decades (Eisenmann, 2003; Carnethon et al.,

2005; Pate et al., 2006), coincident with increased sedentariness and obesity and a greater prevalence of metabolic syndrome in youth. Aerobic exercise has been shown to increase cardiorespiratory endurance by about 5-15 percent in youth (Malina et al., 2004; HHS, 2008). The programs that produce this benefit involve continuous vigorous- or moderate-intensity aerobic activity of various types for 30-45 minutes per session at least 3 days per week over a period of at least 1-3 months (Baquet et al., 2002); improvements are greater with more frequent exercise (Baquet et al., 2003).

Muscle strength and endurance Muscle strength is defined as the highest force generated during a single maximum voluntary contraction, whereas muscle endurance is the ability to perform repeated muscular contraction and force development over a period of time. Muscle strength and endurance are correlated, especially at higher levels of force production. Muscle strength is proportional to the cross-sectional area of skeletal muscle; consequently, strength growth curves parallel growth curves for body weight and skeletal muscle mass (Malina et al., 2004).

Both males and females show impressive increases in muscle strength from childhood to adolescence. Strength in children increases linearly, with boys having a slight advantage over girls. However, these sex differences are magnified during the adolescent years as a result of maturation (Malina and Roche, 1983). Differences in muscle strength between boys and girls become more apparent after puberty, primarily as a result of the production of sex steroid hormones. In boys the increase in strength during adolescence lags behind the growth spurt by at least a year (peak height velocity), which may explain why some boys experience a brief period of clumsiness or awkwardness during puberty, as they have not yet acquired the muscle strength necessary to handle the changes associated with their larger bodies. Muscle strength increases at its greatest rate approximately 1 year after peak height velocity in boys, whereas for girls the strength spurt generally occurs during the same year as peak height velocity (Bar-Or, 1983).

A compelling body of evidence indicates that with resistance training children and adolescents can significantly increase their strength above that expected as a result of normal growth and maturation, provided that the training program is of sufficient intensity, volume, and duration (Committee on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2001). Both boys and girls can benefit, and strength gains in children as young as 5-6 have been reported (Faigenbaum et al., 2009), although most studies are of older children and adolescents. Gains in muscle strength of about 30 percent are typical, although considerably larger gains have been reported. Adolescents make greater gains than preadolescents in absolute strength, whereas reported relative (percent above initial strength) gains in strength during preadolescence and adolescence are similar. A variety of programs and modalities have proved

efficacious (Council on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2008), as long as load (~10-15 repetitions maximum) and duration (~8-20 weeks) are adequate. As in adults, training adaptations in youth are specific to the muscle action or muscle groups that are trained, and gains are transient if training is not maintained (Faigenbaum et al., 2009).

Youth resistance training, as with most physical activities, does carry some degree of risk of musculoskeletal injury, yet the risk is no greater than that associated with other sports and activities in which children and adolescents participate (Council on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2008; Faigenbaum et al., 2009) as long as age-appropriate training guidelines are followed. A traditional area of concern has been the potential for training-induced damage to growth cartilage, which could result in growth disturbances. However, a recent review found no reports of injury to growth cartilage in any prospective study of resistance training in youth and no evidence to suggest that resistance training negatively impacts growth and maturation during childhood and adolescence (Faigenbaum et al., 2009). Injuries typically occur in unsupervised settings and when inappropriate loads and progressions are imposed.

In addition to the obvious goal of gaining strength, resistance training may be undertaken to improve sports performance and prevent injuries, rehabilitate injuries, and enhance health. Appropriately supervised programs emphasizing strengthening of trunk muscles in children theoretically benefit sport-specific skill acquisition and postural control, although these benefits are difficult to study and thus are supported by little empirical evidence (Council on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2008). Similarly, results are inconsistent regarding the translation of increased strength to enhanced athletic performance in youth. Limited evidence suggests that strength-training programs that address common overuse injuries may help reduce injuries in adolescents, but whether the same is true in preadolescents is unclear (Council on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2008). Increasing evidence suggests that strength training, like other forms of physical activity, has a beneficial effect on measurable health indices in youth, such as cardiovascular fitness, body composition, blood lipid profiles and insulin sensitivity (Faigenbaum, 2007; Benson et al., 2008), bone mineral density and bone geometry (Morris et al., 1997; MacKelvie et al., 2004), and mental health (Holloway et al., 1988; Faigenbaum et al., 1997; Annesi et al., 2005; Faigenbaum, 2007). Some work has shown that muscle fitness, reflected in a composite index combining measures of muscle strength and endurance, and cardiorespiratory fitness are independently and negatively associated with clustered metabolic risk (Steene-Johannessen et al., 2009). Moreover, children with low muscle strength may be at increased risk of fracture with exercise (Clark et al., 2011). Finally, muscle hypertrophy, which adds to fat-free mass, contributes to resting metabolic rate and therefore total daily

energy expenditure. Resistance training may be particularly useful for raising metabolic rate in overweight and obese children without the risk associated with higher-impact activities (Watts et al., 2005; Benson et al., 2007).

Flexibility Flexibility has been operationally defined as “the intrinsic property of body tissues, including muscle and connective tissues, that determines the range of motion achievable without injury at a joint or group of joints” (IOM, 2012b, p. 190). At all ages, girls demonstrate greater flexibility than boys, and the difference is greatest during the adolescent growth spurt and sexual maturation. Perhaps the most common field measure of flexibility in children and youth is the sit-and-reach test (IOM, 2012b) of low-back flexibility. Low-back flexibility as measured by this test is stable in girls from age 5 to 11 and increases until late adolescence. In boys, low-back flexibility declines linearly starting at age 5, reaching its nadir at about age 12, and then increases into late adolescence. The unique pattern of age- and sex-associated variation is related to the growth of the lower extremities and the trunk during adolescence. In boys the nadir in low-back flexibility coincides with the adolescent growth spurt in leg length. In both boys and girls, the increase during adolescence coincides with the growth spurt in trunk length and arm length, which influences reach. Flexibility in both males and females tends to decline after age 17, in part as a result of a decline in physical activity and normal aging.

The principal health outcomes hypothesized to be associated with flexibility are prevention of and relief from low-back pain, prevention of musculoskeletal injury, and improved posture. These associations have been studied in adults, with equivocal results (Plowman, 1992). Although flexibility has long been included in national youth fitness tests, it has proven difficult to establish a link between flexibility and health (IOM, 2012a). In contrast to other fitness components that are general or systemic in nature, flexibility is highly specific to each joint of the body. Although appropriate stretching may increase flexibility, establishing a link to improved functional capacity and fitness is difficult. A few studies suggest that improvements in flexibility as measured by the sit-and-reach test may be related to less low-back pain (Jones et al., 2007; Ahlqwist et al., 2008), but the evidence is weak. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) Committee on Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in its recent report elected to forego recommending a flexibility test for a national youth fitness test battery pending further research to confirm the relationship between flexibility and health and to develop national normative data (IOM, 2012a).

Body composition Body composition is the component of health-related fitness that relates to the relative amount of adipose tissue, muscle, bone, and other vital components (e.g., organs, connective tissues, fluid compart-

ments) that make up body weight. Most feasible methods for assessing body composition are based on models that divide the body into fat and fat-free (all nonfat constituents) components (Going et al., 2012). Although fat mass and adipose tissue are not equivalent components, fat mass is easier to estimate than adipose tissue, and it is correlated with performance and disease risk. In settings in which estimation of body fat is difficult, weight-for-height ratios often are used as surrogates for body composition. Indeed, definitions of pediatric overweight and obesity have been based on BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height squared. Child and adolescent obesity defined by BMI remains at all-time highs. Population surveys indicate that approximately 33 percent of all boys and girls are overweight, and nearly one in five are obese (Ogden and Flegal, 2011). The tendency for excess fatness to persist from childhood and adolescence into adulthood (Daniels et al., 2005), coupled with the strong association between obesity and chronic disease (Weiss and Caprio, 2005; Barlow, 2007), has caused great concern for future obesity levels and the health of youth and adults alike (IOM, 2005, 2012b).

The increase in prevalence of obesity is undoubtedly due to a mismatch between energy intake and expenditure. Population surveys have shown that few children and youth meet recommended levels of daily physical activity (see Chapter 2 ). Prospective studies have shown a significant and inverse relationship between habitual physical activity and weight gain (Berkey et al., 2003), and in some studies physical activity is a better predictor of weight gain than estimates of calorie or fat intake (Berkey et al., 2000; Janssen et al., 2005). These relationships are better established in adults than in children and youth, although even in preschool children, low levels of physical activity, estimated from doubly labeled water, were found to be indicative of higher body fat content (Davies et al., 1995). While studies of exercise without caloric restriction generally show only small effects on body weight, significant albeit moderate reductions of body fat are generally reported (Eisenmann, 2003). Moreover, even in the absence of significant weight loss, exercise has beneficial effects on risk factors for cardiometabolic disease (Ross and Bradshaw, 2009; Gutin and Owens, 2011).

Body mass index Changes in weight for height with growth and maturation for U.S. boys and girls are described in CDC growth curves (Kuczmarski et al., 2000). Current growth curves were derived from U.S. population surveys conducted before the increase in weight for height that defines today’s pediatric obesity epidemic. In boys and girls, BMI declines during early childhood, reaching its nadir at about ages 5-6, and then increases through adolescence. A gender difference emerges during puberty, with males gaining greater fat-free mass than females. Both the

period of “adiposity rebound” (the increase in BMI in midchildhood following the decline in early childhood) and puberty are times of risk for excess fat gain that correlates with future adiposity (Rolland-Cachera et al., 1984). Physical activity and BMI are inversely correlated in children and adolescents, although the correlations are modest (Lohman et al., 2006), reflecting the difficulty of measuring physical activity, as well as variation in body composition and physical activity at a given weight (Rowlands et al., 2000). Indeed, when studied separately, fat mass index (FMI, or fat mass divided by height squared) and fat-free mass index (FFMI, or fat-free mass divided by height squared) are both inversely related to physical activity. With FMI controlled, however, FFMI is positively related to physical activity, indicating that, for a given level of body fat, individuals with more fat-free mass are more active (Lohman et al., 2006). BMI cut-points for defining overweight and obesity have historically been based on age- and gender-specific population distributions of BMI. Recent work has shown good correspondence between BMI standards and percent fat standards that are referenced to health criteria (Laurson et al., 2011). These new standards should prove useful for identifying children and adolescents at risk for higher levels of cardiometabolic risk factors.

Percent body fat Direct measures of body fat as a percent of weight provide a better index of adiposity and health risk than BMI (Zeng et al., 2012), which is confounded by variation in lean tissue mass relative to height. Recently, percent fat growth curves were established for representative samples of U.S. boys and girls using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data (Laurson et al., 2011; Ogden and Flegal, 2011). Median percent fat for boys aged 5-18 ranged from 14 to 19 percent and for girls across the same ages 15 to 28 percent. In both boys and girls, percent fat increases slowly during early childhood, with girls having a consistently greater relative fatness than boys after ages 5-6. In girls, percent fat increases gradually throughout adolescence in the same manner as fat mass. In boys, percent fat increases gradually until the adolescent growth spurt and thereafter gradually declines until about age 16-17, reflecting the rapid growth in fat-free mass relative to fat mass. After age 17, percent fat in males gradually increases again into adulthood.

The increased prevalence of child and adolescent obesity as defined by BMI presumably also reflects increased adiposity, although the degree is not certain as population-based estimates of percent fat have only recently been developed (Laurson et al., 2011). Health-related percent fat standards recently were developed by determining levels of body fat associated with greater occurrence of chronic disease risk factors defined by metabolic syndrome (Going et al., 2011). In boys and girls aged 12-18, body fat above

20-24 percent and above 27-31 percent, respectively, was predictive of metabolic syndrome.

Physical activity is inversely correlated with percent body fat (Rowlands et al., 2000; Lohman et al., 2006), although the correlations are modest, and changes in overall fatness as well as subcutaneous adipose tissue with habitual physical activity are reasonably well documented in children and adolescents (Gutin and Humphries, 1998; Gutin and Owens, 1999; Dionne et al., 2000). In youth, as in adults, the effects of exercise without caloric restriction are modest and are influenced by the initial level of body fat and the duration and regimen of exercise (Going, 1999). Experimental studies have documented reductions in percent body fat with aerobic exercise, especially in children and adolescents who are overweight or obese at the initiation of an exercise program (Davis et al., 2012). Regular physical activity also affects adipose tissue metabolism (Gutin and Owens, 1999). Individuals who engage in aerobic endurance exercise training have an increased ability to mobilize and oxidize fat, which is associated with increased levels of lipolysis (Depres and Lamarche, 2000). Similar information on adipose tissue metabolism in children and youth is lacking, although one can reasonably expect similar adaptations in older adolescents.

Metabolic syndrome The tendency for risk factors for cardiometabolic disease to cluster, now called metabolic syndrome, is well recognized in adults (Alberti and Zimmet, 1998). Similar clustering occurs in older children and especially adolescents (Cook et al., 2003), and interest in metabolic syndrome has increased, driven by the increased prevalence of pediatric obesity and the increasing incidence and earlier onset of type 2 diabetes in youth. There is as yet no accepted definition of metabolic syndrome for use in pediatric populations (Jolliffe and Janssen, 2007). Typically, adult definitions are extrapolated to children and adolescents, with appropriate adjustments of the thresholds for the defining variables. Perhaps the most common approach is to emulate the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP), which defines metabolic syndrome as exceeding thresholds on three of five components: waist circumference, blood pressure (systolic or diastolic), blood lipids (high-density lipoprotein [HDL] and triglycerides), and blood glucose levels (NIH, 2001).

The concept of metabolic syndrome is useful as it provides an integrated index of risk, and it recently was used to derive health-related percent-body-fat standards (Laurson et al., 2011). Based on NHANES data, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome varies with the degree of obesity, and it is estimated at 4-6 percent of children and adolescents (Cook et al., 2003; Dubose et al., 2007); among obese youth it may be as high as 30-50 percent (Weiss et al., 2004). Youth with metabolic syndrome have an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. In adults a

loss of 5-10 percent of body weight through calorie restriction and exercise has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiometabolic disease by improving risk factors (Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group, 2002; Ross and Janiszewski, 2008). In particular, weight loss results in reduced visceral adipose tissue, a strong correlate of risk (Knowler et al., 2002), as well as lower blood pressure and blood glucose levels due to improved insulin sensitivity. Even without significant weight loss, exercise can have significant effects in adults by improving glucose metabolism, improving lipid and lipoprotein profiles, and lowering blood pressure, particularly for those who are significantly overweight (Ross and Bradshaw, 2009). Similar benefits have been observed in adolescents.

A growing body of literature addresses the associations of physical activity, physical fitness, and body fatness with the risk of metabolic syndrome and its components in children and especially adolescents (Platat et al., 2006; McMurray et al., 2008; Rubin et al., 2008; Thomas and Williams, 2008; Christodoulos et al., 2012). Studies in adults have shown that higher levels of physical activity predict slower progression toward metabolic syndrome in apparently healthy men and women (Laaksonen et al., 2002; Ekelund et al., 2005), an association that is independent of changes in body fatness and cardiorespiratory fitness (Ekelund et al., 2007). Few population studies have focused on these relationships in children and adolescents, and the use of self-reported activity, which is imprecise in these populations, tends to obscure associations. In a large sample of U.S. adolescents aged 12-19 in the 1999-2002 NHANES, for example, there was a trend for metabolic syndrome to be more common in adolescents with low activity levels than in those with moderate or high activity levels, although the differences among groups were not statistically significant (Pan and Pratt, 2008). Moreover, for each component of metabolic syndrome, prevalence was generally lower with higher physical activity levels, and adolescents with low physical activity levels had the highest rates of all metabolic syndrome components.

The association between cardiorespiratory fitness and metabolic syndrome also was examined in the 1999-2002 NHANES (Lobelo et al., 2010). Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured as estimated peak oxygen consumption using a submaximal treadmill exercise protocol, and metabolic syndrome was represented as a “clustered score” derived from five established risk factors for cardiovascular disease, an adiposity index, insulin resistance, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides, and the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol. Mean clustered risk score decreased across increasing fifths (quintiles) of cardiorespiratory fitness in both males and females. The most significant decline in risk score was observed from the first (lowest) to the second quintile (53.6 percent and 37.5 percent in males and females, respectively), and the association remained significant in both overweight

and normal-weight males and in normal-weight females. Other studies, using the approach of cross-tabulating subjects into distinct fitness and fatness categories, have examined associations of fitness and fatness with metabolic syndrome risk (Eisenmann et al., 2005, 2007a,b; Dubose et al., 2007). Although different measures of fitness, fatness, and metabolic syndrome risk were used, the results taken together across a wide age range (7-18) show that fitness modifies the influence of fatness on metabolic syndrome risk. In both males and females, high-fit/low-fatness subjects have less metabolic syndrome risk than low-fit/high-fatness subjects (Eisenmann, 2007).

That many adult chronic health conditions have their origins in childhood and adolescence is well supported (Kannel and Dawber, 1972; Lauer et al., 1975; Berenson et al., 1998; IOM, 2004). Both biological (e.g., adiposity, lipids) and behavioral (e.g., physical activity) risk factors tend to track from childhood and especially adolescence into adulthood. Childhood BMI is related to adult BMI and adiposity (Guo et al., 1994, 2000; Freedman et al., 2005), and as many as 80 percent of obese adolescents become obese adults (Daniels et al., 2005). Coexistence of cardiometabolic risk factors, even at young ages (Dubose et al., 2007; Ramírez-Vélez et al., 2012), has been noted, and these components of metabolic syndrome also have been shown to track to adulthood (Bao et al., 1994; Katzmarzyk et al., 2001; Huang et al., 2008). Landmark studies from the Bogalusa Heart Study (Berenson et al., 1998; Li et al., 2003) and others (Mahoney et al., 1996; Davis et al., 2001; Morrison et al., 2007, 2008) have demonstrated that cardiometabolic risk factors present in childhood are predictive of adult disease.

The benefits of exercise for prevention and treatment of cardiometabolic disease in adults are well described (Ross et al., 2000; Duncan et al., 2003; Gan et al., 2003; Irwin et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2005; Sigal et al., 2007; Ross et al., 2012). Prospective studies examining the effects of exercise on metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents remain limited, and it is important to refrain from extrapolating intervention effects observed in adults to youth, although one might reasonably assume the benefits in older adolescents to be similar to those in young adults. Indeed, based on the inverse associations of physical activity and physical fitness with metabolic syndrome (Kim and Lee, 2009) and on the available intervention studies, some experts have recommended physical activity as the main therapeutic tool for prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome in childhood (Brambilla et al., 2010). Comparative studies in adults have shown that the effect of exercise on weight is limited and generally less than that of calorie restriction (Brambilla et al., 2010). Moreover, the relative effectiveness of diet and exercise depends on the degree of excess fatness (Brambilla et al., 2010). Comparative studies in children and youth are few, as behavioral

interventions in overweight children and adolescents commonly combine exercise and dietary restriction, making it difficult to disentangle their independent effects. Nonetheless, diet and exercise have different effects on body composition: While both contribute to fat loss, only exercise increases muscle mass and thus has a direct effect on metabolic health. In children and youth, as in adults, the effect of exercise on cardiometabolic risk factors is greater in overweight/obese youth than in their normal-weight peers (Kang et al., 2002; Lazaar et al., 2007).

Exercise also may have important benefits even without significant modification of body composition (Bell et al., 2007). Experimental studies in overweight and obese youth have shown that exercise leads to reductions in visceral fat (Owens et al., 1999; Gutin et al., 2002; Lee at al., 2005; Barbeau et al., 2007; Kim and Lee, 2009) without a significant change in BMI, as well as improvement in markers of metabolic syndrome, primarily fasting insulin and insulin resistance (Treuth et al., 1998; Ferguson et al., 1999; Carrel et al., 2005; Nassis et al., 2005; Meyer et al., 2006; Shaibi et al., 2006; Bell et al., 2007). Results from experimental studies of the effects of exercise on lipids and lipoproteins (Stoedefalke et al., 2000; Kelley and Kelley, 2008; Janssen and LeBlanc, 2010) are mixed. Although some studies have shown improved lipid and lipoprotein profiles, primarily a decrease in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations and an increase in HDL cholesterol (Ferguson et al., 1999), other studies have shown no improvement in these outcomes (Kelley and Kelley, 2008). In part, such conflicting results are likely due to initial differences in body composition and severity of hyperlipidemia. Well-controlled exercise training studies in obese children (Escalante et al., 2012) and children with adverse blood lipid and lipoprotein profiles have shown positive alterations in their profiles (Stoedefalke et al., 2000), whereas results in normolipid-emic children and adolescents are equivocal. Similarly, exercise has little effect on resting blood pressure in normotensive children and adolescents (Kelley and Kelley, 2008), whereas reductions in resting systolic and sometimes diastolic pressures have been reported in youth with high blood pressure (Hagberg et al., 1983, 1984; Danforth et al., 1990; Ewart et al., 1998; Farpour-Lambert et al., 2009; Janssen and LeBlanc, 2010).

In adults, physical activity is inversely associated with low-grade inflammation (Wärnberg et al., 2010; Ertek and Cicero, 2012), which is now recognized as a significant feature of metabolic syndrome and an independent predictor of cardiometabolic disease (Malina, 2002). In obese children and adolescents, as in their adult counterparts, elevation of inflammatory markers is evident, and observational studies have shown significant relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and inflammation (Isasi et al., 2003; Platat et al., 2006; Ruiz et al., 2007; Wärnberg et al., 2007; Wärnberg and Marcos, 2008). These relationships are better studied and

stronger in adolescents than in children. In one study of boys and girls aged 10-15, those who were obese and unfit had the highest levels of systemic inflammation, whereas those who were obese yet fit had levels as low as those who were lean and fit (Halle et al., 2004). In another study, low-grade inflammation was negatively associated with muscle strength in overweight adolescents after controlling for cardiorespiratory fitness, suggesting that high levels of muscle strength may counteract some of the negative consequences of higher levels of body fat (Ruiz et al., 2008). Experimental studies of the effects of exercise and markers of low-grade inflammation in children and adolescents are lacking. Improved cardiorespiratory fitness in adults (Church et al., 2002), however, has been shown to be inversely related to concentration of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of low-grade inflammation. In a small study of a lifestyle intervention entailing 45 minutes of physical activity 3 times per week for 3 months, a small reduction in body fat and an overall decrease in inflammatory factors (CRP, interleukin [IL]-6) were seen in obese adolescents (Balagopal et al., 2005).

Performance-Related Fitness

Speed, muscle power, agility, and balance (static and dynamic) are aspects of performance-related fitness that change during body development in predictable ways associated with the development of tissues and systems discussed above (Malina et al., 2004). Running speed and muscle power are related, and both depend on full development of the neuromuscular system. Running speed and muscle power are similar for boys and girls during childhood (Haubenstricker and Seefeldt, 1986). After puberty, largely because of differences in muscle mass and muscle strength, males continue to make significant annual gains, while females tend to plateau during the adolescent years. Sociocultural factors and increasing inactivity among girls relative to boys, along with changes in body proportion and a lowering of the center of gravity, may also contribute to gender differences (Malina et al., 2004).

Balance—the ability to maintain equilibrium—generally improves from ages 3 to 18 (Williams, 1983). Research suggests that females outperform males on tests of static and dynamic balance during childhood and that this advantage persists through puberty (Malina et al., 2004).

Motor performance is related in part to muscle strength. Increases in muscle strength as a result of resistance exercise were described above. A question of interest is whether gains in strength transfer to other performance tasks. Available results are variable, giving some indication that gains in strength are associated with improvement in some performance tasks, such as sprinting and vertical jump, although the improvements are generally small, highlighting the difficulty of distinguishing the effects

of training from changes expected with normal growth. Changes in body size, physique, and body composition associated with growth and maturation are important factors that affect strength and motor performance. The relationships vary among performance measures and with age, and these factors often are inadequately controlled in studies of components of performance-related fitness and performance tasks.

PSYCHOSOCIAL HEALTH

Research supports the positive impact of physical activity on the overall psychological health and social engagement of every student. A well-designed physical education curriculum provides students with social and emotional benefits (NASPE, 2001). Simultaneously, exposure to failure experiences, emphasis on competitive sports, and elitism for naturally inclined athletes, along with bullying and teasing of unfit, uncoordinated, and overweight youth, may be important factors discouraging participation in current and future physical activity (Kohl and Hobbs, 1998; Sallis et al., 2000; Allender et al., 2006). School-based physical activity, including physical education and sports, is designed to increase physical activity while also improving motor skills and development, self-efficacy, and general feelings of competency and engaging children socially (Bailey, 2006). The hoped-for psychosocial outcomes of physical education and other physical activity programs in the school setting have been found to be critical for continued physical activity across the life span and are themselves powerful long-term determinants of physical activity (Bauman et al., 2012). Unfortunately, significant gaps exist between the intent and reality of school-based physical education and other activity programs (HHS, 2013).

A large number of psychological and social outcomes have been examined. Specific aspects of psychosocial health showing a beneficial relationship to physical activity include, among others, self-efficacy, self-concept, self-worth (Haugen et al., 2011), social behaviors (Cradock et al., 2009), pro-school attitudes, motivation and goal orientation (Digelidis et al., 2003), relatedness, friendships (de la Haye et al., 2011; Macdonald-Wallis et al., 2011), task orientation, team building, bullying, and racial prejudice (Byrd and Ross, 1991). Most studies are descriptive, finding bidirectional associations between psychosocial outcomes and physical activity. Reviews and meta-analyses confirm a positive association between physical activity and self-esteem, especially for aerobic activities (McAuley, 1994).

Among psychosocial factors, self-efficacy (confidence in one’s ability to be physically active in specific situations) has emerged as an important correlate of physical activity from a large body of work based on the durable and practically useful social learning theory (Bandura and McClelland, 1977; Bandura, 1995). Bandura’s theory compels consideration of the

psychosocial and physical environments, the individual, and in this case the behavior of physical activity. Using this framework, physical activity itself has been shown to be a consistent positive correlate as well as a determinant of physical activity in children and adolescents. A large amount of reviewed research has found that physical education and physical activity experiences can increase children’s confidence in being active and lead to continued participation in physical activity (Bauman et al., 2012). RCTs have shown that both self-efficacy and social interactions leading to perceived social support influence changes in physical activity (Dishman et al., 2009). Skill mastery, confidence building, and group support are well-known strategies for advancing student learning and well-being in many educational domains in the school setting and apply equally to school physical education and other physical activity. Early observational studies of physical, social, and environmental determinants of physical activity at home, school, and recess indicated that prompts to be active (or not) from peers and adults accounted for a significant amount of the variance in directly observed physical activity (Elder et al., 1998). One longitudinal study following the variability and tracking of physical activity in young children showed that most of the variability in both home and recess activity was accounted for by short-term social and physical environmental factors, such as prompts from others and being outdoors (Sallis et al., 1995). Another study, examining activity among preschool children, found that, contrary to common belief, most of the time spent in preschool was sedentary, and correlates of activity were different for preschool boys and girls (Byun et al., 2011). In addition, significant variation in activity by preschool site was noted, indicating that local environmental conditions, including physical environment and equipment, policies, and teacher and administrative quality characteristics, play an important role in promoting physical activity (Brown et al., 2009).

Studies in middle and high school populations have strengthened the evidence base on relationships among self-efficacy, physical activity, and social support (from adults and peers). This research has highlighted the central contribution of self-efficacy and social support in protecting against a decline in activity levels among adolescent girls (Dishman et al., 2009, 2010). Evidence indicates further that these impacts spread to activities outside the school setting (Lytle et al., 2009). Findings of a related study suggest that leisure-time physical activity among middle school students was linked to motivation-related experiences in physical education (Cox et al., 2008).

A recent review of reviews (Bauman et al., 2012) found that population levels of physical activity are low and that consistent individual-level correlates of physical activity are age, sex, health status, self-efficacy, and previous physical activity. Physical activity declines dramatically as children progress from elementary through high school (Nader et al., 2008). Boys are con-

sistently found to be more active than girls from ages 4 to 9. For other age groups of children and adolescents, sex is correlated with but not a determinant of activity (Bauman et al., 2012). These findings suggest the need to tailor physical education and physical activity programs for youth specifically to increase self-efficacy and enjoyment of physical activity among girls (Dishman et al., 2005; Barr-Anderson et al., 2008; Butt et al., 2011).

In summary, a broad range of beneficial psychosocial health outcomes have been associated with physical activity. The promotion of more physical activity and quality physical education in the school setting is likely to result in psychosocially healthier children who are more likely to engage in physical activity as adults. Schools can play an important role in ensuring opportunities for physical activity for a segment of the youth population that otherwise may not have the resources to engage in such activity. It makes sense to assume that, if physical activity experiences and environments were once again structured into the daily school environment of children and adolescents, individuals’ feelings of self-efficacy regarding physical activity would increase in the U.S. population.

MENTAL HEALTH

Mental illness is a serious public health issue. It has been estimated that by 2010 mental illness will account for 15 percent of the global burden of disease (Biddle and Mutrie, 2008; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Young people are disproportionately affected by depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders (Viner and Booy, 2005; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Approximately 20 percent of school-age children have a diagnosable mental health disorder (U.S. Public Health Service, 2000), and overweight children are at particular risk (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Mental health naturally affects academic performance on many levels (Charvat, 2012). Students suffering from depression, anxiety, mood disorders, and emotional disturbances perform more poorly in school, exhibit more behavioral and disciplinary problems, and have poorer attendance relative to mentally healthy children. Thus it is in schools’ interest to take measures to support mental health among the student population. In addition to other benefits, providing adequate amounts of physical activity in a way that is inviting and safe for children of all ability levels is one simple way in which schools can contribute to students’ mental health.

Impact of Physical Activity on Mental Health

Several recent reviews have concluded that physical activity has a positive effect on mental health and emotional well-being for both adults and children (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005; Penedo and Dahn, 2005;

Strong et al., 2005; Hallal et al., 2006; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Numerous observational studies have established the association between physical activity and mental health but are inadequate to clarify the direction of that association (Strong et al., 2005). It may be that physical activity improves mental health, or it may be that people are more physically active when they are mentally healthy. Most likely the relationship is bidirectional.

Several longitudinal and intervention studies have clarified that physical activity positively impacts mental health (Penedo and Dahn, 2005; Strong et al., 2005). Physical activity has most often been shown to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety and improve mood (Penedo and Dahn, 2005; Dishman et al., 2006; Biddle and Asare, 2011). In addition to reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, studies indicate that regular physical activity may help prevent the onset of these conditions (Penedo and Dahn, 2005). Reductions in depression and anxiety are the commonly measured outcomes (Strong et al., 2005; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). However, reductions in states of confusion, anger, tension, stress, anxiety sensitivity (a precursor to panic attacks and panic disorders), posttraumatic stress disorder/psychological distress, emotional disturbance, and negative affect have been observed, as well as increases in positive expectations; fewer emotional barriers; general well-being; satisfaction with personal appearance; and improved life satisfaction, self-worth, and quality of life (Heller et al., 2004; Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005; Penedo and Dahn, 2005; Dishman et al., 2006; Hallal et al., 2006; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Among adolescents and young adult females, exercise has been found to be more effective than cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing the pursuit of thinness and the frequency of bingeing, purging, and laxative abuse (Sundgot-Borgen et al., 2002; Hallal et al., 2006). The favorable effects of physical activity on sleep may also contribute to mental health (Dishman et al., 2006).

The impact of physical activity on these measures of mental health is moderate, with effect sizes generally ranging from 0.4 to 0.7 (Biddle and Asare, 2011). In one meta-analysis of intervention trials, the RCTs had an effect size of 0.3, whereas other trials had an effect size of 0.57.

Ideal Type, Length, and Duration of Physical Activity

Intervention trials that examine the relationship between physical activity and mental health often fail to specify the exact nature of the intervention, making it difficult to determine the ideal frequency, intensity, duration, and type of physical activity involved (Penedo and Dahn, 2005; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011; Biddle and Asare, 2011).

Many different types of physical activity—including aerobic activity, resistance training, yoga, dance, flexibility training, walking programs, and body building—have been shown to improve mood and other mental health indicators. The evidence is strongest for aerobic physical activity, particularly for reduction of anxiety symptoms and stress (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005; Dishman et al., 2006; Martikainen et al., 2013), because more of these studies have been conducted (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005). One meta-analysis of RCTs concluded that physical activity interventions focused exclusively on circuit training had the greatest effect on mental health indicators, followed closely by interventions that included various types of physical activity (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Among studies other than RCTs, only participation in sports had a significant impact on mental health (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). The few studies that investigated the impact of vigorous- versus lower-intensity physical activity (Larun et al., 2006; Biddle and Asare, 2011) found no difference, suggesting that perhaps all levels of physical activity may be helpful. Among adults, studies have consistently shown beneficial effects of both aerobic exercise and resistance training. Ahn and Fedewa (2011) concluded that both moderate and intense physical activity have a significant impact on mental health, although when just RCTs were considered, only intense physical activity was significant (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). While physical activity carries few risks for mental health, it is important to note that excessive physical activity or specialization too early in certain types of competitive physical activity has been associated with negative mental health outcomes and therefore should be avoided (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005; Hallal et al., 2006). Furthermore, to reach all children, including those that may be at highest risk for inactivity, obesity, and mental health problems, physical activity programming needs to be nonthreatening and geared toward creating a positive experience for children of all skill and fitness levels (Amis et al., 2012).

Various types of physical activity programming have been shown to have a positive influence on mental health outcomes. Higher levels of attendance and participation in physical education are inversely associated with feelings of sadness and risk of considering suicide (Brosnahan et al., 2004). Classroom physical activity is associated with reduced use of medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Katz et al., 2010). And participation in recess is associated with better student classroom behavior, better focus, and less fidgeting (Pellegrini et al., 1995; Jarrett et al., 1998; Barros et al., 2009).

Strong evidence supports the short-term benefits of physical activity for mental health. Acute effects can be observed after just one episode and can last from a few hours to up to 1 day after. Body building may have a similar effect, which begins a few hours after the end of the exercise. The ideal

length and duration of physical activity for improving mental health remain unclear, however. Regular exercise is associated with improved mood, but results are inconsistent for the association between mood and medium- or long-term exercise (Dua and Hargreaves, 1992; Slaven and Lee, 1997; Dimeo et al., 2001; Dunn et al., 2001; Kritz-Silverstein et al., 2001; Sexton et al., 2001; Leppamaki et al., 2002; Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005). Studies often do not specify the frequency and duration of physical activity episodes; among those that do, interventions ranged from 6 weeks to 2 years in duration. In their meta-analysis, Ahn and Fedewa (2011) found that, comparing interventions entailing a total of more than 33 hours, 20-33 hours, and less than 20 hours, the longer programs were more effective. Overall, the lack of reporting and the variable length and duration of reported interventions make it difficult to draw conclusions regarding dose (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011).

In addition to more structured opportunities, naturally occurring physical activity outside of school time is associated with fewer depressive symptoms among adolescents (Penedo and Dahn, 2005). RCTs have demonstrated that physical activity involving entire classrooms of students is effective in alleviating negative mental health outcomes (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Non-RCT studies have shown individualized approaches to be most effective and small-group approaches to be effective to a more limited extent (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Interventions have been shown to be effective in improving mental health when delivered by classroom teachers, physical education specialists, or researchers but may be most effective when conducted with a physical education specialist (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Many physical activity interventions include elements of social interaction and support; however, studies to date have been unable to distinguish whether the physical activity itself or these other factors account for the observed effects on mental health (Hasselstrom et al., 2002; Hallal et al., 2006). Finally, a few trials (Larun et al., 2006; Biddle and Asare, 2011) have compared the effects of physical activity and psychosocial interventions, finding that physical activity may be equally effective but may not provide any added benefit.

Subgroup Effects

Although studies frequently fail to report the age of participants, data on the effects of physical activity on mental health are strongest for adults participating in high-intensity physical activity (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). However, evidence relating physical activity to various measures of mental health has shown consistent, significant effects on individuals aged 11-20. A large prospective study found that physical activity was inversely associated with depression in early adolescence (Hasselstrom et al., 2002; Hallal

et al., 2006); fewer studies have been conducted among younger children. Correlation studies have shown that the association of physical activity with depression is not affected by age (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011).

Few studies have examined the influence of other sociodemographic characteristics of participants on the relationship between physical activity and mental health (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011), but studies have been conducted in populations with diverse characteristics. One study of low-income Hispanic children randomized to an aerobic intensity program found that the intervention group was less likely to present with depression but did not report reduced anxiety (Crews et al., 2004; Hallal et al., 2006). A study that included black and white children (aged 7-11) found that a 40-minute daily dose of aerobic exercise significantly reduced depressive symptoms and increased physical appearance self-worth in both black and white children and increased global self-worth in white children compared with controls (Petty et al., 2009). Physical activity also has been positively associated with mental health regardless of weight status (normal versus overweight) or gender (male versus female) (Petty et al., 2009; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011); however, results are stronger for males (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011).

Improvements in mental health as a result of physical activity may be more pronounced among clinically diagnosed populations, especially those with cognitive impairment or posttraumatic stress disorder (Craft and Landers, 1998; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Evidence is less clear for youth with clinical depression (Craft and Landers, 1998; Larun et al., 2006; Biddle and Asare, 2011). Individuals diagnosed with major depression undergoing an intervention entailing aerobic exercise have shown significant improvement in depression and lower relapse rates, comparable to results seen in participants receiving psychotropic treatment (Babyak et al., 2000; Penedo and Dahn, 2005). One program for adults with Down syndrome providing three sessions of exercise and health education per week for 12 weeks resulted in more positive expectations, fewer emotional barriers, and improved life satisfaction (Heller et al., 2004; Penedo and Dahn, 2005). Ahn and Fedewa (2011) found that, compared with nondiagnosed individuals, physical activity had a fivefold greater impact on those diagnosed with cognitive impairment and a twofold greater effect on those diagnosed with emotional disturbance, suggesting that physical activity has the potential to improve the mental health of those most in need.

In sum, although more studies are needed, and there may be some differences in the magnitude and nature of the mental health benefits derived, it appears that physical activity is effective in improving mental health regardless of age, ethnicity, gender, or mental health status.

Sedentary Behavior

Sedentary behavior also influences mental health. Screen viewing in particular and sitting in general are consistently associated with poorer mental health (Biddle and Asare, 2011). Children who watch more television have higher rates of anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress and are at higher risk for sleep disturbances and attention problems (Kappos, 2007). Given the cross-sectional nature of these studies, however, the direction of these associations cannot be determined. A single longitudinal study found that television viewing, but not playing computer games, increased the odds of depression after 7-year follow-up (Primack et al., 2009; Biddle and Asare, 2011), suggesting that television viewing may contribute to depression. Because of design limitations of the available studies, it is unclear whether this effect is mediated by physical activity.

Television viewing also is associated with violence, aggressive behaviors, early sexual activity, and substance abuse (Kappos, 2007). These relationships are likely due to the content of the programming and advertising as opposed to the sedentary nature of the activity. Television viewing may affect creativity and involvement in community activities as well; however, the evidence here is very limited (Kappos, 2007). Studies with experimental designs are needed to establish a causal relationship between sedentary behavior and mental health outcomes (Kappos, 2007).

Although the available evidence is not definitive, it does suggest that sedentary activity and television viewing in particular can increase the risk for depression, anxiety, aggression, and other risky behaviors and may also affect cognition and creativity (Kappos, 2007), all of which can affect academic performance. It would therefore appear prudent for schools to reduce these sedentary behaviors during school hours and provide programming that has been shown to be effective in reducing television viewing outside of school (Robinson, 1999; Robinson and Borzekowski, 2006).

It is not surprising that physical activity improves mental health. Both physiological and psychological mechanisms explain the observed associations. Physiologically, physical activity is known to increase the synaptic transmission of monoamines, an effect similar to that of anti-depressive drugs. Physical activity also stimulates the release of endorphins (endogenous opoids) (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005), which have an inhibitory effect on the central nervous system, creating a sense of calm and improved mood (Peluso and Guerra de Andrade, 2005; Ahn and Fedewa, 2011). Withdrawal of physical activity may result in irritability, restlessness, nervousness, and frustration as a result of a drop in endorphin

levels. Although more studies are needed to specify the exact neurological pathways that mediate this relationship, it appears that the favorable impact of physical activity on the prevention and treatment of depression may be the result of adaptations in the central nervous system mediated in part by neurotropic factors that facilitate neurogenerative, neuroadaptive, and neuroprotective processes (Dishman et al., 2006). It has been observed, for example, that chronic wheel running in rats results in immunological, neural, and cellular responses that mitigate several harmful consequences of acute exposure to stress (Dishman et al., 2006). A recent study found that children who were more physically active produced less cortisol in response to stress, suggesting that physical activity promotes mental health by regulating the hormonal responses to stress (Martikainen et al., 2013).

Psychological mechanisms that may explain why physical activity improves mental health include (1) distraction from unfavorable stimuli, (2) increase in self-efficacy, and (3) positive social interactions that can result from quality physical activity programming (Peluso and de Andrade, 2005) (see also the discussion of psychosocial health above). The relative contribution of physiological and psychological mechanisms is unknown, but they likely interact. Poor physical health also can impair mood and mental function. Health-related quality of life improves with physical activity that increases physical functioning, thereby enhancing the sense of well-being (McAuley and Rudolph, 1995; HHS, 2008).

Physical activity during childhood and adolescence may not only be important for its immediate benefits for mental health but also have implications for long-term mental health. Studies have shown a consistent effect of physical activity during adolescence on adult physical activity (Hallal et al., 2006). Physical activity habits established in children may persist into adulthood, thereby continuing to confer mental health benefits throughout the life cycle. Furthermore, physical activity in childhood may impact adult mental health regardless of the activity’s persistence (Hallal et al., 2006).

Physical activity can improve mental health by decreasing and preventing conditions such as anxiety and depression, as well as improving mood and other aspects of well-being. Evidence suggests that the mental health benefits of physical activity can be experienced by all age groups, genders, and ethnicities. Moderate effect sizes have been observed among both youth and adults. Youth with the highest risk of mental illness may experience the most benefit. Although evidence is not adequate to determine the ideal regimen, aerobic and high-intensity physical activity are likely to confer the most benefit. It appears, moreover, that a variety of types of physical activity are effective in improving different aspects of mental health; therefore,

a varied regimen including both aerobic activities and strength training may be the most effective. Frequent episodes of physical activity are optimal given the well-substantiated short-term effects of physical activity on mental health status. Although there are well-substantiated physiological bases for the impact of physical activity on mental health, physical activity programming that effectively enhances social interactions and self-efficacy also may improve mental health through these mechanisms. Quality physical activity programming also is critical to attract and engage youth of all skills level and to effectively reach those at highest risk.

Sedentary activity may increase the risk of poor mental health status independently of, or in addition to, its effect on physical activity. Television viewing in particular may lead to a higher risk of such conditions as depression and anxiety and may also increase violence, aggression, and other high-risk behaviors. These impacts are likely the result of programming and advertising content in addition to the physiological effects of inactivity and electronic stimuli.

In conclusion, frequently scheduled and well-designed opportunities for varied physical activity during the school day and a reduction in sedentary activity have the potential to improve students’ mental health in ways that could improve their academic performance and behaviors in school.

Good health is the foundation of learning and academic performance (see Chapter 4 ). In children and youth, health is akin to growth. An extensive literature demonstrates that regular physical activity promotes growth and development and has multiple benefits for physical, mental, cognitive, and psychosocial health that undoubtedly contribute to learning. Although much of the evidence comes from cross-sectional studies showing associations between physical activity and various aspects of health, available prospective data support this cross-sectional evidence. Experimental evidence, although more limited for younger children, is sufficient among older children and adolescents to support the notion that children and young adults derive much the same health benefits from physical activity.

Moreover, many adult diseases have their origins in childhood. This finding, together with the finding that health-related behaviors and disease risk factors may track from childhood into adulthood, underscores the need for early and ongoing opportunities for physical activity.

Children’s exercise capacity and the activities in which they can successfully engage change in a predictable way across developmental periods. For example, young children are active in short bursts, and their capacity for continuous activity increases as they grow and mature (see Figure 3-2 ). In adults and likely also adolescents, intermittent exercise has much the same

FIGURE 3-2 Changes in physical activity needs with increasing age of children and adolescents. SOURCE: Adapted from Malina, 1991. Reprinted with permission from Human Kinetics Publishers.

benefit as continuous exercise when mode and energy expenditure are held constant. The health benefits of sporadic physical activity at younger ages are not well established. However, the well-documented short-term benefits of physical activity for some aspects of mental and cognitive health suggest that maximum benefit may be attained through frequent bouts of exercise throughout the day.

Children require frequent opportunities for practice to develop the skills and confidence that promote ongoing engagement in physical activity. Physical education curricula are structured to provide developmentally appropriate experiences that build the motor skills and self-efficacy that underlie lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activity, and trained physical education specialists are uniquely qualified to deliver them (see Chapter 5 ). However, physical education usually is offered during a single session. Therefore, other opportunities for physical activity can supplement physical education by addressing the need for more frequent exercise during the day (see Chapter 6 ). In addition to the immediate benefits of short bouts of physical activity for learning and for mental health, developmentally appropriate physical activity during those times, along with the recommended time in physical education, can contribute to daily

energy expenditure and help lessen the risk of excess weight gain and its comorbidities. Specific types of activities address specific health concerns. For example, vertical jumping activities contribute to energy expenditure for obesity prevention and also promote bone development (via the resulting ground reaction forces), potentially contributing to lower fracture risk. Other activities contribute to prevention of chronic disease. Since different types of physical activity contribute to distinct aspects of physical, mental, and psychosocial health, a varied regimen is likely to be most beneficial overall.

The quality of physical activity programming also is critical; psychosocial outcomes and improvements in specific motor skills, for example, are likely the result of programming designed specifically to target these outcomes rather than just a result of increases in physical activity per se. These psychosocial outcomes also are likely to lead to increased levels of physical activity in both the short and long terms, thereby conferring greater health benefits. Unstructured physical activity or free play also confers unique benefits and is an important supplement to more structured opportunities. Quality physical activity programming that makes these activities attractive, accessible, and safe for children and youth of all skill and fitness levels is critical to ensure that all youth participate in these activities and can therefore derive the health benefits.

Sedentary activities, such as screen viewing and excessive time spent sitting, may contribute to health risks both because of and independent of their impact on physical activity. Thus specific efforts in school to reduce sedentary behaviors, such as through classroom and playground design and reduction of television viewing, are warranted.

In sum, a comprehensive physical activity plan with physical education at the core, supplemented by other varied opportunities for and an environment supportive of physical activity throughout the day, would make an important contribution to children’s health and development, thereby enhancing their readiness to learn.

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Physical inactivity is a key determinant of health across the lifespan. A lack of activity increases the risk of heart disease, colon and breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, osteoporosis, anxiety and depression and others diseases. Emerging literature has suggested that in terms of mortality, the global population health burden of physical inactivity approaches that of cigarette smoking. The prevalence and substantial disease risk associated with physical inactivity has been described as a pandemic.

The prevalence, health impact, and evidence of changeability all have resulted in calls for action to increase physical activity across the lifespan. In response to the need to find ways to make physical activity a health priority for youth, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment was formed. Its purpose was to review the current status of physical activity and physical education in the school environment, including before, during, and after school, and examine the influences of physical activity and physical education on the short and long term physical, cognitive and brain, and psychosocial health and development of children and adolescents.

Educating the Student Body makes recommendations about approaches for strengthening and improving programs and policies for physical activity and physical education in the school environment. This report lays out a set of guiding principles to guide its work on these tasks. These included: recognizing the benefits of instilling life-long physical activity habits in children; the value of using systems thinking in improving physical activity and physical education in the school environment; the recognition of current disparities in opportunities and the need to achieve equity in physical activity and physical education; the importance of considering all types of school environments; the need to take into consideration the diversity of students as recommendations are developed.

This report will be of interest to local and national policymakers, school officials, teachers, and the education community, researchers, professional organizations, and parents interested in physical activity, physical education, and health for school-aged children and adolescents.

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• School Education /

Essay on Health and Fitness for Students

• Updated on  
• Nov 18, 2023

What did you play in your sports period at school? Was it football, Cricket, Badminton, or any other sports? Maintaining good physical health requires you to take good care of your body and in most cases, your mental fitness also. From an early age, we are taught how to take care of our health and fitness. School students are often encouraged to write an essay on health and fitness, where they must come up with ideas about how to keep themselves physically and mentally fit and the benefits of a healthy life. Well, if you have not, you need not to worry. I’ve got your back. I’ll be providing you with a detailed explanation about staying fit and how you can add them to your essay on health and fitness. Stay tuned! 

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Health and Fitness in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Health and Fitness in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Health and Fitness in 300 Words

Also Read: Best Fitness Exercises for Students Studying Abroad

Essay on Health and Fitness in 100 Words

Also Read: 7 Ways on Which Good Mental Health Leads to Good Physical Health

Essay on Health and Fitness in 200 Words

‘It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver.’ – Mahatma Gandhi

Essay on Health and Fitness in 300 Words

Related Articles

To write an essay on health and fitness, you are required to describe how one can achieve his or her fitness goals. The health and fitness lifestyle depends on three factors; physical exercise, balanced diet and adequate rest. To achieve a healthy and fit life, you must focus on all these aspects. Describe them in detail and provide a positive conclusion.

Regular exercise boosts cardiovascular exercises, strength training, or flexibility workouts, enhances cardiovascular health, and strengthens muscles. A balanced and nutritious diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats is necessary. Adequate and quality sleep is crucial for physical recovery, cognitive function, and emotional well-being. The release of endorphins during physical activity helps reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, promoting a positive mindset. Health and fitness are not isolated concepts but interconnected elements of a holistic lifestyle. 

When on a diet, consider these fat-free foods: Beans and legumes, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, skim milk, egg whites, and yoghurt.

For more information on such interesting topics for your school, visit our essay writing page and make sure to follow Leverage Edu .

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Health and Fitness Essay

The term "health" refers to a condition of complete well-being, not just physically but also mentally and socially. Fitness and good health are interrelated. In order to keep our health in check, we must focus on staying fit. Here are a few sample essays on ‘health and fitness’.

100 Words Essay on Health and Fitness

Fitness and health are intertwined, and neither can be attained without consideration for the other. In order to work properly and live productively, one must maintain good health.

Fitness is essential because it improves our ability to work without difficulty and increases our resistance to germs that cause illness. Maintaining our fitness not only improves our ability to work but also contributes to our happiness and contentment. Diet has a significant impact on our health . We need to consume a balanced diet and adequate amounts of water. By maintaining good health, we can better withstand illnesses like the common cold, viral fever, and other similar conditions. Running, dancing, and jogging are all effective forms of exercise.

It's crucial to have a supportive environment that fosters our development into fully realised adults. So, we should never neglect our health and make every effort to stay fit.

200 Words Essay on Health and Fitness

The majority of regular people never comprehend the significance of maintaining fitness and good health. They frequently underestimate the value of good health because they are unaware of its benefits. We all understand that good health is wealth, but few people actually live this out. We can perform our daily tasks more easily when we are healthy and fit. A disease-free body is only one aspect of health; mental calmness is another.

A person cannot have an unhealthy body if they have an unhealthy mind. Being in good physical and mental health enables us to succeed in life and fully enjoy it. We feel more physically and mentally strong and confident when our bodies and minds are both in good health. A strong physical condition aids us in difficult times, whereas a weak physical condition makes us more frail and susceptible to illness.

We must be knowledgeable about every aspect of maintaining our physical and mental health. Even though they are very conscious of how to keep their bodies neat, clean, and healthy, some people harbour mental tensions that prevent them from ever becoming physically fit. The healthy state of the body gradually deteriorates and becomes weak due to mental stress. People who take care of their health and fitness regularly exercise and eat wholesome foods at the appropriate times. They are very concerned about their health and refrain from being lazy, consuming unhealthy foods, and living sedentary lifestyles.

500 Words Essay on Health and Fitness

If we want to live happy lives, we must take care of our health and fitness. There are many benefits to keeping fit. We must first comprehend the causes of the need for fitness before focusing on how to be fit. In general, we now eat out more frequently because of how our way of life has changed. Although home-cooked meals are healthier, because of the places we must travel to for work, we cannot always rely on them.

We must take good care of ourselves by engaging in regular exercise to make up for our lack of a healthy diet. However, exercising does not require us to forgo our favourite foods or spend the entirety of the day in the gym. Most people choose the incorrect diet when trying to lose weight and stay in shape. Diets, such as those that involve eating cabbage soup or onions, are harmful and do more harm than good. People frequently skip meals because they believe that eating less will aid in weight loss.

But experts have emphasised the significance of eating properly time and time again. Skipping meals causes a slow metabolism, which causes additional weight gain. Insufficient calorie intake causes our bodies to start storing any extra calories as fat. Food is not converted into energy as a result, and we become lethargic and frail. Our ability to function properly depends on when we eat.

Dietitians advise us to spread out our food consumption into smaller meals. This aids in the efficient digestion and absorption of food. In addition to plenty of water, we should consume enough green, leafy vegetables. Water controls internal bodily functions and promotes smooth operation. To maintain your fitness, start by eating a balanced diet. All of the essential nutrients—carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, roughage, and water—should be included in our diet.

A balanced diet keeps us healthy and fortifies our immunity, which wards off disease. Our physical and mental well-being must both be maintained. Because of our hectic schedules, many people do not find the time to exercise. We must therefore devise alternative application techniques. Some ways to stay in shape include walking a certain distance, taking the stairs rather than the elevator, and following a regular sleep schedule. For a healthy and successful life, sleep is essential. Every day, an average of eight hours of sleep is required for every person.

Contrary to popular belief, staying fit also means making the most of our potential. Maintaining emotional fitness is just as important as maintaining physical fitness. Indicators of mental health include lower stress levels and appropriate emotional venting. People who are unable to communicate their feelings experience mental instability and suppressed depression. A breakdown or a panic attack, both of which are harmful to our health, may result from these circumstances.

Therefore, maintaining a healthy lifestyle requires fitness. A healthy individual will be less prone to illness and perform tasks more effectively. This is why it's important to give our health top priority.

Incorporating Fitness and Health

I practise the following to incorporate the idea of health and fitness into my life:

I work out for an hour each day.

I try to maintain a healthy diet.

I try to stay away from foods that are high in sugar and fat.

I go for 20 to 30 minutes of daily walking.

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Essay on Health and Fitness

List of essays on health and fitness, essay on health and fitness – short essay for children (essay 1 – 200 words), essay on health and fitness – how to be healthy and fit (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on health and fitness (essay 3 – 300 words), essay on health and fitness – for school students (class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10) (essay 4 – 400 words), essay on health and fitness (essay 5 – 500 words), essay on health and fitness – for college students (essay 6 – 600 words), essay on health and fitness – how to maintain a good health and fitness (essay 7 – 750 words), essay on health and fitness – long essay for university students (essay 8 – 1000 words).

Health and fitness are two concepts that go hand in hand. Our health is the totality of our physical, mental and emotional wellbeing. Fitness, on the other hand, is a state of control over our body. Thus, we could be physical, mentally and emotionally fit. Consequently, health and fitness can be regarded as a way to attaining control over our body.

Audience: The below given essays are exclusively written for children, school students (Class 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 Standard) and college students.

Introduction:

Health and fitness are a very important aspect of life that includes having both physically and mentally fit body. With the help of a balanced diet and regular exercise a person can improve his or her health and fitness.

Relationship between Health and Fitness:

A good health means that a person is physically and mentally strong and fitness refers to the ability of the person to encounter the demands of the environment. The person possessing good health and fitness can enjoy his/her life completely.

How to Maintain Health and Fitness:

The following are the ways that can help in maintaining health and fitness:

1. Doing the daily exercise for at least 30 minutes.

2. Eating balanced and healthy food in limited quantity and at the right time.

3. Adequate sleeping and waking up early in the morning.

Benefits of Health and Fitness:

Below are the benefits of health and fitness for a person:

1. Reduces the risk of diseases like diabetes, obesity, etc.

2. Helps in healing the injuries quickly.

3. Increases the lifespan of the person.

4. Decreases stress and anxiety.

Conclusion:

With daily exercise and proper diet, a person can achieve good health and fitness. It not only makes the person happy but also makes him/her free of stress and worries.

Health and fitness is the real wealth a person should acquire to lead a peaceful and harmonious life. A person without both, may face many difficulties and find their real money spend on their health issues rapidly.

How to be Healthy and Fit?

Health and fitness are not only about physical appearance or muscle, but it is also about being internally, mentally and emotionally fit that will largely influence your day to day life. In earlier days people like our grandparents have kept good care of their health and fitness through healthy food and by leading a better lifestyle.

The recent generation was more ignorant of their health and fitness, but the situation has changed a lot recently. Better awareness about the importance of health and fitness has made everyone seriously working on this problem and find ways to stay healthier.

The basic step towards fitness is by keeping yourself calm and relaxed. This will help you in being both mentally and bodily fit to some extent. Exercises and other forms of workouts like dancing, yoga, etc., are the best ways to keep yourself fit and these practices will also, in turn, help you to be calm and composed.

Health and fitness play in your life a major role in keeping you and the people around you happy as well as healthy. Avoid those bad habits that will not only ruin your body and mind but also influence badly on the others around you, both mentally and physically. Health and fitness can be maintained through regular workouts, healthier food, and other healthier habits.

People often take the terms health and fitness as one and they do not think too much about the difference that is present in them. The thing is they can be treated as one but in some situations, they can exclude each other. Health and fitness represent the two most desirable features of every person’s life. The great thing about this fact is that you can create such a life for yourself.

The Difference:

Health and fitness represent the two most important aspects of our lives and this is especially true when you are a student and you need to advance through your studies and early career. Health is usually considered as the total physical wellbeing of the organism and its ability to fight off infections and disease. Fitness represents the bodies physical strength and overall ability to sustain physical exertion.

The Importance:

When we consider how important health and fitness are for the effectiveness of our endeavors it becomes clear why so many people have an obsession with them. This is why I consider that it is important for every person to have a personal health and fitness routine that they can implement in their daily lives. Regardless of what we do in life such a routine can do us good and create habits that we can practice to sustain an optimal level of productivity.

The only thing one should remember is that too much fitness can cause problems for your health, so balance is key. Otherwise having a health and fitness routine can only be good for you and all the endeavors you want to make in your career or personal life. Today’s world is all about health and fitness so every person has all the necessary tools they could ever need to make the best combination of diet and exercise for themselves.

Health and fitness are one of the most important aspect of life. Without these, the life will be very unhappy and dreadful. An unhealthy person will not be able to enjoy their life to full extent. We are all so busy in our lives that we start neglecting our health. This starts to affect our lives negatively and can lead to some severe problems.

What is meant by health and fitness?

Health of a person is defined as state of being free from any illness and injury. Along with the physical condition, it also includes the mental and social well-being of the person. Fitness is the condition of being physically fit and healthy so that the person is able to tackle the demands of the surrounding environment.

Importance of Health and Fitness:

For a successful, happy and peaceful life, health and fitness are very important. If a person is healthy and fit, he/she can live the life to its fullest extent. Health and fitness just does not mean physically but also mentally and healthy fit. There are many benefits of maintaining health and fitness of the body, like it lowers the risk of diseases like heart attack, high BP, obesity, and stroke; increases longevity of life, reduces stress, provides better quality of life and many others.

How to maintain health and fitness?

There are many ways to maintain your health and fitness. Certain activities should be followed daily like regular physical exercise. It can be a simple activity as climbing stairs instead of taking lift or elevator, walking more rather than taking car to go to different places. It is important to eat proper and clean food at the right time. The food should also be rich in nutrition such as high in fibre, low in fat, high protein content and have more vitamins. Proper sleeping pattern is also important to maintain health and fitness.

For any of these activities, it is important to be self-motivated. The fitness activities should be a part of your daily routine. All this will not only maintain your health and fitness but also improve your lifestyle.

It is important to maintain health and fitness of not just our physical self but our mental self as well, to have a happy and fulfilled life. The maintenance of these should be taught to children at a young age so that they are used to doing certain activities and are motivated to continue doing them as they grow up.

Obesity, depressions, diabetes are some of the adverse effects of neglecting our physical or mental health and fitness. These conditions can lead to serious health challenges and in some extreme cases death. To reduce the risk of these we must keep fit at all times. We shall now examine the physical and mental dynamics of keeping fit mentally and physically.

Physical Health and Fitness:

Physical health and fitness refer to all form of positive steps we take to keep our body in good shape. Hence, it would include physical exercise and maintaining a healthy diet. It also involves constant medical checks to eliminate the risk of certain ailments.

The importance of constant exercise to our physical health and fitness cannot be overemphasized. Physical exercises ensure that our metabolic system is in great shape. Our metabolic system determines how much fat is stored in our body and the rate at which our body processes fat. Consequently, when we engage in physical exercise we store less fat in our body which is good for our overall health.

Another major factor that affects our physical health and fitness is eating healthy. While some food is great for our health, others can lead to damaging effects. Also, taking meals in the right property is a big part of keeping fit. Finally, though there might be conflicting information about what a good diet is, it is important to always eat in moderation.

Some of the benefits of physical health and fitness are as follows:

1. It helps you keep your cholesterol low.

2. It reduces blood pressure.

3. It increases the heart function and reduces the risk of heart-related conditions.

4. It improves our immune system such that we fall sick less often.

5. Increase in strength of muscles and bones.

Mental and Psychological Health and Fitness:

A lot of attention is usually given to physical health and fitness while neglecting our mental wellbeing. However, keeping our mind the same and our health sane is just as important as treating our body the same. Mental strain can affect our productivity and mood. It could also lead to serious health challenges such as depression and other mental illness.

To attain mental health and fitness we must keep our brain engaged with positive activities.

Some of these activities are as follows:

1. Reading intellectual materials that stimulate brain function.

2. Engaging in constant meditation to keep our mind focused.

3. Getting enough sleep on a daily basis.

4. Engaging less in tasks that can cause mental strain.

Health and fitness encompass every area of our life including the way we treat our environment. Consequently, we must always keep fit to have a fulfilling life, therefore, there is a saying – health is wealth.

Health and fitness are two separate words that are related because they influence each other. Health is defined as the state of wellbeing in which a person is free from illness and injury. Fitness is the state of being healthy and physically fit. Health is influenced by fitness and fitness is influenced by health. The trends in health and fitness are continuous and people strive to achieve both in their lives. Health and fitness continues to undergo transformation in the changing times especially with the influence of technology. It is important to be healthy and fit because of the benefits enjoyed.

How to be Healthy and Fit :

Health and fitness is a process that requires proper understanding. Health and fitness is something that someone has to have a purpose and stick to it in order to be successful at it. It is a challenge to remain health and fit because of the commitment it requires and the work that has to be done. Accepting the challenge is the first step into health and fitness. It is also important to find a partner with whom you can exercise with. It is something you can do with your spouse or a colleague at work just for the motivation. A workout schedule has to be formulated together with a dietary schedule.

Healthy foods should be a balanced diet but with less amounts of calories. However, calories should not be undertaken because exercise requires burning of calories for energy. Staying healthy and fit means that you have to eat well and exercise well and a schedule is important because it keeps you on track. It is also important to set goals like losing a certain amount of weight so that the goal will motivate you in remaining healthy and fit.

Health and fitness is of great significance in the lives of individuals. It helps in preventing lifestyle diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. Physical fitness involves the burning of unnecessary fat in our bodies which helps to reduce the cholesterol in our blood. Having less cholesterol in the body reduces the chances of developing high blood pressure. Also, when exercising, we use up the calories in our bodies and therefore blood glucose is maintained at normal levels and thus reduces the chances of developing diabetes.

It is also important to remain healthy and fit in order to maintain normal body weight. The food we eat and activities we do influence our body weight. Being inactive and consuming unhealthy foods such as fast food could result in serious weight issues like obesity. Obesity is having a body mass index that is greater than 30. It has been associated with many chronic illnesses such as heart diseases and diabetes. In order to remain within normal body weight, health and fitness has to be prioritized.

Safety and self-defense is influenced by health and fitness. Being physically fit means that you are able to run and you are strong enough to defend yourself. Knowing how to fight is not an aspect of health and fitness. The ability to run fast is considered safe because you can always escape danger. Being unfit is disadvantageous in situations of danger because you will experience difficulty.

Health and fitness is definitely important in the lives of individuals. Schools emphasize on health and fitness because by training young children on health and fitness, it positively influences their lives. Health and fitness does not necessarily mean hitting the gym every now and then but it is about the simple exercises and the food we eat.

Health and fitness when properly maintained goes a long way in helping a person remain in a general state of well-being and health. Health and fitness can provide us with the ability to be able to perform activities that are physical without being restless or tired. If we want to maintain a very good health and fitness, we have to engage in physical exercise regularly and eat balanced diets. It is very important that we maintain our health and fitness so that we can stay healthy, fit, without fear of different diseases and also get all of the numerous benefits that come along with a healthy living.

A person that has good and proper health and fitness gets to live and enjoy his/her very well to the possible best. It is very necessary that every one of us in life lives a life of mental and physical fitness so that we can enjoy a life that is happy and healthy.

When we are fit and healthy, the probability of us falling ill and experiencing various medical conditions drops. When we talk about medical fitness, a lot of people assume it is just physical fitness but it is a lot more than that, overall fitness means we have to be fit both mentally and physically. We can only achieve a state of good mental fitness if we become physically fit.

If we want to remain very fit and healthy, the best way we can do that is through relieving our mind of all forms of stress through eating a balanced diet and regular exercise. If we maintain a weight that is ideal, we tend to be less prone to a lot of health conditions including cardiac problems. When we remain active physically, our mind is always relaxed. Fit and healthy people tend to face and overcome all the various problems life brings their way easily without suffering.

How one can maintain a Good Health and Fitness:

Today, there a lot of ways through which we can stay fit and healthy if we decide to abide by them.

Some of them include:

1. We should do our best to involve ourselves regularly in physical exercises every day by taking a little time out of our very hectic schedule. If we decide to take about 30 minutes or 60 minutes every day to exercise about five to six times in a week. We should be able to get enough exercise that would be ideal for us to stay fit.

2. Eating clean and healthy food in the proper quantity and in the appropriate time is quite important if we want to stay fit and healthy. The best way to attain good health is by a healthy nutrition that contains low fat, high fibre, very rich sources of minerals and vitamins, and high protein.

3. If we want to stay healthy and fit, we have to observe a very good sleep habit and pattern. It is very important that we keep a very high level of discipline in all of our routine daily and also try to focus on getting and maintain a sleeping pattern that commences and stops at the proper time. It is advised that we get about eight hours of sleep every night as this can help in boosting the immune system. Getting good hours of sleep can also go a long way in helping us prevent cardiovascular diseases and also goes a long way in improving the mood. We do not get enough sleep, we are very likely to suffer from a variety of mental disorders and sleep disorders.

Importance of Good Health and Fitness:

1. Reduces stress, anxiety level and depression.

2. It helps in improving the quality of one’s life.

3. It goes a long way in getting to live a little longer.

4. It helps in the healing of injuries quickly.

5. It can also help us increase our level of confidence.

6. It goes a long way to help us feel a lot better both mentally and physically.

7. It helps us in decreasing the risk of getting diseases like breast cancer, stroke, obesity, heart diseases and diabetes.

Routine exercise and physical activities on a regular basis is quite necessary for everybody irrespective of their ages but most especially the younger generation (children). Health and fitness can help us accomplish a lot of happiness in this life. Health and fitness can also go a long way in helping us live a live that is free of disease and stress.

Health and fitness help a person live a good and healthy life. Often due to various pressures at personal and professional level, we tend to ignore our health. This makes our body suffer and we catch up with lifestyle and other diseases. It is the fitness level of our body which helps us fight these diseases. If we are fit we are able to overcome these diseases or else we end up being victims of a modern lifestyle.

Definition and Relation:

Health and fitness are interrelated to each other. We need to be fit to have a healthy body. Similarly, if we are healthy we shall naturally be attracted towards maintaining the fitness of our body. Health is the state of our body at a given time. We may not have any disease but still, have a weak body which is ready to be targeted by a number of bacteria and viruses.

For instance, we may have a tendency to catch a cold easily. This does not definitely mean that we are not healthy. It means that our fitness levels are not in accordance with our age and the climatic conditions we live in. it all depends on our health which in turn is dependent on our fitness levels. So health and fitness move together.

Also, the fitness level is the state of our body based on our age, climatic conditions we live in, our lifestyle and our working conditions. One can see people having great fitness levels even in older age. For example, every morning in different parks you can two types of old people. One who is just meditating and sitting at one quietly enjoying the fresh air while the others who are jogging or walking briskly on tracks. They can even compete with the young people on the track. These are two types of fitness levels at the same age. It is all about how to fit we keep ourselves.

Moreover, you can see young people who are not able to climb stairs and tend to get tired easily. It is all because of their low levels of fitness that they are not able to keep good health. They are less fit as compared to other people of their age who keep themselves fit. The people who keep themselves fit keep their body healthy. So fitness levels decide the quality of our health.

How to maintain Health and Fitness:

It is important for everyone to devote some time to health and fitness. There are some activities which everyone should do in their daily lives. For instance, we must exercise daily irrespective of our age and working style. There are different levels of exercises for different age groups and we must do them as per our own health and age. Exercise keeps our healthy and fit. It keeps our body moving. Our muscles tend to contract if we do not make good use of them. Regular exercise stops them from contracting and improves our energy levels as well. One must devote at least some of the day for exercises.

Similarly, walking for some time in a day is a must for all. In fact, walking is considered the best exercise and is suited to all ages and fitness levels. It is important for maintaining health and fitness.

Additionally apart from walking and exercises, it is also important to relax our body. Therefore we should have at least six to eight hours of sleep every day. It is necessary to maintain proper levels of health and fitness. Moreover, it also helps in improving our immune system and prevents us from a number of diseases as well. Also, it helps in keeping us calm and relaxes our mind. This, in turn, reduces our stress and gives us new goals of health and fitness.

Importance of Food in Health and Fitness:

Food plays a vital role in maintaining health and fitness of our body. Our body absorbs nutrients from the food we eat. So we do not eat proper food our body does not get the required nutrients. This lowers the levels of health and fitness of our body and we are prone to a number of diseases. Therefore health experts usually say that we become what we eat.

So, in order to remain healthy and fit we must have a proper diet which contains the required amount of carbohydrates, fats, vitamin, proteins and minerals. We should eat vegetables and fruits as they provide us with the required vitamins and minerals. Milk provides us calcium which is essential for our bones. Additionally, we must stay away from junk food. Junk food contains excess amounts of carbohydrates and fats which get accumulated in our body and make us fat. The excess weight of our body makes us lazy and we catch up diseases more easily.

We must respect the body God has given us and take care of it in a good manner. We must neglect ourselves for the sake of work and other activities in our life. It is important to understand that we can perform our duties in life properly only we pay attention to the health and fitness levels of our body. Otherwise, although we may want to do something but our body may not support us. Hence we may not able to achieve our goals in life.

It is not necessary to be an athlete to have a good body. Every person in the world needs to have a healthy and fit body so as to stay away from disease and have a long and healthy life. Moreover, we must remember our importance for our families and society. If we suffer from diseases, our family members also get troubled. It affects their health and fitness as well.

The only way to have a healthy body is to ensure the proper fitness levels of our body. That is why even in schools so much of importance is given to the health and fitness levels of students. If we keep our body fit, we can enjoy life in a better manner.

Fitness , Health

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Importance of Physical Fitness Essay

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People all over the world are becoming fitness conscious as they have realized that it is the most important and have shifted their priorities from everything else to keep them fit and fine as healthy with wealth. Regular exercise has several benefits it helps the body to get into the desired shape and develops resistance power from gaining additional and excessive weight. It helps a person safe from diseases such as obesity, blood pressure, heart diseases, and high cholesterol. Furthermore, an activity also helps in reducing depression and insomnia by enhancing sleeping routines. Also, such activity is known to produce positive vibes inside a person which in turn increases the person’s confidence. (Hardcastle, 2006)

Fitness training fine-tunes the muscles using and burning calories in the body which also increases the metabolic rate in the body. While an inactive person will have his or her body losing its muscles decreasing the metabolism of the body, resulting in concentration of calories and formation of fat and the person gains weight. Exercises like walking, jogging, running, swimming, doing push-ups and pull-ups, running up a flight of stairs, doing crunches, cycling, etc. not only helps a person maintain an outer strong and toned look but it also help the organs like heart, lungs, liver and other to function properly while giving mental peace. (Hasselfors, Hans, n.d.)

For the community, there can be several initiatives taken to help people exercise regularly and maintain a healthy diet. Being a nutritionist advisor, I can guide people on what types of food are healthy and which types of foods should be avoided. As a social welfare worker, I can organize marathons for social causes where people can participate in the form of marathon exercises and also serve a more worldly cause. By adopting an educationist’s role, I can educate the positive aspects of personal fitness and make people aware of the negatives of not exercising. Also, I can start dancing lessons for young boys and girls where from an early stage not only children learn to dance but also learn to exercise. Furthermore, I can become a sport’s proponent where teaching people to play sports will also help them increase their activity and become fit. (Personal Health Zone, 2009)

The most common type of exercise is walking or running. From a casual stroll to a paced walk every day works the muscles relentlessly. Yet another popular exercise common amongst the younger people is playing sports since most sports involve running and stretching out the body muscles. Aerobics or even dancing is a type of exercise that is fun yet physically strengthening. Although swimming might fall under the banner of sports, most people swim to relax in the water and have a good time, and can exercise their body at the same time. For the more body-conscious people, bodybuilding is a set of exercises that strengthens the muscles by picking weights and putting regular pressure. Carrying excessive loads from to and fro also is a form of exercise. Furthermore, in a computer-related work environment, where repetitive strain injury (RSI) is quite common, people should take regular breaks and stretch out their muscles. People recommend the use of machines available in gymnasiums to flex their muscles. Yet another method of exercising is cycling either on a bicycle or a gymnasium machine. (ADAM, 2004)

Active people tend to outlive those who are inactive. In case of being physically inactive for a long time and then taking drastic measures to lose weight to achieve a good result is not an efficient way, as it will not have a lifelong effect on the body. It is rather recommended to consult the physician and go slowly and step-wise. Alongside maintaining a healthy lifestyle by eating healthy food, avoiding junk and fast food, and exercising regularly mainly in the early morning and late evening as these are the effective times for exercising.

ADAM (2004). Exercise . Web.

Hardcastle, J. (2006). The Importance of Physical Fitness .

Hasselfors, H. (N.D) Fitness Training. Web.

Personal Health Zone (2009). Health and Fitness . Web.

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Good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness with prompts [+ outline], dr. wilson mn.

• August 1, 2022
• Essay Topics and Ideas , Nursing

There are plenty of good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness to choose from. You can write about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle, or the importance of staying fit and active.

You can also argue for or against certain health and fitness practices, such as eating organic foods or using supplements. Whatever you choose to write about, make sure you back up your claims with evidence and research.

What You'll Learn

Argumentative Essay Topics On Health And Fitness

Personal Reflection on the Scriptural Basis for Physical Fitness & Wellness Practices

Essay prompt: Often, when people speak about physical fitness and wellness, they do it from the point of view of science and medicine in which physical fitness and wellness practices are supposed to improve our health outcomes.

Improving Fitness Practices And the Personal And Realistic Physical Fitness Plan

Essay prompt: The strategies to identify practical ways to enhance my fitness practices include personal training, outcome measurements, and wearable technology. Personal training is a strong trend that is

Do Fitness Trackers Improve Health?

Essay prompt: Fitness trackers are wearable devices that monitor physical activity, communicate with the smartphone, and pass information to it. These wearable devices monitor calories consumed and received by a person, as well as physical activity indicators, and are designed to help people move more and eat right.

How did you apply what you learned in your workouts within and outside of class and what were the outcomes? How will you continue to apply this knowledge in the future?

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Improving Health Related Fitness: Aerobic Conditioning Program

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Discuss the importance of goal-setting for nutritional clients

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Problems And Solutions Concerning Meeting Advancing Health Information Requirements

Essay prompt: Currently, hospital setups exhibit new Health Information Technology (HIT) innovations that help in monitoring healthcare and fitness improvement. Besides, this HIT improves health outcomes and ensures efficiency in workflow among others.

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Essay prompt: The Pure Barre franchise is a boutique gym line of studios that has branches across North America- the US and Canada.

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Essay prompt: Numerous studies have explored the benefits of physical activity to the physical and mental well-being of an individual. A literature review on the subject suggests that there is a positive relationship between physical activity, and physical and mental health.

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Essay prompt: How will you approach your analysis of fitness and health claims in the future? How will this help you in your future training endeavours?

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How the Covid-19 Regulations have Affected Students at the Gym

Essay prompt: The COVID-19 Pandemic has subjected the world to a life-threatening situation, judging by the mortality and morbidity rates. More than 6.2 million people have died of COVID-19, and over 505 million cases have been reported worldwide as of 2022 (de Abreu et al., 2022).

Argumentative Research Paper Topics

There is no shortage of ideas when it comes to writing an argumentative research paper . The key is to find a topic that is interesting to you and that you can make a strong case for. Here are some potential topics to get you started:

• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• Should the voting age be lowered?
• Should there be stricter gun control laws?
• Should the death penalty be abolished?
• Should abortion be legal?
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Whether you’re a diehard sports fan or someone who doesn’t really follow any particular teams, there’s no denying that sports can be a great source of debate. From which sport is the most exciting to watch to whether certain players or teams are truly the best in their respective leagues, there are plenty of topics to choose from when it comes to sports debates.

To help you get started, we’ve compiled a list of some potential sports debate topics. Whether you’re looking for something lighthearted or something a little more serious, we’re sure you’ll find something on this list that gets your blood pumping.

So without further ado, here are 20 sports debate topics to get you started:

• Which sport is the most exciting to watch?
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Sports Persuasive Speech Topics

When it comes to giving a persuasive speech, there are many different topics that you can choose from. However, one topic that always seems to be popular is sports. Sports persuasive speech topics can be about anything related to sports, from the benefits of playing a particular sport to the dangers of not playing any sport at all.

• Some good sports persuasive speech topics include:
• The benefits of playing team sports
• The importance of staying active and participating in physical activity
• The dangers of using performance-enhancing drugs in sports
• The negative effects of not playing any sport at all
• Why children should be encouraged to play sports
• How adults can benefit from playing sports

Informative Speech Topics about Sports

When it comes to choosing a topic for an informative speech, there are many directions you could go. You could choose to give a speech about a particular sport, or about the history of sports, or about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports.

If you’re a fan of sports, then giving an informative speech about sports could be a great way to share your love of the game with others. There are so many different aspects to sports that you could focus on, from the rules of the game to the training and conditioning that athletes undergo. You could even give a speech about some of the great moments in sports history.

If you’re not a big sports fan, don’t worry – there are plenty of other topics you could choose for your informative speech. You could focus on the history of a particular sport, or on the evolution of sports over time. You could even choose to give a speech about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports. No matter what angle you choose, there’s sure to be an informative speech topic about sports that will interest you and your audience

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Essay on Health and Fitness for Children and Students

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The maintenance of health and fitness helps a person to be in the general state of health and well-being. It provides ability to perform physical actions without being tired or restless. However, the maintenance of health and fitness requires regular physical exercise with balanced diet.

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It is very necessary for all to maintain their health and fitness in order to be fit, healthy, fearless of diseases, and get so many other benefits. Now-a-days, teachers generally assign their students to write some paragraphs or full essay on any topic to enhance their English writing skill and knowledge as well as spread awareness.

Following are some paragraphs, short essays and long essays on health and fitness to help students in completing their task. All the health and fitness essay are written very simply. So, you can select any essay according to your need and requirement:

Long and Short Essay on Health and Fitness in English

Health and fitness essay 100 words – sample 1.

A person with good health and fitness becomes able to live his/her life to its fullest extent. It is very important for a person in life to be physically and mentally fit to live a healthy and happy life. Healthy and fit people become less prone to the medical conditions.

Fitness does not mean to be physically fit only, it also means with healthy mental state of the person. One can get healthy mental state if he/she becomes physically fit. The simple way to remain healthy and fit is having stress free mind with regular exercise and balanced diet. People who maintain their ideal weight become less prone to the cardiac and other health problems. People who are physically active can easily maintain a relaxed state of mind. Healthy and fit people can easily face all the ups and downs of their life and less affected by any drastic change.

Health and Fitness Essay 150 words – Sample 2

People are being more conscious towards their health and fitness as time changes. Male wants to have a muscle bound body whereas female a slim and trim look. Everybody is doing lots of struggle on daily basis to achieve a perfect body. Getting healthy and fit body and mind requires lots of patience, time, commitment, goal, believe, and a strong mind to face all the struggles. Some people have ability to maintain fitness on their own however some need a good qualified personal trainer to take care of the daily exercises and diet. People who are in corporate businesses have very little movement and lot of sitting all through the day. That’s why they face being overweight, obese, lazy, and tired. It is proved with studies that people who are more fit and healthy achieve greater success in life.

Health and Fitness Essay 200 words – Sample 3

Health is a very important aspect in the life of everyone. Nothing is more important than health and fitness for any human being. Healthy and fit people really enjoy their life very happily and peacefully. An unhealthy person cannot enjoy life in full extent.

He/she cannot enjoy eating, watching sports, or other luxury of the life. It is truly said by our elders that health is wealth. In order to maintain good health we need to properly take care of the hygiene and sanitation all around us. We have to eat healthy and complete food in timely manner.

We should eat green and fresh vegetables, milk, fresh fruits, egg, etc. Our body need sufficient amount of proteins, minerals and vitamins on daily basis to be fit and healthy. Together with the healthy food and physical activities we need to maintain cleanliness in our home and surrounding areas including our personal cleanliness.

The maintenance of physical and mental fitness is very important for a person needed to be successful and do best to the society. It is truly said by the Buddha about health and fitness that, “To keep the body in good health is a duty, otherwise we shall not be able to keep our mind strong and clear”.

Health and Fitness Essay 250 words – Sample 4

Most of the common people never realize the importance of being healthy and fit. They generally underestimate the importance of good health as they never know the advantages of it. We all know that health is wealth but only few people follow it in their life. Being healthy and fit, helps us in carrying out our daily tasks. Being healthy is not only a body free of diseases, but it also means to have a tensionless mind. If a person has unhealthy mind, he cannot has an unhealthy body.

Good health of both, body and mind helps us to get success in life and enjoy it in full extent. Good mental health makes us feel like a well-being and healthy body gives us physical strength and confidence. Good physical health helps us in our trouble times whereas poor physical becomes more weak and prone to diseases.

We need to be aware about all the points of how to keep us healthy both physically and mentally. Some people know well about how to keep their body neat, clean and healthy however they carry some tensions in their mind, so they always lack of being fit. Mental tension gradually deteriorates the good condition of body and makes it weak. People, who are serious about their health and fitness, do exercises on daily basis and eat healthy food in timely manner. They are much conscious about their health and avoid being lazy, eating unhealthy food and sedentary life.

Health and Fitness Essay 300 words- Sample 5

Now-a-days, people have been so busy in their hectic life style and do not have time to keep themselves healthy or stay fit. It is the fact that we must eat healthy, practice cleanliness and involve in daily physical exercises in order to remain healthy and fit. As we know that there is no alternate to the hard work, in the same way there is no alternate to the health and fitness. Health and fitness is the combination of healthy living with healthy lifestyle. Psychological health is very necessary with the physical health of a person in order to be healthy and fit. We need to eat healthy food and do physical exercises on daily basis in order to remain physically healthy however we need to think positive to remain mentally healthy.

We need to get self motivated as well as take part in the fitness-style activities. We should take our fitness as the matter of every-day routine. Being fit should be our first aim of living a healthy lifestyle. It doesn’t require exercising for hours, just a small amount of exercise and healthy food on daily basis is enough to maintain the health and fitness.

We should keep our eyes always open and select stairs instead of the elevator, use cycle instead of car or bike for nearby areas, walk to the next bus stop, etc creates really a big difference. Being involved in daily physical exercises not only keep us fit but also improve our lifestyle and healthy living. It increases our energy level and thus confidence level.

We should enjoy spending hours on morning walk, running, working out at the gym or other physical activities to keep body functioning well as well as improve muscle endurance. We should eat fresh cooked food instead of stale food in order to remain away from the digestive disorders.

Health and Fitness Essay 400 words- Sample 6

Introduction

Health and fitness is the state of being healthy both, physically and mentally. Regular exercises and balanced diet can improve health and fitness of a person. We can define health as the state of complete mental, physical and social well-being of a person. It is not only the absence of illness, diseases or infirmity. We can define the fitness of any person as the ability to meet demands of the environment.

How to Maintain Health and Fitness

There are various ways we can keep us healthy and fit if we follow regularly the following:

• We should regularly involve in the daily physical exercises by getting some time from our much hectic schedule. 30 to 60 minutes of exercise on daily basis or five to six times a week is ideal for anybody to remain fit.
• Healthy and clean food in right amount and at right time is very necessary for a person to stay healthy and fit. Healthy nutrition with high-fiber, low-fat, high protein, and rich source of vitamins and minerals is the key to good health.
• In order to get fit and healthy, good sleeping pattern is very necessary for any person. We need to maintain a discipline in our daily routine and focus on good sleeping pattern which must start and end at right time. Taking quality sleep of eight hours each night boosts our immune system and helps in preventing cardiovascular diseases as well as improves mood. Inadequate sleeping pattern leads to the sleep disorders and various mental disorders.

Importance of Health and Fitness

Health and fitness is very important for people who want to live a healthy life very happily and peacefully. A healthy and fit person is only capable to live life to its fullest extent. We can say a person healthy and fit if he/she is physically and mentally fit. Physically and mentally fit people become less prone to the medical conditions. Health and fitness of any person helps in:

• Decreases the risk of diseases (high blood pressure, diabetes, coronary heart diseases, colon cancer, osteoporosis, obesity, stroke, breast cancer, etc).
• Make them feel better both, physically and mentally.
• Improves their confidence level.
• Heals injuries soon.
• Helps to live longer by adding years to the life.
• Reduces stress and improves quality of life.
• Reduces anxiety level, stress, and feelings of depression.

Conclusion : Regular physical activities and routine exercise is very necessary for the people of all age group especially younger generations. Health and fitness brings happiness in the life and helps a person to live stress free and disease free life.

Helpful Resources on Health and Fitness

FAQs on Health and Fitness

What is health and fitness.

Health and fitness refer to physical well-being and the ability to perform daily activities with vigor. It encompasses a balanced diet, regular exercise, and mental stability.

What are health and fitness benefits?

Benefits include reduced risk of chronic diseases, enhanced mood and mental health, and improved longevity and quality of life.

How do you maintain good health and fitness?

Maintain a balanced diet, engage in regular physical activity, manage stress, and have regular health check-ups.

What are the 4 types of fitness?

The four types are cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, and muscular endurance.

What is health and fitness for life?

It means adopting lifelong habits that promote overall well-being and physical resilience, ensuring a better quality of life.

How is health and fitness important?

Health and fitness enhance mental and physical performance, reduce health risks, and improve overall well-being and life satisfaction.

What is the short note on health and fitness?

Health and fitness are vital for a high-quality life, reducing disease risks, and ensuring physical and mental well-being.

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Fitness — Proper Planning of Physical Fitness

Proper Planning of Physical Fitness

• Categories: Fitness

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Published: Sep 19, 2019

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Essay On Health And Fitness – 10 Lines, Short And Long Essay For Kids

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Health And Fitness For Lower Primary Classes

10 lines on health and fitness for kids, paragraph on ‘health and fitness’ for children, essay on ‘health and fitness’ in 100 words for kids, long essay on ‘importance of health and fitness’ for children, what will your child learn from this essay.

Essay writing is essential to inculcate critical thinking among kids from a very young age. Essays help build a rich vocabulary and push students to analyse arguments in a given topic to come up with stronger positions and definitive perspectives. An essay on health and fitness in English will help your kid stay informed about everything that falls under this topic to build a strong understanding for future references. Your kids will learn new health-related words in this process, and the association with a particular essay will help them retain them for a long. An essay on health and fitness for classes 1, 2 and 3 will sharpen your kid’s memory and strengthen creativity while improving written and verbal communication skills.

While writing an essay on health and fitness, students of lower primary classes might find it helpful to remember the overall idea of the essay through short vital points. Here is a guide to writing an essay on health and fitness for kids:

• At first, let your kid gather ideas they want to write on health and fitness.
• Let your child write down the ideas to create an outline of all necessary points to be included in the paragraph.
• Help your child construct easy, short, and simple sentences from the pre-created outline.
• Motivate your kid to describe all points and not elaborate on a single idea to maintain the word count.
• Help them maintain the writing flow to cherish the essay writing process.
• Ask them to mention the importance of good health, the procedure to maintain fitness, the consequences of an unfit body, etc.

Here are a few lines on health and fitness to understand the vitality of health. This will give your kid an overall idea about writing an essay for classes 1 and 2 on health and wellness:

• Health is of utmost importance in everyone’s life.
• Health is wealth and is more important than money.
• Having good health is a synonym for being physically and mentally fit.
• We should not ignore our health, and always stay alert in case we feel uneasy.
• We should exercise regularly to stay healthy.
• We should take care of our mental health by practising meditation.
• We should replace junk food with nutritious food to stay healthy.
• It is a good idea to avoid packaged and fast food, as they don’t help us stay healthy.
• We should drink enough water every day to maintain good health.
• We can only enjoy our lives if we care for our health and stay fit.

Children can only understand the importance of staying fit and healthy if they are introduced to health benefits and encouraged to adopt healthy habits at an early age. Here we will help your child write an essay on health and fitness in 100 words:

It is right to say that health is wealth. Good health is a must to enjoy the simplicity of life. One cannot take part in all the fun things to do in life if one is not healthy. Mental health also plays a significant role in determining our state of health. We need to exercise, eat healthy food, drink a lot of water daily, meditate, and allow positive thoughts to take care of both physical and mental health. Balancing mental and physical health is essential to leading a healthy life. We should avoid factors that stress us and always eat fresh fruits and vegetables and drink lots of water to stay hydrated. Apart from these factors, taking proper rest and having 7-8 hours of sleep every night is necessary for good health.

As children grow older, they gain the capacity to write longer paragraphs in an articulate and informed manner. Here, we will guide you to write an essay for classes 1, 2 and 3 on health and fitness.

Health is indeed an essential wealth to acquire. We can earn money, live a lavish lifestyle, own properties, and build houses, and yet cannot enjoy any of them if we are deprived of health. Staying healthy physically and mentally is a huge deal as the ideal balance between both will encourage us to work hard. To ensure physical fitness, we need to exercise daily and remain active. On top of that, we should strictly avoid junk food and eat fresh fruits and vegetables daily to maintain fitness. We must also drink the right amount of water, which is essential in order to maintain good health. All of these habits boost our immunity and make us physically fit. 7-8 hours of sleep every night is beneficial for health. Taking good care of our bodies and minds will help us build a pleasant future.

This long essay for class 3 on the importance of health and fitness will give your kids a broad perspective on this topic. They will be able to craft a detailed essay on the topic of health and fitness.

Why Are Health And Fitness So Important?

“Health is wealth” is a famous proverb that should be regarded as life’s mantra. There cannot be anything more precious than health. You cannot enjoy your money, property, or job without proper health. Good health helps in motivating us to work hard and achieve our goals.

Factors That Affect Our Health And Fitness

Staying healthy refers to being both mentally and physically fit. Having oily, unhealthy junk food and drinking inadequate water can seriously affect our health. Moreover, we might face serious health issues if we do not participate in physical activity such as exercise and yoga. Furthermore, we can lose out on immunity without proper intake of fresh fruits and vegetables and due to uncontrolled indulgence in fast foods. An improper sleep cycle can also cause havoc on our health, and sleeping less than 8 hours can affect our mental and physical well-being. Positive thinking is another crucial factor in keeping yourself mentally healthy. The mind is our source of motivation, and drives us to be physically fit too. Surrounding ourselves with negativity will hamper our whole outlook on life and steer us in the wrong direction. So, give your mind the food of positive and happy thoughts to be the master of your game.

How Can You Stay Healthy And Fit?

Consider the following tips in order to stay healthy:

• Balanced Diet – One must take various constituents of food in a proportionate quantity containing an appropriate ratio of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats ideal for the individual.
• Active Lifestyle – School children should walk more instead of being driven to a destination within walking distance. Use stairs more often instead of elevators. Indulge in outdoor games than watching TV or scrolling through social media, and lead an active lifestyle.
• Yoga And Exercises – Stress and tension can lead to gaining weight. Therefore calorie-burning exercises, yoga, running, etc., can be beneficial to stay fit.
• Meditation – Meditation helps to calm your mind down and focus on yourself. This mental exercise can help drive away stress and anxiety, keep your mind fresh, and positively impact your well-being.
• Avoid Fatty Foods – Fats tend to accumulate in the body and impact the inner functionality of our system. Therefore, consuming the right amount of fatty food is necessary to control obesity and have a healthy lifestyle.

This composition will help your child realise the value of staying fit and healthy. They will understand the practices to be followed even after growing up.

Without health, nothing can be accomplished, and no accomplishment can be enjoyed. So, make sure to eat healthy food, and feel healthy for a wonderful life.

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Physical Activity and Physical Fitness among University Students—A Systematic Review

Vidran kljajević.

1 Secondary Vocational School, Bijelo Polje 84000, Montenegro; [email protected]

Mima Stanković

2 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš, 18000 Nis, Serbia; moc.liamg@5991civejdrojdnasud (D.Đ.); moc.liamg@57civonavojedar (R.J.)

Dušan Đorđević

Drena trkulja-petković.

3 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, 10110 Zagreb, Croatia; [email protected] (D.T.-P.); [email protected] (K.P.); moc.liamg@0cilosrooiram (M.O.); [email protected] (G.S.)

Rade Jovanović

Kristian plazibat, mario oršolić, mijo Čurić.

4 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; [email protected]

Goran Sporiš

Associated data.

Not applicable.

The aim of this systematic review was to examine the scientific evidence regarding physical activity and physical fitness among university students. The search and analysis of the studies were done in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. An electronic databases search (Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and Scopus) yielded 11,839 studies. Subsequently, the identified studies had to be published in English between 2011 and 2021, the experimental study had to have included males and females attending a faculty, and the participants had to have been evaluated for physical activity and fitness. A total of 21 studies were included in the quantitative synthesis, with a total of 7306 participants, both male and female. After analyzing the obtained results, it could be concluded that university students show a satisfactory level of physical activity and physical fitness. However, the results vary due to different factors involved, mostly related to the cultural differences and educational systems in different countries. As this study observes mediocre results of physical activity and physical fitness among university students, it is crucial to get their attention and awareness, to at least maintain a satisfactory level of physical activity and physical fitness.

1. Introduction

Diet and physical activity directly affect the health status of adults and children [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Due to the fact that the largest part of the world’s population is physically inactive, physical inactivity is considered to be a public health problem, as opposed to an individual problem. According to the report of the World Health Organization, physical inactivity is a risk factor, along with smoking, obesity, and hypertension [ 7 ]. Stress, obesity, and movement disorders such as hypokinesia are the most common causes of premature death, along with chronic non-communicable diseases from which neither children nor young people are immune [ 8 ]. Economically stable countries (about 60–70% of them) do not achieve even the minimum level of physical activity recommended by the World Health Organization in order to maintain health and energy balance [ 9 , 10 ].

Based on the abovementioned facts, the negative consequences of physical activity decline are also reflected in the student population, where the reduction of physical activity could also lead to decreased physical fitness. Health-related physical fitness is also influenced by many other factors, such as body weight and socioeconomic status. For example, the physical activity level of individuals of low socioeconomic status likely suffers due to their living areas providing less access to parks [ 11 ] and neighborhood walkability [ 12 ]. Additionally, their health is also negatively affected by the cost of healthy food compared to that of junk food [ 13 ]. Bodyweight disorder is very common in students and it can be often traced back to being overweight in childhood and adolescence [ 14 ]. Nevertheless, one of the most common negative external factors that influenced the exercise of physical activity in the students’ population is the lack of free time due to the schedule at the faculty, obligations in social and family life.

According to Caia et al. [ 15 ], low strength was peculiar to 61% of students and 28% had below-average strength. Kubieva et al. [ 16 ] concluded that students have problems with body mass index and strength, regardless of their physical activity level. Likewise, low cardiorespiratory fitness is also an important predictor and could be prevented only with lifestyle modifications [ 17 ], such as increasing physical activity and promoting dietary changes [ 18 ]. Kwan et al. [ 19 ] have already noticed the evident decline of physical activity when enrolling a university and according to several authors [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], already one-third of high school students are insufficiently active after transitioning to university life. This was confirmed by the study that investigated physical activity patterns among American, Asians, Africans and Hispanic university students. The authors have found that 46.7% of them didn’t engage in physical activity and 16.7% were physically inactive [ 23 ]. Several studies have also noted a weak physically active lifestyle and it is on the rise among university students [ 24 , 25 , 26 ].

Based on the above-mentioned facts, and due to the fact that many students feel pressure during the engagement in academic activities, with no time for physical activities, it was necessary to determine the current state of physical activity and physical fitness among university students. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to examine the scientific evidence regarding the level of physical activity and physical fitness among university students.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. literature identification.

Studies were searched and analyzed in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [ 27 ]. In addition, this study is approved by the Ethical Board of Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Niš. The research included studies conducted from 2011 to 2021 and the literature relevant for this type of research, available with the following databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and Scopus.

The following keywords were used to search for the articles reporting on physical activity and physical fitness among university students: (“exercise” OR “physical activity” OR “accelerometer” OR “physical fitness” OR “strength” OR “endurance”) AND (“students” OR “adults” OR “students population” OR “university students” OR “college students”).

A descriptive method was used to analyze the data obtained, and all titles and abstracts were reviewed for possible study inclusion. At the same time, the identification strategy was modified and adapted to the particular database to increase the sensitivity. After a detailed identification process, studies were considered to be relevant if they met the inclusion criteria.

The search for studies, assessment of their value and data extraction were conducted independently by two authors (M.S. and D.Đ.), and the lists of references from previously assessed and original research were also reviewed. After that, each author cross-examined the identified studies, which were then taken for further analysis or rejected.

2.2. Inclusion Criteria

For the study to be included in the final analysis, it had to meet the following criteria: year of publication (2011 to 2021), the studies published in English, the experimental study included males and females attending faculty and that the participants were tested for the evaluation of physical activity and physical fitness.

2.3. Risk of Bias Assessment

The risk of bias was assessed according to the PRISMA guidelines, that is, using the PEDro scale [ 28 ] to determine the quality of reviewed studies and the potential risk of bias. Two independent authors (D.Ð. and M.S.) assessed the quality and risk of bias using checklists. Concordance between reviewers was estimated using k-statistics data to review the full text and assess relativity and risk of bias. In case of discordance as to findings of the risk of bias assessment, the obtained data was assessed by the third reviewer (K.P.), who also gave the final decision. The k rate of concordance between reviewers’ findings was k = 0.91.

2.4. Data Extraction

When the cross-examination was conducted, if the data were adequate, the necessary information was extracted and then moved to an Excel spreadsheet. The standardized data extraction protocol was applied (Cochrane Consumer and Communication Review Group’s) to extract the characteristics, such as authors and year of study, sample size, age, types of experimental program, duration, frequency, and study results.

3.1. Quality of the Studies

Of the total number of studies that were included in the quantitative synthesis, and based on the points each study scored on the PEDro scale, the final study assessment scores were defined. According to Maher et al. [ 29 ], a score between 8–11 is considered to be optimal, but if the study gains between 0–3 points, that study will be classified with “poor” quality, 4–5 points with “fair” quality, 6–8 points with “good” quality, and 9–10 points with “excellent” quality. Of all studies included in this systematic review, 2 studies showed fair quality, 17 of them showed good quality, and the other 2 studies showed excellent quality, which is shown in Table 1 .

PEDro scale results.

Legend: 1—eligibility criteria; 2—random allocation; 3—concealed allocation; 4—baseline comparability; 5—blind subject; 6—blind clinician; 7—blind assessor; 8—adequate follow-up; 9—intention-to-treat analysis; 10—between-group analysis; 11 —point estimates and variability; Y—criterion is satisfied; N—criterion is not satisfied; ∑—total awarded points.

3.2. Selection and Characteristics of Studies

A search of electronic databases and scanning the reference lists yielded 11,839 studies. After removing duplicates, a total of 3938 studies were screened. Additional 3892 studies were excluded based on inclusion criteria and a total of 46 studies were screened and selected for eligibility. After increased sensitivity and in-deeper check, 25 studies with nonrelevant outcomes, editorials, and executive summaries were additionally excluded. Lastly, a total of 21 full-text studies were included in the systematic review ( Figure 1 ).

Collecting adequate studies on the basis of pre-defined criteria (PRISMA flow chart).

Table 2 and Table 3 show in more detail the studies that met the set conditions and entered the qualitative analysis.

Review of studies.

Legend: N—total number of participants; M—male, F—female; X—no data; EG—experimental group; CG—control group; PF—physical fitness tests; PA—physical activity; PEC—physical education classes; CMJ—countermovement jump; CRP—cardiorespiratory fitness; Els—explosive legs strength; Rls—repetitive legs strength; DB—dynamic balance; SB—static balance; mif—maximal isometric force; sq—squat; dhg—dynamometer hand grip; dynb—dynamometry back muscles; dynl—dynamometry legs; dl—deadlift; bdps—bench dips; KPA—Criminal Police Academy students; TsgUni—Tsinghua University students; PolNatUni—Poliand National University students; FilUni—Filipino University students; SPE—special physical education; ImT—isometric training; ItT—isotonic training; CRT—cardiorespiratory fitness; VO2max—maximal oxygen uptake; T—treadmill; CE—cycle ergometer; PH—physiotherapy students; FSPE—faculty of sport and physical education students; JapUni—Japanese University students; KorUni—Korean Unversity students; ChiUni—Chinese University students; RusUniH—Russian University students of humanities specialties; RusUniT—Russian University students of technical specialties; BuchUni—Bucharest University; IndUniP—Indian University Polytechnic College; ST—strength training; STIAT—strength training and intensive aerobic training; Flex—flexibility; Pu—push-ups; Plps—pull-ups; Su—sit-ups; LJ—long jump; Z—zipper test; Cu—curl up test; HJ—high jump; IFff—isometric force of the finger flexor; DA—dominant arm; RG—rhytmic gymnastics classes; AP—aqua-pilates; sq—squat; pnk—plank; Agr—academic grades; MAT—modified abdomen test; SR—shuttle run; SaR—sit and reach; Bst—back scratch test; Bd—Bamby dance; Ag—agility; BB—basketball; VC—vital capacity; LS—lifestyle; * significant improvement; ** significant difference between groups; ++ positive correlation.

Physical activity evaluation.

Legend: N—total number of participants; M—male; F—female; CT—circuit training; A—aerobic; PH—physiotherapy students; FSPE—faculty of sport and physical education students; FilUni—Filipino University students; RusUniH—Russian University students of humanities specialties; RusUniT—Russian University students of technical specialties; ChiUni—Chinese University students; KorUni—Korean University students; JapUni—Japanese University students; TsgUni—Tsinghua University students; LA—learning activity; TA—traffic activity; DA—domestic work; IPAQ—International Physical Activity Questionnaire; SAQ—Self-Assessment Questionnaire; CL-IPAQ—Chinese long format of IPAQ; PA—physical activity; GPA—average grade point; MVPA—moderate-vigorous intensity physical activity; CS-IPAQ—Chinese short format of IPAQ; Q—questionnaire, BSIQ—Body Self Image Questionnaire; FC—fitness center documents; SS—sport school documents; PiA—physical inactivity; FE—fast eating; CRF—cardiorespiratory fitness; Acc—accelerometer; METs—metabolic equivalent; EEPA—energy exposure originating from physical activity per day; Ds—daily steps; * significant improvement; ** significant difference between groups.

There were a total of 7675 participants. The highest number was 2324 [ 48 ], the lowest was 20 [ 43 ], while for only one study there were no data about the total number of participants [ 32 ]. The sample of participants was only female in five studies [ 34 , 38 , 40 , 41 , 43 ], while only one study had male participants only [ 47 ]. There were eight studies where the sample of participants was from the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education students [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 40 , 41 , 43 ], only one study had Criminal Police Academy students [ 36 ], while the rest of the studies had participants from different universities and faculties [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ].

For measuring physical fitness, it should be mentioned Criminal Police Academy students [ 36 ], who were using standard battery test, prescribed by plan and program “Special physical education”. Two studies had students from Poland National University [ 45 , 46 ], one had Tsingua University students from China [ 44 ], and all three mentioned were using their own standardized battery test. Aqua-Pilates program [ 40 ], Bamboo dance program [ 39 ], hiking activities [ 35 ], and fitness yoga [ 38 ] were also evaluated and there were also two studies that conducted VO2max evaluation on the treadmill [ 49 ] and cycle ergometer [ 50 ]. The rest of the studies were using standard and already known physical fitness tests. There were evaluations of physical fitness based on practicing basketball games [ 32 ] and rhythmic gymnastics, both conducted on faculty [ 37 ], and concurrent power training with high-intensity interval cycling [ 43 ].

Two types of relationships were conducted. The first was the relationship between physical fitness and academic performance among Chinese University students [ 48 ] and the second one [ 50 ] was a relationship between depression, daily physical activity, physical fitness, and daytime sleep time in Japanese University students. In addition, only one study [ 49 ] was determining predictors of metabolic syndrome (eating speed, physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness) in Korean University students.

Evaluation of physical activity was various. International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used in four studies [ 42 , 44 , 47 , 48 ] and among those mentioned, only Osipov et al. [ 47 ] were using fitness center and sport school documents as evaluation of the physical activity. The self-assessment questionnaire was conducted only by Kaminska et al. [ 31 ], Kang et al. [ 49 ] had a regular questionnaire, while Shimamoto et al. [ 50 ] was the only study that monitored and evaluated physical activity using the accelerometer. Additionally, the mentioned questionnaires are valid and reliable [ 51 , 52 , 53 ], while the details of the accelerometer measurement have already been described in previous studies [ 54 , 55 ].

4. Discussion

The current study aimed to examine the scientific evidence regarding physical activity and physical fitness among university students. The universities are an ideal environment for the promotion of physical fitness and physical activity. The main findings of the current review are that university students show moderate levels of physical fitness and physical activity. However, when considering the results, it should be done with caution due to cultural differences, different faculties included in the review as well as the difference in educational systems. Moreover, some studies included students from the faculty of sports who have physical activities within the curriculum that must be taken into account. This was confirmed by Kaminska et al. [ 31 ] who found that students of the faculty of sports have better physical fitness compared to physiotherapy students, which was explained by a higher degree of physical activity in classes.

Additionally, when it comes to analyzing the impact of physical activities, such as aqua-Pilates [ 40 ], it was concluded that the group that implemented the program made statistically significant progress in terms of muscle strength, flexibility and balance. Meredith-Jones et al. [ 56 ] have also found similar results, that water exercises can lead to beneficial effects on cardiorespiratory fitness, strength and body fat. The weight loss in water removes the body load and helps in increasing the range of motion according to normal conditions, as well as significant energy expenditure [ 57 ]. In addition, such results are a consequence of the application of exercises that develop the mentioned abilities, because as already mentioned, the application of physical activities can increase the already acquired level of fitness and physical abilities. Fitness is an activity that consists of exercises that require the engagement of the whole body and develop both coordination and strength, as well as flexibility and balance [ 38 ].

Jourkesh et al. [ 30 ] have found that females performed better in flexibility tests than males, which is in full accordance with Ortega et al. [ 58 ]. Hiking activities conducted by Citozi et al. [ 35 ] found gender differences in balance tests, which is lined with other findings [ 59 , 60 ]. In accordance to previously mentioned studies, Zou et al. [ 39 ] have examined the influence of Bamboo dance and at the end of the program, the experimental group showed significant progress in balance (3.6%), agility (0.18%), strength (0.33%) and explosive power (0.42%). As the authors have considered low physical activity in university students, Bamboo dance interventions are needed. According to all mentioned facts, the main focus should be placed on reducing barriers that students experience that may impact their physical activity [ 61 ].

Wang [ 44 ] results showed that students with a higher degree of physical activity have 2.39 times better results in the strength test and 1.39 times in the long jump test. Osipov et al. [ 47 ] also used a standardized questionnaire to assess physical activity to divide participants into groups, and proved that participants with a higher degree of physical activity had better physical fitness compared to those with a lower degree. The results were even compared with the obtained results of some other countries, where Russian students show significantly better results compared to students from African countries [ 62 , 63 ], Turkey [ 64 ], Iran [ 65 ] and Ukraine [ 66 ], as well as several more European countries [ 67 , 68 ]. Two similar studies conducted by Griban et al. [ 45 , 46 ] gave two new answers. The first indicates the problem of increasing the level of fitness in higher institutions and the second is consisted of analyzing the dynamics of fitness on the same sample. Likewise, Adriana et al. [ 32 ] found that younger students have poorer results in physical fitness compared to older ones, in exact same variables. Suri et al. [ 41 ] are suggesting that there is a strong need for more active physical education programs that are appropriate for developing fitness and improving the health status of college-going students. Although the current state of physical fitness of these students was at a very unsatisfactory level, the authors emphasize that the system primarily does not provide the required level of physical fitness and work ability, which is why there is a great need to identify an adequate and efficient program that will improve the traditional physical education system. Kang et al. [ 49 ] found physical inactivity and poor cardiorespiratory function to metabolic equivalent of task risk. Students who are busy with their studies, part-time jobs and extracurricular sport clubs–physical activities that are normally considered to be beneficial [ 69 , 70 ] may cause excessive negative side effects [ 50 ]. In accordance with the current findings, similar results have been found in Western [ 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ] and Asian countries [ 75 , 76 , 77 ].

Unlike all other studies in which the authors wanted to show that applying physical activity has a positive impact on the physical fitness of students, Mitrović et al. [ 36 ] decided to examine the impact of the absence of special physical education on physical fitness in an 8-month period. They came to the conclusion that the absence of this type of physical activity in students causes a significant decline in physical fitness, which may be an indication that already acquired physical fitness may decline if physical activity is not practiced. If there is more physical activity, the more physically fit individuals at the adequate level are there [ 78 ]. According to Rossomanno et al. [ 79 ], if we want to secure that these students could perform their duties, it is necessary to apply the monitored program for the development of physical fitness and physical activity during the whole year.

The main limitation of this study lies in cultural differences, where we included a wide range of universities, as well as differences in educational systems. As studies about physical activity interventions have rarely been enforced in some parts of included studies, further research should promote regular exercise in the university students. Despite the mentioned limitations, this study should be an important contribution to physical activity, as well as physical fitness research, and be beneficial to elucidating the primary negative factors.

5. Conclusions

Based on the obtained results, university students show a satisfactory level of physical activity and physical fitness. However, the results vary due to the different factors involved, which are mostly related to cultural differences and educational systems in different countries. The results for the students of the faculty of sport showed that physical activity has a positive effect on the development and maintenance of physical fitness and activity. As far as students from different faculties, this study suggests that further investigations should be conducted to promote daily exercise, as it may be beneficial for physical fitness and activity related to students health.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.K. and G.S.; methodology, V.K. and G.S.; software, M.O.; validation, K.P. and D.T.-P.; formal analysis, M.O. and R.J.; investigation, D.Đ.; resources, M.S. and D.Đ.; data curation, M.Č.; writing—original draft preparation, D.Đ.; writing—review and editing, D.T.-P. and K.P.; visualization, M.Č.; supervision, D.T.-P., R.J. and K.P.; project administration, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Whether you’re concerned about your weight or you just want to be healthy, keep your body moving. Exercise is a great way to get your blood flowing, reduce stress, stay or become fit, strengthen your muscles, reduce your risk for some diseases and cancers, and maybe even increase your lifespan. It can clear the mind and help you retain information , which is great when finals are looming.

Disclaimer: Any information found within our website is for general educational and informational purposes only. Such information is not intended nor otherwise implied to be medical or legal advice by Student Caffé Corporation. Such information is by no means complete or exhaustive, and as a result, such information does not encompass all conditions, disorders, health-related issues, respective treatments, or recovery plans. You should always consult your physician, other health care provider, or lawyer to determine the appropriateness of this information for your own situation or should you have any questions regarding a medical condition, treatment or recovery plan, or legal situation. Click to read the full disclaimer.

How much exercise do I need?

The CDC and the Department of Health and Human Services'  2018 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans maintain two general exercise recommendations for adults between 18 and 64 years old.

• Between 150 and 300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity every week (e.g., brisk walking, water aerobics, swimming, bike riding on level ground), or
• Between 75 and 150 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic activity every week (e.g., running, bike riding on hills, basketball), or
• A combination of moderate-intensity and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity. One minute of vigorous activity is said to have equivalent health benefits to two minutes of moderate activity.
• Muscle-strengthening:  This type of exercise has benefits that are quite different from cardio: strengthening your bones, managing chronic pain, and improving your balance. The CDC and Department of Health and Human Services suggest working all major muscle groups at least twice a week (e.g., weight training for resistance and strength, endurance exercises, push ups, sit ups, yoga). If you have access to a gym, this is easy. Machines are built specifically to work certain muscles. If you don’t want to use machines though, you can use free weights or your body weight to work out different muscle groups.

If you have a physical disability, exercise can be a great way to stay healthy, but talk to your doctor before following the CDC workout recommendations. He or she can help you develop a workout routine specific to your body and abilities.

You don’t have to do all of your weekly exercise in one day; in fact, it’s recommended that you aim to exercise three days a week. Even this, you can spread out in intervals if you want. As long as you’re getting your 25 to 50 minutes, it doesn’t matter if you do 10 minutes after every meal or 50 minutes in one go. You also don’t have to limit yourself to the minimum recommended time. If you want to do more than 300 minutes of moderate activity or 150 minutes of vigorous activity each week, you’ll enjoy even more health benefits. Just make sure that you’re letting your body rest when it needs rest and maintaining the proper form when you exercise to avoid injuries.

Most importantly, reduce the amount of time that you spend sitting or laying down each day. Inactivity is linked to cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and increased mortality. Even if you can’t exercise every other day, standing up for stretch breaks and increasing the amount of time you spend moving can have health benefits. While you can’t just stand up and wander around in the middle of a lecture, you can take regular breaks while you’re studying or doing homework to allow yourself time to move.

How can I make sure I get enough exercise on campus?

• Walk to class. Don’t dawdle; scurry to your next class. Ten minutes is enough to get the blood flowing before you have to sit in a 90-minute lecture.
• Take a stretch break. If your professor stops the lesson to give everyone a break, don’t stay seated. Get up, drink from the water fountain, stretch your muscles.
• Take the stairs. Live on the fourth floor? That elevator sure is tempting, but climb the stairs instead. It will only take you a couple of extra minutes, and you’ll get your heart rate up and burn more calories than you would if you took the lift.
• Ride your bike. Not only is bike riding the fastest way to maneuver through those windy college paths, but you’ll be burning calories too. If you don’t have a bike, consider getting one from your local classifieds or Craigslist. Your bike doesn’t have to be fancy, especially if you plan to use it on a relatively flat campus. Register your bike with campus security in case of theft. Some colleges offer “bike share” programs. You may have to pay a small fee, but you'll be able to access shared bikes whenever you want.
• Park intentionally far away. If you need to drive to campus because of where you live, or if you just use a car to do errands around town, park farther away than you normally would so that you have to walk just a bit longer to get to and from your car.
• Play collegiate sports. You don’t have to be a Division I athlete to play ball in college. Intramural and club teams are open to any students who want to play.
• Study at the gym. Bring your book with you and read in between sets or while plugging away on the elliptical machine.
• Play an impromptu sports game with friends. Shoot hoops or throw a Frisbee. It’s a study break and a workout built into one. Plus, you might as well take advantage of all of that green space on campus.
• Take field trips off campus. Go hiking, swimming, ice skating, or dancing. Your college town and its surrounding area have parks, pools, skating rinks, and clubs to help you stay active while having fun.
• Follow YouTube workout videos. Save this one for a rainy day. You don’t even have to leave your room. Invest in a yoga mat to give yourself some support when you’re finishing a set of crunches. It rolls up to fit easily into even the tiniest dorm room.
• Take a gym class for credit. Need motivation to exercise? Work out for class credit. Many colleges offer gym classes for pass/fail credit. That’s to say that you don’t have to hit an ace in every match to ace your tennis class. Come to class with an open mind to learn more about the sport. You’ll leave with a new skill and your daily workout completed.
• Use your gym membership. While everyone else is shelling out $40.00 a month to join a fitness center, college students already took care of their fees by paying tuition. Take advantage of your college gym while it’s available to you. Once you graduate, you’ll have to start paying to use the treadmill.
• Get a wearable exercise tracker. Buying a Fitbit or an Apple Watch isn’t going to make you work out, but an exercise tracker can be motivating. Set an attainable step goal (most trackers default to 10,000) and challenge yourself to hit it each day.
• Schedule your workouts like they’re classes. If you have a daily planner, integrate your workouts into your schedule a few days each week. Once they are written down and the time is already budgeted, it’s easier to make yourself hit the gym.
• Enlist a friend. If you’re struggling to exercise on your own, ask a friend if they’ll be your workout buddy. You don’t have to use the same machines or do partner workouts at the gym, but having someone else hold you accountable, even if it’s just to walk to the gym together, will make it harder to back out of a workout.

Page last updated: 03/2019

Related topics:

The different levels of collegiate competition, physical health concerns for collegiate athletes, preparing for illness and medical emergencies, maintaining your physical health, sleeping longer and better in college, eating well on and off campus.

Importance of fitness in a student’s life

Being physically fit doesn’t require you have a strict schedule, but just have enough discipline to repeat it at least four times a week. These are a few benefits of exercising and being active:

• Weight loss: as students our weight tends to fluctuate according to the stress of university and exams. Going to the gym and exercising is a beneficial habit to keep up your metabolism other than just sitting at your desk and studying for hours.
• Prevents chronic disease: we all have those days where we turn to comfort food while preparing for a stressful final. It is okay to eat all of this food till the time you are trying to get a few steps in or go for a jog to balance out all the carbs and sugar you have eaten. Being physically fit helps lower blood sugar levels and keeps a check on your health.
• Ensures strong bone, muscle, and joint development: adolescents is the ideal time to invest in yourself and your health. This will only make you stronger, and increase your stamina, and will never make you feel old.
• Increases energy and confidence: laziness is the key to an unfit body. Being fit makes you active, allows you to tackle more tasks in a day, boosts your energy levels and confidence in yourself. Not only that but completing a certain workout challenge gives you the feeling of satisfaction and also trains your mind to have stronger willpower.

Having an enthusiastic and active lifestyle overhauls your personality. It lets you perform physical activities without being tired or restless. It also ensures that you are mentally fit and stress-free . So here is your cue to embark on your fitness journey while starting a new semester at university .

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Physical Exercise and Mental Health, Essay Example

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Introduction

The value of physical exercise to the body cannot be overemphasized. Even though there are many perspectives pertaining to its appropriateness, physical exercise has numerous benefits, which cannot be outweighed by any other mechanism applied to the human body. This research embodies  ananalysis of the usefulness of physical exercise in maintaining mental health. First a reflection of characteristics that constitute physical exercise would be undertaken and second, perspectives of mental health will be outlined in relation to the topic. Finally,ananalysis relating the benefits of physical exercise  to mental will be explored.

Physical exercise

Physical exercise is a concept used to describe any activity the body is allowed to access that helps in maintaining or enhancing a person’s health and well-being.  This includes strategies that provide vitality to organs in the body such the heart, lungs, muscular/ skeletal systems, kidneys, brain. Benefits are immense because this engagement allows athletesto master their skills through maintaining body weight, expiration and inspiration activities along with activating glands to produce perspiration. Perspiring is a significant excretory mechanism, which is often inadequately addressed in modern sciences due to attempts of inhibiting the odor (Hardman &Stensel, 2009).                .

The use of antiperspirants causes glands to limit perspiration production and sabotages the excretory process. Subsequently, many physical disturbances occur due to toxin built up Analysts have also confirmed that engaging in regular physical exercise greatly reduces incidences of heart disease, stroke, postpones aging, heart attacks, stimulating the immune system to function efficiently and reducing incidences of type 2 diabetes (Hardman &Stensel, 2009).

Mental health

Mental health relates to the extent psychological well-being is sustained. Essentially, from a non-scientific perspective mental health is the absencepersonality  disordersand brain dysfunction. When viewedfrom a holistic paradigm mental health includes a person’s ability to enjoy and appreciate the values of life. According to psychologists who investigate the human personality mental health could embrace attainment of lower level needs and reaching the highest self-actualization stage. Therefore, in reality mental health could also encompass one’s ability to appropriately cope with adversity and still remain balanced psychologically((Demyttenaere, Bruffaerts& Posada-Villa, 2004).

Further, World health Organization advances that a subjective wellbeing exists whereby a person’s equilibrium is related to the extent of autonomy is articulated; competence  expressed; intergenerational independence is executed and intellectual self-actualization is achieved. According to WHO, it also encompasses the person’s integration potential. This means a cohesiveability appropriatelyaligning one’s self to people, social and physical environments as well as staying connected. Ultimately, it must be clarified that there are diverse theories infirming mental health characteristics (Demyttenaere et.al, 2004).

The American psychological association has definite guidelines for interpreting and diagnosing mental disorders. However, scientists have admitted that it is difficult determining the extent to which mental health classifications are applicable across cultures and social environments. The primary concern of this discussion is analyzing the extent physical exercise promotes mental health or features of personality development consistent with adequate health mental. My theory relates to the perspective that it does promote mental health(Demyttenaere et.al, 2004).

If physical exercise is expected to enhance bodily functions; prevent disease and promote mental and social well-being, then, its role in mental health must be significant. Analysts have confirmed that it has immense impacts on depression; promotes self-esteem; augments a person’s body appeal, which stimulates physical attraction. Health care providers prescribe physical exercise in many of their health promotion strategies. It is often recognized as the miracle/wonder drug for a number of emotional issues. Therefore, if mental health relates to a person’s self-esteem, emotional equilibrium, physical exercise is then a major source of mental health maintenance.

For example, factors responsible for depression include low self-esteem, obesity, anxiety and stress. Research shows where endorphins are produced when people engage in physical activities. Further, studies reveal that this secretion initiates a response known as the runner high, linked to a euphoria created when physical activity is produced. Endorphin is an effective natural pain reliever and serves as an antidepressant when people experience various degree of the condition (Hardman Stensel, 2009).

Theories relating the release of other substances indicate thatanandamide is also a runner high initiator. Supporting researchconfirmedthatserotonin along with endorphin andanandamide levels are elevated in the blood stream. They remain that way days after physical exercise was experienced. Importantly, these endocrine secretions are responsible for mood stabilization weight management, which often affects mental health and ultimately improves self-esteem(Power, 2010).

It has been proven also that physical exercise alone combined with proper nutrition can maintain excellent mental health. There are more studies confirming successful application of physical exercise in depression prevention therapies. Analysts advanced that physical exercise is most effective on mental health when conducted as a group in gym settings or group walking therapies (Power, 2010).

The foregoing research highlighted perspectives relating the impact of physical exercise on mental health reflecting on differing viewpoints. Viewpoints on this subject differ based on classifications of mental health and physical exercise, which were clarified before an analysis was offered. Ultimately, in my point of view once a line of demarcation is drawn between mental health and mental disorder there is no need to differ regardingwhether physical exercise contributes to mental health. Physical exercise is necessary for the perpetuation of life itself.

Demyttenaere, K.Bruffaerts, R., & Posada-Villa, J. (2004). WHO World Mental Health Survey Consortium. Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey. Journal of the American Medical Association . 291 (21); 2581–2590

Hardman, A., &Stensel, D. (2009). Physical Activity and Health: The Evidence Explained. London: Routledge

Power, A. (2010). Transforming the Nation’s Health: Next Steps in Mental Health Promotion. American Journal of Public Health 100 (12); 2343–6.

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