does a thesis have to have a counter argument

How to Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

Have you been asked to include a counter argument in an essay you are writing? Unless you are already an experienced essay writer, you may have no idea where to even start. We're here to help you tackle your counter argument like a pro.

What Is a Counter Argument?

A counter argument is precisely what it sounds like — an argument that offers reasons to disagree with an essay's thesis statement. As you are writing your essay, you will likely pen multiple supporting arguments that outline precisely why readers should logically agree with the thesis. In a counter argument paragraph, you show that you also understand common reasons to believe differently.

In any given essay, you may write one or more counter arguments — and then, frequently, immediately refute them. Whether you are required to include a counter argument or you simply want to, always include:

A simple statement explaining the counter argument. As it will likely follow paragraphs in which you fleshed out your argument, this can start with words like "Some people are concerned that", or "critics say", or "On the other hand".
Then include further reasoning, data, or statistics.
Following this, you will want to discredit the counter argument immediately.

Why Include a Counter Argument?

Including a counter argument (or multiple, for that matter) in an essay may be required, but even in cases where it is not, mentioning at least one counter argument can make your essay much stronger. You may, at first glance, believe that you are undermining yourself and contradicting your thesis statement. That's not true at all. By including a counter argument in your essay, you show that:

You have done your research and are intimately familiar with each aspect of your thesis, including opposition to it.
You have arrived at your conclusion through the power of reason, and without undue bias.
You do not only blindly support your thesis, but can also deal with opposition to it.

In doing so, your essay will become much more reasoned and logical, and in practical terms, this likely means that you can count on a higher grade.

How To Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

You have been laboring over your essay for a while, carefully researching each aspect of your thesis and making strong arguments that aim to persuade the reader that your view is the correct one — or at least that you are a solid writer who understands the subject matter and deserves a good grade for your efforts.

If you are passionate about the topic in question, it can be hard to decide how to incorporate a counter argument. Here's how to do it, step-by-step:

1. Brainstorm

You have already researched your topic, so you know on what grounds people most frequently oppose your argument. Write them down. Pick one, or a few, that you consider to be important and interesting. Formulate the counter argument as if you were on the opposing side.

2. Making the Transition

Your counter argument paragraph or paragraphs differ from the rest of your essay, so you will want to introduce a counter argument with a transition. Common ways to do this are to introduce your counter argument with phrases like:

Admittedly, conversely, however, nevertheless, or although.
Opponents would argue that...
Common concerns with this position are...
Critics say that...

3. Offering Evidence

Flesh the counter argument out by offering evidence — of the fact that people hold that position (where possible, quote a well-known opponent), as well as reasons why. Word your counter argument in such a way that makes it clear that you have carefully considered the position, and are not simply belittling it. This portion of your counter argument will require doing additional research in most cases.

4. Refute the Counter Argument

You are still arguing in favor of your main thesis. You will, therefore, not just want to describe the opposing side and leave it at that — you will also thoughtfully want to show why the opposing argument is not valid, in your opinion, and you will want to include evidence here, as well.

5. Restate Your Argument

After refuting your counter argument, you can go ahead and restate your argument. Why should people believe what you have to say, despite any opposition?

How To Write A Good Counter Argument

As you're writing a counter argument, you might run into some difficulties if you fervently believe in the truth of your argument. Indeed, in some cases, your argument may appear to you to be so obvious that you don't understand why anyone could think differently.

To help you write a good counter argument, keep in mind that:

You should never caricature the opposing viewpoint. Show that you deeply understand it, instead.
To do this, it helps if you validate legitimate concerns you find in an opponent's point of view.
This may require quite a bit of research, including getting into the opposing side's mindset.
Refute your counter argument with compassion, and not smugly.

Examples of Counter Arguments with Refutation

Still not sure? No worries; we have you covered. Take a look at these examples:

Many people have argued that a vaccine mandate would strip people of their individual liberties by forcing them to inject foreign substances into their bodies. While this is, in a sense, true, the option of remaining unvaccinated likewise forces other people to be exposed to this virus; thereby potentially stripping them of the most important liberty of all — the liberty to stay alive.
The concern has been raised that the death penalty could irreversibly strip innocent people of their lives. The answer to this problem lies in raising the bar for death penalty sentences by limiting them to only those cases in which no question whatsoever exists that the convicted party was truly guilty. Modern forensic science has made this infinitely easier.

In short, you'll want to acknowledge that other arguments exist, and then refute them. The tone in which you do so depends on your goal.

What is a counter argument in a thesis?

A counter argument is one that supports the opposing side. In an essay, it shows that you understand other viewpoints, have considered them, and ultimately dismissed them.

Where do I place the counter argument in an essay?

Place the counter argument after your main supporting arguments.

How long should the counter argument be?

It may be a single paragraph or multiple, depending on how important you believe the counter argument to be and the length of the essay.

What is the difference between a counter argument and a rebuttal?

A counter argument describes the opposing side in some detail before it is refuted. In a rebuttal, you may simply oppose the opposition.

How to Write an Effective Claim (with Examples)
How To Write A Movie Title In An Essay
How to Write a D&D Campaign (Step-by-Step)
Bean Counters - Meaning, Origin and Usage
I Beg to Differ - Meaning, Origin and Usage
Bone of Contention - Meaning, Usage and Origin

All About Counterarguments

So, you’ve been assigned a paper about counterarguments....

Or, maybe a paper that just requires you to think about the opposition to your argument. Never fear! Counter-arguments can help you to better understand your own argument. This type of assignment allows you the opportunity to think about the issue or problem as a whole rather than just your piece of the whole.

What is a counterargument?

A counterargument is an argument that goes against your thesis and that expresses the perspective of someone with an opposite point of view from your own. While it may seem that acknowledging your opponent’s argument would undermine your own argument, if done well, a counterargument actually fortifies your point. With a counterargument, you have an opportunity to acknowledge and respond to any objections from the opposition, giving you the advantage since the response comes from you. Usage of a counterargument also demonstrates that you’re a rational and fair arguer who is well-versed in your issue since you acknowledge both sides of the argument.

How to start:

First, start as early as possible. Part of utilizing a counterargument is in knowing your argument well, and knowing any subject well takes time.

To find your subject, think about what you’re interested in, but also something that you’re not necessarily emotionally, politically, or personally tied to. That way, you can consider both points in a fair and unbiased way, allowing for equal arguments for both sides of the issue, even though eventually you’ll only take one side of the issue. Start by looking up information about your topic.

Use online databases, looking up both sides of the issue. Remember to that the library has access to hundreds of online databases housing scholarly articles that you can access for free! The university pays for the resources, so be sure to take advantage of them.

Be open to what you find! Even if you initially take one side of the issue, you might find that your stance has changed. This is not necessarily a bad thing! Consider which side feels more compelling based on the research that you find.

How to present your counterargument:

It may be tempting to just write a sentence or two explaining your opponent’s argument and then spend paragraphs refuting that argument, but a good counter-argument is fair in the assessment of the opponent’s position.

Here are some tips:

Provide a few fair reasons why someone could possibly have the perspective of your opposition.

Communicate the counter-point objectively without bias. Look for any words that communicate feelings specific (especially negative) emotions or feelings concerning the argument. Those probably aren’t fair or unbiased. A reader can usually tell that you’re being unfair and might not want to continue reading.

Consider this: would the person who holds this opposite perspective be okay with your method of explaining their side of the issue? If not, then you’re probably not being fair.

How to actually write and implement a counter-argument:

Identify or explain opposing viewpoints. Use phrases like “on the other hand...” or “it is often perceived that...” or “critics may argue...” or “although...” or “some people may think” or (invoking the viewpoint of an expert/group) “according to...”

Summarize their stance in your own words.

Concede. Explain what aspects of your opponent’s argument have validity (but only if you really feel this way because if you don’t, the reader can tell).

Respond. Bring the reader back to your argument and its strengths. Refute your opponent’s argument by explaining how your point works better, is more logically sound, or makes more sense.

The Writing Center

4400 University Drive, 2G8 Fairfax, VA 22030

Johnson Center, Room 227E
+1-703-993-1200
[email protected]

Quick Links

Counterarguments

A counterargument involves acknowledging standpoints that go against your argument and then re-affirming your argument. This is typically done by stating the opposing side’s argument, and then ultimately presenting your argument as the most logical solution. The counterargument is a standard academic move that is used in argumentative essays because it shows the reader that you are capable of understanding and respecting multiple sides of an argument.

Counterargument in two steps

Respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument.

Refute the stance of opposing arguments, typically utilizing words like “although” or “however.”

In the refutation, you want to show the reader why your position is more correct than the opposing idea.

Where to put a counterargument

Can be placed within the introductory paragraph to create a contrast for the thesis statement.

May consist of a whole paragraph that acknowledges the opposing view and then refutes it.

Can be one sentence acknowledgements of other opinions followed by a refutation.

Why use a counterargument?

Some students worry that using a counterargument will take away from their overall argument, but a counterargument may make an essay more persuasive because it shows that the writer has considered multiple sides of the issue. Barnet and Bedau (2005) propose that critical thinking is enhanced through imagining both sides of an argument. Ultimately, an argument is strengthened through a counterargument.

Examples of the counterargument structure

Argument against smoking on campus: Admittedly, many students would like to smoke on campus. Some people may rightly argue that if smoking on campus is not illegal, then it should be permitted; however, second-hand smoke may cause harm to those who have health issues like asthma, possibly putting them at risk.
Argument against animal testing: Some people argue that using animals as test subjects for health products is justifiable. To be fair, animal testing has been used in the past to aid the development of several vaccines, such as small pox and rabies. However, animal testing for beauty products causes unneeded pain to animals. There are alternatives to animal testing. Instead of using animals, it is possible to use human volunteers. Additionally, Carl Westmoreland (2006) suggests that alternative methods to animal research are being developed; for example, researchers are able to use skin constructed from cells to test cosmetics. If alternatives to animal testing exist, then the practice causes unnecessary animal suffering and should not be used.

Harvey, G. (1999). Counterargument. Retrieved from writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/counter- argument

Westmoreland, C. (2006; 2007). “Alternative Tests and the 7th Amendment to the Cosmetics Directive.” Hester, R. E., & Harrison, R. M. (Ed.) Alternatives to animal testing (1st Ed.). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

Barnet, S., Bedau, H. (Eds.). (2006). Critical thinking, reading, and writing . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Contributor: Nathan Lachner

English Current

ESL Lesson Plans, Tests, & Ideas

North American Idioms
Business Idioms
Idioms Quiz
Idiom Requests
Proverbs Quiz & List
Phrasal Verbs Quiz
Basic Phrasal Verbs
North American Idioms App
A(n)/The: Help Understanding Articles
The First & Second Conditional
The Difference between 'So' & 'Too'
The Difference between 'a few/few/a little/little'
The Difference between "Other" & "Another"
Check Your Level
English Vocabulary
Verb Tenses (Intermediate)
Articles (A, An, The) Exercises
Prepositions Exercises
Irregular Verb Exercises
Gerunds & Infinitives Exercises
Discussion Questions
Speech Topics
Argumentative Essay Topics
Top-rated Lessons
Intermediate
Upper-Intermediate
Reading Lessons
View Topic List
Expressions for Everyday Situations
Travel Agency Activity
Present Progressive with Mr. Bean
Work-related Idioms
Adjectives to Describe Employees
Writing for Tone, Tact, and Diplomacy
Speaking Tactfully
Advice on Monetizing an ESL Website
Teaching your First Conversation Class
How to Teach English Conversation
Teaching Different Levels
Teaching Grammar in Conversation Class
Members' Home
Update Billing Info.
Cancel Subscription
North American Proverbs Quiz & List
North American Idioms Quiz
Idioms App (Android)
'Be used to'" / 'Use to' / 'Get used to'
Ergative Verbs and the Passive Voice
Keywords & Verb Tense Exercises
Irregular Verb List & Exercises
Non-Progressive (State) Verbs
Present Perfect vs. Past Simple
Present Simple vs. Present Progressive
Past Perfect vs. Past Simple
Subject Verb Agreement
The Passive Voice
Subject & Object Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns Where/When/Whose
Commas in Adjective Clauses
A/An and Word Sounds
'The' with Names of Places
Understanding English Articles
Article Exercises (All Levels)
Yes/No Questions
Wh-Questions
How far vs. How long
Affect vs. Effect
A few vs. few / a little vs. little
Boring vs. Bored
Compliment vs. Complement
Die vs. Dead vs. Death
Expect vs. Suspect
Experiences vs. Experience
Go home vs. Go to home
Had better vs. have to/must
Have to vs. Have got to
I.e. vs. E.g.
In accordance with vs. According to
Lay vs. Lie
Make vs. Do
In the meantime vs. Meanwhile
Need vs. Require
Notice vs. Note
'Other' vs 'Another'
Pain vs. Painful vs. In Pain
Raise vs. Rise
So vs. Such
So vs. So that
Some vs. Some of / Most vs. Most of
Sometimes vs. Sometime
Too vs. Either vs. Neither
Weary vs. Wary
Who vs. Whom
While vs. During
While vs. When
Wish vs. Hope
10 Common Writing Mistakes
34 Common English Mistakes
First & Second Conditionals
Comparative & Superlative Adjectives
Determiners: This/That/These/Those
Check Your English Level
Grammar Quiz (Advanced)
Vocabulary Test - Multiple Questions
Vocabulary Quiz - Choose the Word
Verb Tense Review (Intermediate)
Verb Tense Exercises (All Levels)
Conjunction Exercises
List of Topics
Business English
Games for the ESL Classroom
Pronunciation
Teaching Your First Conversation Class
How to Teach English Conversation Class

Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation

An argumentative essay presents an argument for or against a topic. For example, if your topic is working from home , then your essay would either argue in favor of working from home (this is the for side) or against working from home.

Like most essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction that ends with the writer's position (or stance) in the thesis statement .

Introduction Paragraph

(Background information....)

Thesis statement : Employers should give their workers the option to work from home in order to improve employee well-being and reduce office costs.

This thesis statement shows that the two points I plan to explain in my body paragraphs are 1) working from home improves well-being, and 2) it allows companies to reduce costs. Each topic will have its own paragraph. Here's an example of a very basic essay outline with these ideas:

Background information

Body Paragraph 1

Topic Sentence : Workers who work from home have improved well-being .
Evidence from academic sources

Body Paragraph 2

Topic Sentence : Furthermore, companies can reduce their expenses by allowing employees to work at home .
Summary of key points
Restatement of thesis statement

Does this look like a strong essay? Not really . There are no academic sources (research) used, and also...

You Need to Also Respond to the Counter-Arguments!

The above essay outline is very basic. The argument it presents can be made much stronger if you consider the counter-argument , and then try to respond (refute) its points.

The counter-argument presents the main points on the other side of the debate. Because we are arguing FOR working from home, this means the counter-argument is AGAINST working from home. The best way to find the counter-argument is by reading research on the topic to learn about the other side of the debate. The counter-argument for this topic might include these points:

Distractions at home > could make it hard to concentrate
Dishonest/lazy people > might work less because no one is watching

Next, we have to try to respond to the counter-argument in the refutation (or rebuttal/response) paragraph .

The Refutation/Response Paragraph

The purpose of this paragraph is to address the points of the counter-argument and to explain why they are false, somewhat false, or unimportant. So how can we respond to the above counter-argument? With research !

A study by Bloom (2013) followed workers at a call center in China who tried working from home for nine months. Its key results were as follows:

The performance of people who worked from home increased by 13%
These workers took fewer breaks and sick-days
They also worked more minutes per shift

In other words, this study shows that the counter-argument might be false. (Note: To have an even stronger essay, present data from more than one study.) Now we have a refutation.

Where Do We Put the Counter-Argument and Refutation?

Commonly, these sections can go at the beginning of the essay (after the introduction), or at the end of the essay (before the conclusion). Let's put it at the beginning. Now our essay looks like this:

Counter-argument Paragraph

Dishonest/lazy people might work less because no one is watching

Refutation/Response Paragraph

Study: Productivity increased by 14%
(+ other details)

Body Paragraph 3

Topic Sentence : In addition, people who work from home have improved well-being .

Body Paragraph 4

The outline is stronger now because it includes the counter-argument and refutation. Note that the essay still needs more details and research to become more convincing.

Working from home may increase productivity.

Extra Advice on Argumentative Essays

It's not a compare and contrast essay.

An argumentative essay focuses on one topic (e.g. cats) and argues for or against it. An argumentative essay should not have two topics (e.g. cats vs dogs). When you compare two ideas, you are writing a compare and contrast essay. An argumentative essay has one topic (cats). If you are FOR cats as pets, a simplistic outline for an argumentative essay could look something like this:

Thesis: Cats are the best pet.
are unloving
cause allergy issues
This is a benefit > Many working people do not have time for a needy pet
If you have an allergy, do not buy a cat.
But for most people (without allergies), cats are great
Supporting Details

Use Language in Counter-Argument That Shows Its Not Your Position

The counter-argument is not your position. To make this clear, use language such as this in your counter-argument:

Opponents might argue that cats are unloving.
People who dislike cats would argue that cats are unloving.
Critics of cats could argue that cats are unloving.
It could be argued that cats are unloving.

These underlined phrases make it clear that you are presenting someone else's argument , not your own.

Choose the Side with the Strongest Support

Do not choose your side based on your own personal opinion. Instead, do some research and learn the truth about the topic. After you have read the arguments for and against, choose the side with the strongest support as your position.

Do Not Include Too Many Counter-arguments

Include the main (two or three) points in the counter-argument. If you include too many points, refuting these points becomes quite difficult.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below.

- Matthew Barton / Creator of Englishcurrent.com

Additional Resources :

Writing a Counter-Argument & Refutation (Richland College)
Language for Counter-Argument and Refutation Paragraphs (Brown's Student Learning Tools)

EnglishCurrent is happily hosted on Dreamhost . If you found this page helpful, consider a donation to our hosting bill to show your support!

23 comments on “ Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation ”

Thank you professor. It is really helpful.

Can you also put the counter argument in the third paragraph

It depends on what your instructor wants. Generally, a good argumentative essay needs to have a counter-argument and refutation somewhere. Most teachers will probably let you put them anywhere (e.g. in the start, middle, or end) and be happy as long as they are present. But ask your teacher to be sure.

Thank you for the information Professor

how could I address a counter argument for “plastic bags and its consumption should be banned”?

For what reasons do they say they should be banned? You need to address the reasons themselves and show that these reasons are invalid/weak.

Thank you for this useful article. I understand very well.

Thank you for the useful article, this helps me a lot!

Thank you for this useful article which helps me in my study.

Thank you, professor Mylene 102-04

it was very useful for writing essay

Very useful reference body support to began writing a good essay. Thank you!

Really very helpful. Thanks Regards Mayank

Thank you, professor, it is very helpful to write an essay.

It is really helpful thank you

It was a very helpful set of learning materials. I will follow it and use it in my essay writing. Thank you, professor. Regards Isha

Thanks Professor

This was really helpful as it lays the difference between argumentative essay and compare and contrast essay.. Thanks for the clarification.

This is such a helpful guide in composing an argumentative essay. Thank you, professor.

This was really helpful proof, thankyou!

Thanks this was really helpful to me

This was very helpful for us to generate a good form of essay

thank you so much for this useful information.

Writing a Paper: Responding to Counterarguments

Basics of counterarguments.

When constructing an argument, it is important to consider any counterarguments a reader might make. Acknowledging the opposition shows that you are knowledgeable about the issue and are not simply ignoring other viewpoints. Addressing counterarguments also gives you an opportunity to clarify and strengthen your argument, helping to show how your argument is stronger than other arguments.

Incorporating counterarguments into your writing can seem counterintuitive at first, and some writers may be unsure how to do so. To help you incorporate counterarguments into your argument, we recommend following the steps: (a) identify, (b) investigate, (c) address, and (d) refine.

Identify the Counterarguments

First you need to identify counterarguments to your own argument. Ask yourself, based on your argument, what might someone who disagrees counter in response? You might also discover counterarguments while doing your research, as you find authors who may disagree with your argument.

For example, if you are researching the current opioid crisis in the United States, your argument might be: State governments should allocate part of the budget for addiction recovery centers in communities heavily impacted by the opioid crisis . A few counterarguments might be:

Recovery centers are not proven to significantly help people with addiction.
The state’s money should go to more pressing concerns such as...
Establishing and maintaining a recovery center is too costly.
Addicts are unworthy of assistance from the state.

Investigate the Counterarguments

Analyze the counterarguments so that you can determine whether they are valid. This may require assessing the counterarguments with the research you already have or by identifying logical fallacies . You may also need to do additional research.

In the above list, the first three counterarguments can be researched. The fourth is a moral argument and therefore can only be addressed in a discussion of moral values, which is usually outside the realm of social science research. To investigate the first, you could do a search for research that studies the effectiveness of recovery centers. For the second, you could look at the top social issues in states around the country. Is the opioid crisis the main concern or are there others? For the third, you could look for public financial data from a recovery center or interview someone who works at one to get a sense of the costs involved.

Address the Counterarguments

Address one or two counterarguments in a rebuttal. Now that you have researched the counterarguments, consider your response. In your essay, you will need to state and refute these opposing views to give more credence to your argument. No matter how you decide to incorporate the counterargument into your essay, be sure you do so with objectivity, maintaining a formal and scholarly tone .

Considerations when writing:

Will you discredit the counteragument by bringing in contradictory research?
Will you concede that the point is valid but that your argument still stands as the better view? (For example, perhaps it is very costly to run a recovery center, but the societal benefits offset that financial cost.)
Placement . You can choose to place the counterargument toward the beginning of the essay, as a way to anticipate opposition, or you can place it toward the end of the essay, after you have solidly made the main points of your argument. You can also weave a counterargument into a body paragraph, as a way to quickly acknowledge opposition to a main point. Which placement is best depends on your argument, how you’ve organized your argument, and what placement you think is most effective.
Weight . After you have addressed the counterarguments, scan your essay as a whole. Are you spending too much time on them in comparison to your main points? Keep in mind that if you linger too long on the counterarguments, your reader might learn less about your argument and more about opposing viewpoints instead.

Refine Your Argument

Considering counterarguments should help you refine your own argument, clarifying the relevant issues and your perspective. Furthermore, if you find yourself agreeing with the counterargument, you will need to revise your thesis statement and main points to reflect your new thinking.

Templates for Responding to Counterarguments

There are many ways you can incorporate counterarguments, but remember that you shouldn’t just mention the counterargument—you need to respond to it as well. You can use these templates (adapted from Graff & Birkenstein, 2009) as a starting point for responding to counterarguments in your own writing.

The claim that _____ rests upon the questionable assumption that _____.
X may have been true in the past, but recent research has shown that ________.
By focusing on _____, X has overlooked the more significant problem of _____.
Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept the overall conclusion that _____.
Though I concede that _____, I still insist that _____.
Whereas X has provided ample evidence that ____, Y and Z’s research on ____ and ____ convinces me that _____ instead.
Although I grant that _____, I still maintain that _____.
While it is true that ____, it does not necessarily follow that _____.

Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2009). They say/I say: The moves that matter in academic writing (2 nd ed.). Norton.

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

Previous Page: Addressing Assumptions
Next Page: Revising
Office of Student Disability Services

Walden Resources

Departments.

Academic Residencies
Academic Skills
Career Planning and Development
Customer Care Team
Field Experience
Military Services
Student Success Advising
Writing Skills

Centers and Offices

Center for Social Change
Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services
Office of Degree Acceleration
Office of Research and Doctoral Services
Office of Student Affairs

Student Resources

Doctoral Writing Assessment
Form & Style Review
Quick Answers
ScholarWorks
SKIL Courses and Workshops
Walden Bookstore
Walden Catalog & Student Handbook
Student Safety/Title IX
Legal & Consumer Information
Website Terms and Conditions
Cookie Policy
Accessibility
Accreditation
State Authorization
Net Price Calculator
Contact Walden

Gordon-Conwell Writing Center

Understanding Writing Expectations
Brainstorming and Writer's Block
Outlining for Successful Writing
Writing a Strong Introduction
Creating a Clear Thesis Statement
Developing Body Paragraphs
Connecting Ideas with Transitions
Choosing the Best Sources
Using Sources Effectively
Avoiding Plagiarism
Paraphrasing without Plagiarizing

Addressing Counterarguments

Ending with a Strong Conclusion
Using Words Wisely
Punctuating Correctly
Revising, Editing, & Proofreading
Applying Feedback
Formatting Correctly
Recorded Writing Workshops
Return to GCTS Library Home Page

Rarely do two people agree on everything. People’s backgrounds, experiences, and ideologies naturally cause differences in opinion. Therefore, a writer must not assume that all readers will agree with his/her ideas and should subsequently seek to present information in a unbiased way. Presenting information in an unbiased way can be tricky, but it is an important part of maintaining credibility as a writer. With this in mind, readers are not likely to take a writer seriously if he/she has only presented one side of an argument. Writers must consider all sides of a topic. This is accomplished by integrating counterarguments within a written text.

Summarized Explanation

Counterarguments increase a writer’s credibility by avoiding bias.
Counterarguments address alternative views on a given topic.
Counterarguments involve refuting or conceding alternative views.
Counterarguments should be fully developed.

Detailed Explanation

Writers should aim to include counterarguments in their writing to show that they have considered all major perspectives on a given topic. After first explaining the alternative perspective, a writer can choose to refute or concede it. Refuting an alternative view means to disprove it, and conceding an alternative view means acknowledging its merit (either fully or partially). Ideally, each key idea presented in a text should be followed by a counterargument. Furthermore, counterarguments should be fully developed like other body paragraphs using the sandwich template , and they should make use of transitions , especially those that show contrast. The counterargument section of a written text should read like a very polite debate. Counterarguments should ideally be presented after each corresponding key idea; see the example outlines .

The following example counterarguments will be based on one of the mock thesis statements presented in the related writing guide Creating a Clear Thesis Statement .

Thesis Statement: This writing guide will likely have a far-reaching effect since it is intended to support people who are writing for school, work, and ministry.

Based on this thesis statement, the writer’s three key ideas/arguments are:

This writing guide will support people who are writing for school.
This writing guide will support people who are writing for work.
This writing guide will support people who are writing for ministry.

The easiest way to identity potential counterarguments is by making the original argument statements negative and expanding from there.

This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for school BECAUSE professors all have different expectations.
This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for work BECAUSE workers are not as concerned with the quality of their writing as students are.
This writing guide will NOT support people who are writing for ministry BECAUSE it was primarily designed with academic writing in mind.

Now the writer must refute or concede each counterargument. Examples are provided below.

(PARTIAL CONCESSION) Some may argue that this writing guide will not support people who are writing for school because professors all have different expectations, but this argument is misguided. It is true that professors have different general expectations for student writing, yet essentially all professors expect students to demonstrate the basic writing principles laid out in the guide. By following the writing guide, students will only strengthen their writing, and professors will presumably be impressed, which will result not only in increased knowledge but higher grades. Thus, while some may not see the value in students using the writing guide, it is unlikely that any harm can be done as students seek to write more effectively.

(PARTIAL CONCESSION) Additionally, while workers may not be as concerned with the quality of their writing as students are, the writing guide will indeed be helpful for people who are writing for work. Workers may not receive a grade for their writing, but they should care because their writing can leave bosses and colleagues with a positive or negative impression. Therefore, the guide will hopefully emphasize the importance of writing well in all areas of life. In brief, whether workers care about their writing is not the point; all people should strive to write effectively, and this writing guide is here to help.

(REFUTATION) Moreover, even though the writing guide is published by a school, it was not primarily designed with academic writing in mind. The writing guide and website were designed to provide support for all types of writing since people, even students, must regularly write for many purposes. For that reason, the writing guide and website speak frequently of different types of writing and give a variety of examples to be applicable to all. Therefore, whether a person is writing for school, work, or ministry, much knowledge can be gleaned from this resource.

GET WRITING HELP TODAY! The Gordon-Conwell Writing Center offers professional revision and editing services for academic and ministerial writing. Click the link above to learn more!
<< Previous: Paraphrasing without Plagiarizing
Next: Ending with a Strong Conclusion >>
Last Updated: Sep 28, 2023 10:02 AM
URL: https://library.gordonconwell.edu/writing_center

How To Create Rock Solid Arguments In Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Assignments

The 6 essential ingredients (with examples).

By: Derek Jansen | August 2017

Arguments happen all the time and that’s okay.

Whether we realise it or not, we have arguments every day. We may quarrel with a significant other over dirty dishes, disagree with an acquaintance over a political hot topic, or even argue with ourselves over the fact that we procrastinate too much. On a more serious note, we also face arguments in our professional and academic lives. For example:

We debate in class or write assignments on how a company should resolve a particular crisis
We propose and defend our theses, both orally and written
We give a presentation to our boss(es) on how best to target a specific market segment

The point with arguments is that we try to convince someone (or ourselves) that we are right . So why don’t we always win our arguments? The art of persuasion is not a natural gift to all of us (it definitely isn’t for me). I’ve learned that I can’t stand on my passion and beliefs alone; I need cold hard facts to back me up.

This blog post will not make you an expert (and I do not claim to be an expert) at argument, but it will provide you with a framework and checklist to help you build strong arguments within your assignments, exams and dissertation or thesis. After all, strong, rigorous arguments are a mainstay of mark-earning work.

So, what do you need in an argument?

A strong argument has six essential ingredients:

A clear, well-communicated objective/conclusion
Premise(s) backed by relevant evidence
Sound logic
Clear qualifications
Acknowledgement of counter-arguments
Emotion and energy

Ingredient #1:

A clearly stated objective or conclusion.

First, an argument, just like any other assignment or research project, will go nowhere without an objective or conclusion. If you do not have a clear focus, you risk confusing yourself, your audience, and your marker. Therefore, you need to ensure that you are very clear about the point you are trying to make (your conclusion or objective). Sounds simple, but you’d be amazed just how many students are unclear about what their point is and, consequently, end up going nowhere slowly.

Throughout this post, I’ll use the example of Company X and its Product Z:

Company X’s Product Z had great success in the UK, with over 100% ROI within the first two quarters.
Strong demand for a product like Product Z exists in Germany, France, and Spain.
Market competition Product Z is relatively low in the targeted European countries.
Therefore, Company X will most likely launch product Z in Germany, France, and Spain.

The objective of my argument is to convince you that Company X will most likely successfully launch product Z in the targeted European countries. With this conclusion in focus, I will be able to identify and weigh my strategic options, and then articulate the best way to achieve the objective.

So, the ultimate goal of the argument is to convince someone to agree with your conclusion… but why? Why are you trying to change someone’s mind? It’s not just to get great marks. You must have reasons for your conclusion – these reasons are called premises .

Ingredient #2:

Well-grounded premises.

Once you have your objective, you need to clearly communicate your premises. Premises are the building blocks that underpin your conclusion (objective); they provide evidence to lead the audience to agree with your conclusion (Side note: I use proof and premise as synonyms so that I remember the importance of including premises in my arguments). While there can only be one conclusion in an argument, there can be one or (ideally) many premises to support the conclusion. For example, in the case of Company X and Product Z: the two premises are that demand exists in these target countries, and market competition is relatively low.

Great premises have (at least) two requirements:

They must be backed by credible, verifiable data; and
They must be relevant to the conclusion.

Data trumps gut

Strong arguments are not based on gut instinct. An argument without data-backed premises is, by definition, baseless. Let’s return to the above example: Demand exists in these target countries, and market competition is relatively low. To make these great premises, I need to add credible data points.

For example:

An independent consulting firm conducted a market research study of 6,000 people in the targeted countries, and results revealed that high demand exists for a product like Product Z.
The data collected from an independent consulting firm is a verifiable, citable source. Always double check your sources to make sure you understand and defend them.

Remember, data may not always come from an independent source – it may be outsourced/sponsored by a company, or a company may have an internal research arm. Be ready to ensure the credibility of the information if/when you are asked.

IBISWorld’s latest industry report shows that market competition Product Z is relatively low in the targeted European countries.
IBISWorld is a well-recognized provider of industry information and may be a source that your marker recommended. Similar to the point above, this data point is credible and can easily be verified.

To gather information, I suggest you prioritize using class- or school-prescribed sources first; use additional sources to complement, not replace, the class recommended sources.

Relevance is essential

While your premises must be data-backed, they must also be relevant to your conclusion. In other words, relevant premises have evidence that is clearly and logically linked to your conclusion. Be wary of following into the “my premise is true so it must be relevant” trap. If a premise is deemed irrelevant, your argument loses weight because you appear to lose focus.

For example: Company X recently built a state-of-the-art manufacturing facility in the United States.

Your marker will ask: how is this a manufacturing facility in the US connected to your conclusion? The answer is, that premise does not connect. Yes, it is true, but it does not seem logical that a manufacturing facility is strategically linked to a product launch in Europe. Use logic to make sure that your premises are relevant.

Need a helping hand?

does a thesis have to have a counter argument

Ingredient #3:

Ensuring that your arguments are underpinned by firm logic is… logical. You want to convince your audience, so you need to make sense when building and stating your argument. When making your argument, select your line of reasoning: deductive or inductive.

When making your argument, select your line of reasoning: deductive or inductive. Logically (pun intended), sound deductive reasoning means that your conclusion can be deducted from your valid premises; cogent inductive reasoning means that your conclusion can be inferred from your strong premises.

Deductive reasoning

In deductive reasoning, the premises are a series of consequential statements that lead to the conclusion. To form a conclusion through deduction, you use general premises to point to a specific conclusion. Deductive reasoning is typically focused on the past or present: the general premises have been tested and lead to a specific past or present conclusion.

To identify if an argument is sound, you first check whether the argument is valid. Then, assess if the premises are true or false. Here is an example of deductive reasoning:

Premise : Most tech companies have a Chief Innovation Officer.
Premise : Company X is a tech company.
Conclusion : We may conclude that Company X has a Chief Innovation Officer.

In the above example, the premises start general and then get more specific as they get to the conclusion. Deductive arguments are classified as valid or invalid and deemed to be sound or unsound. To check the validity of the argument, ask this question:

Assuming that the premises are true, does it logically follow that this conclusion is also true?

If the answer is yes, like with the example above, then the argument is valid. It is important to note that the premises do not actually have to be true in order for an argument to be valid. For example, Company X could actually be a healthcare company. However, the argument is still valid because it makes sense that if Company X were hypothetically a tech company, it makes sense that it would have a CIO.

To see if the argument is sound, next check to see if the premises are actually true. An argument is not sound if it is based on false premises. Since in our example we have maintained that Company X is a tech company, we know that premise to be true. Based on other information, we also know that most tech companies have a Chief Innovation Officer. We have two true premises, so we have a sound argument. If Company X actually turned out to be a healthcare company, then we would have one false premise. The argument is therefore unsound because it is based on a false premise.

Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning: specific premises infer a general conclusion. Inductive reasoning is typically geared towards conclusions that will happen in the future. In other words, the conclusion is a prediction that will be tested through future observation. The example we have been using throughout this post is an example of inductive reasoning:

Premise : Company X’s Product Z had great success in the UK, with over 100% ROI within the first two quarters.
Premise : An independent consulting firm conducted a survey of 6,000 people in Germany, France, and Spain, revealing a strong demand for Product Z.
Premise : IBISWorld’s latest industry report shows that market competition Product Z is relatively low in the targeted European countries.
Conclusion : Therefore, Company X will most likely successfully launch product Z in Germany, France, and Spain.

Inductive arguments are classified as strong or weak and deemed to be cogent or uncogent. In terms of the strength of an inductive argument, there is a little more grey area than when gauging the validity of a deductive argument. The validity of a deductive argument is pretty clear-cut: you assess if a conclusion from the past or present is either true or false. However, in an inductive argument, the conclusion is a prediction, so you cannot be 100% sure if it is actually true or false. Therefore, you ask:

Assuming that the premises are true, is there more than a 50% chance that the conclusion will actually happen?

If the answer is yes, like in the example above, then the argument is strong.

Just as with deductive arguments, the next step in assessing an inductive argument is evaluating the truth of its premises. A true premise is backed up with data. For example, in the above argument, the premises contain data. If, after verification that the data is true, then the argument is cogent. If it turns out that the data is false – for example, if market research reveals that there is not much demand for Product Z, then the argument is not cogent.

Pro tip: Look at the argument’s premise and conclusion indicator words to identify if or inductive reasoning was used. Words that refer to the past or present are used in deductive reasoning; words that refer to the future, or form a hypothesis , are used in inductive reasoning.

That was a lot of information to throw at you. Here are the main points to take away:

In deductive reasoning, validity and soundness are different concepts. Validity refers to the feasibility of the conclusion; soundness refers to the truthfulness of the premises.
In inductive reasoning, strength and cogency are different concepts. Strength refers to the feasibility of the conclusion; cogency refers to the truthfulness of the premises.

Ingredient #4:

The conclusions you draw in your argument are not universally applicable (surprise!); there will typically be limitations to the generalisability of your argument – in other words, it will not necessarily be a sound argument in all contexts (in fact, very little is every universally true or relevant). For example, it may only be true in a certain country, for certain people, in a specific organisation, at a certain time of year, etc.

Before finalising your assignment or dissertation and concluding that you have solved the world’s problems, consider the situations in which your arguments might not work. In doing so, you identify your argument’s qualifications.

Remember to use qualifying indicator words (such as “in many cases”, “most”, “predictably”) to help explain your conclusion. For example:

Premise: Company X’s Product Z had great success in the UK, with over 100% ROI within the first two quarters.
Premise: An independent consulting firm conducted a survey of 6,000 people in Germany, France, and Spain, revealing a strong demand for Product Z.
Premise: IBISWorld’s latest industry report shows that market competition Product Z is relatively low in the targeted European countries.
Conclusion: Therefore, Company X will most likely successfully launch product Z in Germany, France, and Spain.
Qualification: However, Company X must consider cultural and importation barriers that can hinder the success of Product Z’s expansion.

Ingredient #5:

Acknowledgement of the counter-arguments.

Similarly to qualifying your argument, a good argument needs to anticipate the opposition. There will almost always be counter-arguments to any argument – very little is cut and dry. Therefore, analysing and addressing counter-arguments shows the marker that you have put in considerable time and thought to develop the best scenario.

Additionally, if you have a strong defence against an opposing view, you may very well be likely to turn naysayers into advocates. Potential challenges you can anticipate and address are:

A different conclusion may be drawn using your own premises
A question of the importance or validity of your premises
There may be significant drawbacks to your conclusion

You have some options in addressing counter-arguments:

Point out and prove errors in the counter-argument.
Acknowledge the strength or validity of the counter-argument, but show why it is not as strong or valid as your original argument, or within your particular context (i.e. a specific industry or country)
If the counter-argument points a flaw in one aspect of your conclusion, rewrite your conclusion in a more detailed manner.

Here’s an example:

Counter argument: Product Z will face tremendous cultural and financial barriers if launched across Europe.
Response to counter-argument: The launch will occur in phases. Company X will first beta test Product Z in order to understand how to tailor the product and better understand how to import and market the product.

Ingredient #6: Emotion and energy

Lastly, arguments need to do demonstrate a level of emotion in order to be convincing. This might seem contradictory to my previous point about arguments needing to be built on data-backed premises, but it’s not. Simply put, your argument needs to be fueled by data and demonstrated and communicated with emotion and energy.

Imagine standing up in front of your class and just saying, “We need to implement strategy X because we will increase our market share.” without intonation. No matter how great your prepared argument is, you will lose the attention of your audience if you do not exhibit emotion and energy. We’ve all had that one lecturer who drones on and on, and we quickly lose interest in the subject. Don’t be like that lecturer. Be you. I’m not saying to gesticulate wildly and shout at top volume; it is possible to be poised and passionate at the same time.

Remember: emotion can also be felt in writing. Think of your favorite author, journalist, or researcher. How does she write? She must show emotion in her writing in order to keep you engaged. Try to channel that passion/emulate her writing to make sure that your voice can be heard in your writing.

Wrapping up

In this post, I have discussed six elements of a good argument. Build your arguments using these ingredients and you will no doubt improve the quality of your academic work.

Here’s the checklist for quick reference – a good argument should have:

These elements will help you convey to your marker an articulate, sensible argument that was created after the consideration of several scenarios.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

You Might Also Like:

I’ve never come across a much simpler explanation of the Inductive and Deductive concept. Thanks for this.

I concur. I love it when things are written in understandable language.

I enjoyed this article! Easily understandable.

Glad to hear that, Georgios!

This article is so helpful for me who is ready to write my postgrad dissertation! Thank you!

Great to hear that, Lizzy. Good luck with your dissertation!

Straightforward and to the point! I like that, especially since I don’t have time to beat around the bush.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Print Friendly

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

23 Counterargument

Introduction
Definitions

by Jim Beatty

INTRODUCTION

In public, argumentative writing situations, it is important to display an awareness of the fact that there is more than one legitimate way to approach serious social issues. Writers do this by employing “counterargument,” sometimes referred to as “anticipating objections.” This allows writers to acknowledge the complexity of their topic while still maintaining a strong perspective of their own. This strengthens readers’ sense of the writer’s ethos (credibility/reliability) and provides key support for the writer’s thesis.

Counterargument should occur early in a paper. In shorter college essays, it should ideally come in the first or second body paragraph. Doing its job of “anticipating objections,” a counterargument that occurs right after the thesis statement addresses common objections to the writer’s perspective before they are fully formed in the reader’s mind. For topics that need more explanation and context than others, counterargument can be effective placed after that background information. If counterargument occurs late in the paper—especially in the last paragraph or two, it has the effect of saying, “I just made all these great points, but I could be wrong.” Never end an argument with the notion that it might not be valid.

DEFINITIONS

There are three main strategies for addressing counterargument:

Acknowledgement: This acknowledges the importance of a particular alternative perspective but argues that it is irrelevant to the writer’s thesis/topic. When using this strategy, the writer agrees that the alternative perspective is important, but shows how it is outside of their focus.

Accommodation: This acknowledges the validity of a potential objection to the writer’s thesis and how on the surface the objection and and thesis might seem contradictory. When using this strategy, the writer goes on to argue that, however, the ideal expressed in the objection is actually consistent with the writer’s own goals if one digs deeper into the issue.

Refutation: This acknowledges that a contrary perspective is reasonable and understandable. It does not attack differing points of view. When using this strategy, the writer responds with strong, research-based evidence showing how that other perspective is incorrect or unfounded.

Note that all three methods involve acknowledging the existence and reasonableness of contrary perspectives on the writer’s topics.

Let’s see how these three strategies could work in practice by considering the thesis statement “Utah public schools need to invest more money in arts education.”

Acknowledgement: One possible objection to the thesis could be: “Athletics are also an important part of students’ educational experience.” The writer could acknowledge that athletics are indeed important, but no more important than the arts. A responsible school budget should be able to include both.

Accommodation: Another possible objection to this thesis could be: “Students need a strong foundation in STEM subjects in order to get into college and get a good career.” The writer could acknowledge that STEM education is indeed crucial to students’ education. They could go on to argue, however, that arts education helps students be stronger in STEM classes through teaching creative problem solving. So, if someone values STEM education, they need to value the arts as well.

Refutation: The most common objection to education budget proposals is that there is simply not enough money. Given limited resources, schools have to prioritize where money is spent. To argue against this, the writer will have to do some research. Direct refutation must be backed up with verifiable facts. In terms of research required, refutation takes the most work of these three methods. To argue that schools do have enough resources to support arts education, the writer would need to look at current budget allocations. They could Google “Salt Lake City school district budget” to find a current budget report. In this report, they would find that the total budget for administrative roles in the 2014–15 school year totaled $10,443,596 (Roberts and Kearsley). Then they could argue that through administrative reforms, a small portion of this money could be freed up to make a big difference in funding arts education.

Too often, writers employ counterargument in a way that makes them sound contradictory or unsure of themselves. Employing one of these three strategies to address possible objections, however, makes counterargument serve as powerful evidence that helps prove the thesis statement. When used correctly, counterargument strengthens both the writer’s logos (logic) as well as ethos (credibility/reliability). Effective use of counterargument leaves readers with the impression that the writer is a fair-minded, thoughtful participant in public, argumentative writing—one who readers are likely to trust.

Works Cited

Roberts, Janet M. and Alan T. Kearsley. “Annaul Budget Ficasl Year 2014-2015.” Salt Lake City School District . http://www.slcschools.org/departments/budgeting/documents/1415-Budget.pdf. Accessed 3 December 2017.

Share This Book

Calculate for all schools

Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, how to structure an argument and counter-argument essay.

Hey guys, I need to write an argument and counter-argument essay for my English class. Can someone provide me with a basic structure of how it should look like? Thanks!

Hey there! Sure, I'd be happy to help you understand the basic structure of an argument and counter-argument essay. Here's a straightforward outline to follow:

1. Introduction

- Start with a hook to grab the reader's attention (an interesting fact, question, or quote)

- Provide some background/context for your topic

- State your thesis, which should clearly present your main argument and a brief overview of the counter-argument

2. Main Argument (Body Paragraphs)

- Start with a topic sentence that presents the main point of the paragraph

- Provide evidence, examples, and details to support your argument

- Explain how the evidence relates to the main point and how it supports your thesis

- Be sure to have multiple paragraphs, each focusing on a different aspect of your argument

3. Counter-Argument (Body Paragraphs)

- Start with a topic sentence that presents the main point of the counter-argument

- Provide evidence, examples, and details to support the counter-argument

- Explain how the evidence relates to the main point and how it challenges your thesis

- Address and refute the counter-argument, by either providing alternative evidence or explaining why the counter-argument is not as strong as the main argument

4. Rebuttal (Body Paragraphs)

- Start with a topic sentence that presents the main point of your rebuttal

- Re-emphasize your main argument and explain why it's stronger than the counter-argument

- Provide additional evidence, if necessary, to further support your main argument or to refute the counter-argument

5. Conclusion

- Restate your thesis, but use different words to avoid repetition

- Summarize the main points you've made throughout the essay

- End with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader

Remember to use clear and concise language, and use transition words or phrases to maintain a smooth flow between your paragraphs. Good luck with your essay!

About CollegeVine’s Expert FAQ

CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

4.5 Identifying Concessions and Counter Arguments

Learning objectives.

Identify the parts of a reasonable concession
Evaluate paragraphs for concessions
Apply concession format to a series of sentences

Let’s take some time to learn how to concede logical points and then to counter them appropriately. These skills are INCREDIBLY IMPORTANT. Oftentimes, only the strongest and most confident writers can write in a concession-style. Your use of concession-style thesis statements, and concessions throughout a response, signals to your readers that you are a confident and capable writer and critical thinker. Concessions are invaluable to DISCOURSE and DIALOGUE, the two most important parts of responsible argumentation.

The purpose behind this chapter and its activities is to teach you how to concede strong points, and more importantly, how to counter them effectively. Students new to writing arguments often think that including concessions will weaken their argument or that a reader will be more likely to agree with them if they pretend that no weaknesses exist in the argument. This assumption is untrue. In fact, your willingness to admit where the prompt writer’s argument has value and either present an extension of that argument or move it in a different direction is really impressive.

What is more, you will be learning to grow comfortable in conceding that your own argument might have limitations. All arguments have limitations, whether they belong to a prompt writer or to you. Remember the final instruction given to you before all prompt responses?

Your essay should also consider at least one objection a reader might have to your argument. You may respond to this objection in different ways. For example, you may argue against the objection, or you may acknowledge that the objection is a good point and incorporate it into your argument. It’s up to you.

At a very basic level, the purpose behind learning counter-arguments is because the prompt instructions on each prompt ask you to do so. The goal of that instruction is to teach you how to strengthen your argument. Acknowledging weaker points (or strong points from your opposition) makes your writing more compelling because it demonstrates to your reader that 1) you have actually considered the topic without making snap judgments, and 2) you are not hiding the weaknesses of your argument from your reader, hoping that they will miss them.

More importantly, it creates an honest relationship between you and your reader, which is essential because some audiences will know something about the topic of your argument already, and they could have oppositions to offer. Ultimately, you need to learn how to concede and counter in writing because you cannot respond to a reader’s objections verbally, as you might in a conversation. The greater challenge is to anticipate the objections and respond to them before they come up. This strategy is akin to an artist writing a diss track in which they not only identify faults in their rival, but also in themselves. What ammunition is left for their rival in response? When you “anticipate and defend,” there is little left for the opposition. It is a proven strategy.

To begin the process, we need to understand how to make reasonable concessions first. It’s likely that you may have already learned how to make one of these two types of concessions early in your WRIT course, but let’s look over them again.

First, read the following prompt below. You can also Download a PDF version , if you prefer.

Drink Your Way to Success Randolph Hennepin

The following editorial appeared in the May/June 2014 issue of Today’s Student

Success in just about any profession often depends on a person’s ability to network, and to develop contacts. A prime way to network is over drinks. In fact, a person who does not drink is less likely to be successful than one who does . Students who spend time drinking rather than studying are ensuring their eventual success.

Facts are facts. A recent study “found drinkers earn between 10 and 14 per cent more than non-drinkers.” Further, according to the same study, men who go to a bar at least once a month earn an additional 7 per cent. The reason for the success of drinkers, according to the author of the study, is that “Social drinking builds social capital. Social drinkers are networking, building relationships and adding contacts to their [phones] that result in bigger paycheques.”

Perhaps this study is not good news for people who do not drink. Perhaps these people feel that there are other ways to develop contacts, such as getting involved in charitable organizations or meeting colleagues for breakfast instead of in a bar after work. While these strategies do have merit, neither is as effective as the social networking that occurs while drinking.

In fact, a reasonable conclusion from this study would be to encourage students to learn how to drink. Knowing how to drink without embarrassing oneself is a key skill in business, as the above study proves. Therefore, students should not feel guilty about spending evenings drinking instead of working or studying, since drinking will lead to their eventual success. Students should not focus on school other than to do well enough to pass; otherwise, they are doomed to earn less than their peers who put their study time to good use by hitting the bottle.

Now, look at these straightforward responses to the prompt and determine which one uses a general concession, and which one uses a specific concession .

Introduction: Version 1
Introduction: Version 2

Activity 1: Identifying Concessions

Which introduction in the above example uses a more specific concession? Vote on your choice below and then view the results. Click the accordion below to learn more.

The next section includes practice activities for concessions and counterarguments.

Putting the Pieces Together Copyright © 2020 by Andrew Stracuzzi and André Cormier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Departments and Units
Majors and Minors
LSA Course Guide
LSA Gateway

Search: {{$root.lsaSearchQuery.q}}, Page {{$root.page}}

Accessibility
Undergraduates
Instructors
Alums & Friends

★ Writing Support
Minor in Writing
First-Year Writing Requirement
Transfer Students
Writing Guides
Peer Writing Consultant Program
Upper-Level Writing Requirement
Writing Prizes
International Students
★ The Writing Workshop
Dissertation ECoach
Fellows Seminar
Dissertation Writing Groups
Rackham / Sweetland Workshops
Dissertation Writing Institute
Guides to Teaching Writing
Teaching Support and Services
Support for FYWR Courses
Support for ULWR Courses
Writing Prize Nominating
Alums Gallery
Commencement
Giving Opportunities
How Do I Incorporate a Counterargument?
How Do I Make Sure I Understand an Assignment?
How Do I Decide What I Should Argue?
How Can I Create Stronger Analysis?
How Do I Effectively Integrate Textual Evidence?
How Do I Write a Great Title?
What Exactly is an Abstract?
How Do I Present Findings From My Experiment in a Report?
What is a Run-on Sentence & How Do I Fix It?
How Do I Check the Structure of My Argument?
How Do I Write an Intro, Conclusion, & Body Paragraph?
How Do I Incorporate Quotes?
How Can I Create a More Successful Powerpoint?
How Can I Create a Strong Thesis?
How Can I Write More Descriptively?
How Do I Check My Citations?

See the bottom of the main Writing Guides page for licensing information.

One way to build credibility in crafting persuasive arguments is to make use of possible well-reasoned objections to your argument. Sometimes when we spend so much time coming up with a persuasive argument, we tend to want to avoid even acknowledging its possible flaws, for fear of weakening our stance. We may just avoid bringing them up altogether in order to ensure the apparent solidity of our argument. Even when we decide to reckon with possible objections, we tend to rely on one primary method of including them—the paragraph right before the conclusion in a five-paragraph essay. This can feel boring if you’ve been doing it for a long time. The good news is, there are actually more options available to you, and you should make a decision about which to use based on your argument’s audience and purpose.

General Considerations

A counterargument is a type of rebuttal..

Rebuttals are your way of acknowledging and dealing with objections to your argument, and they can take two different forms:

Refutations: Refutations are an often more confrontational form of rebuttal that work by targeting the weaknesses in a possible objection to your argument. Think of refutations as the more sophisticated and mature older sibling of, “that’s not true!” Generally, they work by pointing out weaknesses with the solidity or rationale of the objection’s claim itself (what the objector says about the argument) or of its evidence (the support offered for the claim).
Counterarguments: Counterarguments are a more cooperative form of rebuttal . In counterarguments, a writer acknowledges the strengths or validity of someone else’s argument, but then makes a case for why their approach is still the best/most effective/most viable

Incorporating counterarguments helps you build your credibility as a writer.

Once you learn how to seek out possible objections or counters to your own arguments and incorporate them fairly, you increase your power to build credibility with your readers. Refutations can feel satisfying (“No, you’re just wrong!”), and there are certainly situations in which they are the best or only ethical approach. However, most of the time counterarguments bring your readers to your side more effectively. This is because they are empathetic and invitational by nature (“I can see where in situation XYZ, what you suggest would make the most sense; however, in this situation, my approach works best because ABC…”)

In Practice

Rebuttals: not just for the penultimate paragraph anymore.

Structurally, incorporating rebuttals can be done in a few ways:

The tried and true paragraph or section before the conclusion that explicitly addresses possible objections by acknowledging and then dispatching with them;
A possible objection and response with for each claim in the essay; or
An entire argument can even be structured as a rebuttal to someone else’s argument.

Seek out opposing views

1. What reasonable claims have others made that contradict your argument? If you don’t know any, FIND SOME. (We promise: they exist.) Write them down in complete sentences.

a. Try writing a refutation to the claims. Is there any way in which the claims themselves are weak? Articulate them. Are there underlying assumptions behind the claims that might be faulty? Articulate them.

b. Try writing a counterargument to the claims. In what conditions might the claims others make be justified? How so? How is this instance different from those conditions? Why does your claim make more sense here and now? Is there anything you can incorporate from those claims to strengthen your own?

2. If you were to launch your own rebuttal to your argument, what would that look like? How would you then overcome that rebuttal?

Information For
Prospective Students
Current Students
Faculty and Staff
Alumni and Friends
More about LSA
How Do I Apply?
LSA Magazine
Student Resources
Academic Advising
Global Studies
LSA Opportunity Hub
Social Media
Update Contact Info
Privacy Statement
Report Feedback

Thesis Helpers

Find the best tips and advice to improve your writing. Or, have a top expert write your paper.

How To Write A Counter Argument In A Few Steps

What’s a counter argument? Here’s a suitable counter argument definition. A counter argument is a viewpoint that opposes a critical argument. Excellent persuasive writing and speaking strategies make good use of counter-arguments. This is because they prove to readers that the writer has considered other viewpoints.

Any argument or position comes with other alternating or contrasting positions. These conflicting positions are called counter arguments.

Let’s look at it from this angle: Your argument could be that dogs are better suited as domesticated animals than cats because of their friendly and social nature. On the other hand, my argument is that cats are better domesticated animal than dogs because they are more independent. My argument is a counter argument to your position/argument.

Counter arguments also help writers to be able to clearly refute the opposition’s opinions and show why their opinion is the accurate one. Therefore, if you place a counterargument in your persuasive essay, you will increase your credibility. Counter argument synonyms include rebuttal, disinclination, protestation, etc.

How to Write Counter Argument Fast

Would you like to know how to write a counter argument? Let’s roll! The first thing is to know how to start a counter argument. So, what are counter argument starters? To start a counter argument, you must use clear signs to let your readers know that you’re about to express a different view (usually the opposite of) your thesis. Without this counter argument sentence starters, your paper will appear to be contradictory and incoherent.

On the general term, you can begin your counter argument with a sentence, phrase, or word. These starters must show that the statements that follow are not the author’s view. Some counter argument words include: “But,” “However,” “Similarly,” etc. Sometimes, they could be complex whole sentences. Ready to start your counter argument essay?

How to Start Counter Argument

Would you like to know how to start a counter argument sentence? Well, first things first. Express the opinions you’re refuting as a view. Calling it a view will subtly hint that they are neither facts nor truths. Make it clear as quickly as you can that you’re stating someone else’s views. Here are some examples of how to introduce a counter argument.

Several people [argue/think/suppose/etc.] that [now state the counter argument]
It is often [imagined/supposed/etc.] that [now state the counter argument]
One could easily [think/suppose/imagine/etc.] that [now state the counter argument]
It might [appear/look/etc.] as if [now state the counter argument]

Another common approach is to introduce your counter argument using a question.

But isn’t it true that [now state the counter argument]?
[Isn’t/Doesn’t/Wouldn’t/] [now state the counter argument]?

Another approach is specific writers/thinkers who have expressed opposing views to yours:

On the other hand, Socrates argues that… [now state the counter argument]
However, Stone has written… [now state the counter argument]
Matthew takes the position that… [now state the counter argument]
Mila is of the opinion that… [now state the counter argument]

Counter Argument Transitions

Here are some counter argument transition words that you can use to introduce counter arguments and throughout your essay.

In the same way, Also, Similarly, etc.

However, on the other hand, but, notwithstanding, in contrast, still yet, etc.

First, second, next, finally, etc.

Afterward, subsequently, meanwhile, etc.

For example, for instance, etc.

Indeed, Without question, etc.

Accordingly, Consequently, thus, etc.

Additionally, Equally, Furthermore

Finally, in brief, in conclusion, other conclusion starters

Counter Argument Paragraph

What does a counter argument paragraph outline look like? In a counter argument, you do more than just identifying an opposing position. You should respond to that opposing position. What should you include in a counterargument paragraph? Here’s an outline to guide you:

Identify what the opposing argument is Respond to the opposing argument by stressing on why you feel the argument is illogical, weak, or incomplete Provide evidence/examples that show why the opposing argument is illogical or incomplete. Close the paragraph by stating your argument and then emphasize on why your argument is more logical or sound than the opposing argument.

How Should You Present a Counter Argument?

When presenting a counter argument, you should express it as objectively, thoroughly, and fairly as possible. It is not the best approach to simply write a quick sentence and then refute it. It is great when you can state the reasons why someone might hold that view. You can dedicate a few sentences or even a whole paragraph to giving your counter argument.

You have to prove to your reader that you have weighed many options and considered all sides of the question.
You have to make each word count toward making it much easier to answer the counter argument. It is much easier to spell the position you’re opposing and then stating your counter argument after it. This flow makes it easier for your readers to follow your line of thought.
Express counter arguments as fairly and objectively as possible. Would the person who holds this position accept your way of stating it without picking offense? Don’t make use of bias language when you present or oppose their position. It’s easy for your readers to pick offensive statements.
Learn to give their opinions the benefit of the doubt even if you think their views are wrong. This makes it easier for you to persuade readers to your side of thinking.
Sarcasm and satire are powerful when it comes to countering ideas. However, if you must use them, you must first master the art of rhetoric.

Counter Argument Essay Example

Let’s consider this counter argument example. Let’s assume the thesis statement for your persuasive essay claims that Americans are safer due to gun control laws (controversial topics are always easy picks for persuasive essays). You can also state places in America where gun control has reduced crime. A counter argument can go something like this:

Several people think that guns will only increase the crime rate. But people need to defend themselves against burglars.

Now, you can logically refute the counter argument and show why your thesis statement is correct.

In the counter argument example essay above, you can see that the rebuttal was done as mildly as possible, appealing to reason. As much as possible, make your counter argument follow simple logic.

So here we are! You now know a counter argument meaning, how to how to write a counter argument and everything in between. Ready to get an A+? Contact our best writers and let’s do it together!

Make PhD experience your own

Study at Cambridge

About the university, research at cambridge.

Events and open days
Fees and finance
Student blogs and videos
Why Cambridge
Qualifications directory
How to apply
Fees and funding
Frequently asked questions
International students
Continuing education
Executive and professional education
Courses in education
How the University and Colleges work
Visiting the University
Term dates and calendars
Video and audio
Find an expert
Publications
International Cambridge
Public engagement
Giving to Cambridge
For current students
For business
Colleges & departments
Libraries & facilities
Museums & collections
Email & phone search

Planning your dissertation: Constructing an argument

Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages and Linguistics
About overview
Governance of the Faculty overview
Governance at MML
Faculty Board overview
Board Overview
Membership and Contacts
Student Engagement
Staff-Student Liaison Committee overview
Committee Overview
News & Events
Academic Visitors
Public Engagement
IT Services
The University Library
Language Centre
Research Facilities
MMLL privacy policy
Health and Safety at MMLL
Subjects overview
Modern Greek
Spanish and Portuguese
Slavonic Studies overview
Slavonic Studies virtual event for Years 11 & 12
Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Undergraduates overview
The Courses: Key Facts overview
Course costs
The courses we offer
The MML Course overview
MML: The First Year
MML: The Second Year
MML: The Year Abroad
MML: The Fourth Year
The Linguistics Course
The History and Modern Languages Course overview
Course structure overview
How We Teach
How You Learn
Resources for teachers and supporters
Careers and Employment
Alumni testimonials overview
Matthew Thompson
Rosie Sargeant
Mark Austin
Esther Wilkinson
Katherine Powlesland
Gillian McFarland
Katya Andrusz
Frequently asked questions overview
Choosing your course
Applications
Resources and reading lists for prospective students
Did you know...?
Student Perspectives overview
Alfie Vaughan
Romany Whittall
Postgraduates
Offer Holders overview
French overview
Summer Preparation
German overview
Beginners Course overview
Post A-Level Course overview
Italian and Greek overview
Portuguese overview
Spanish overview
History & Modern Languages Tripos
From Our Students
Current undergraduates overview
Year Abroad overview
Current Students
Thinking about your Year Abroad overview
Studying overview
Finance overview
Turing Scheme
Safety and Insurance
Year Abroad FAQs
Year Abroad Project FAQs
Modern and Medieval Languages Tripos overview
MML Part IA List of Papers
Part I Oral Examination A and B
MML Part IB List of Papers
MML IB Assessment by Long Essay
The Year Abroad Project
MML Part II List of Papers overview
MML Part II List of Borrowed Papers
CS5: The Body
CS6: European Film
Oral C Examination
MML Part II Optional Dissertation
MML with Classics
Linguistics within the Modern and Medieval Languages Tripos
Linguistics Tripos overview
Linguistics Tripos - List of Papers
Transferable Skills
History and Modern Languages Tripos
Marking Criteria
Supervision Guidelines
Teaching Provision
Examinations Data Retention Policy (PDF)
Learning Resources
Additional Course Costs
Faculty guidance on plagiarism
Translation Toolkit overview
1. Translation as a Process
2. Translation as a Product
3. Equivalence and Translation Loss
Email etiquette at MMLL
Overall Degree Classification
Current postgraduates
Research in MMLL overview
Research by Section overview
Italian overview
CIRN Home overview
CIRN Events overview
CIRN Annual Lecture 2015
CIRN Annual Lecture 2016
CIRN Annual Lecture 2017
CIRN Annual Lecture 2018
CIRN Annual Lecture 2019
CIRN Annual Lecture 2019-20
CIRN Annual Symposium 2015
CIRN Annual Symposium 2016
CIRN Annual Symposium 2017
CIRN Annual Symposium 2018
CIRN Annual Symposium 2019
CIRN News and Events archive
Slavonic Studies
Research by Language overview
Research by Period overview
Medieval and Pre-Modern
Early Modern
Eighteenth Century
Nineteenth Century
1900 - 1945
1945 - present
Research by Thematic Field overview
Literature, Visual Culture and the Arts overview
Colonial, Postcolonial and Decolonial Studies
Contemporary Culture and Society
Drama, Music and Performance
Environmental Criticism and Posthumanism
Film and Visual Culture
Gender, Feminism and Queer Studies
Intellectual and Cultural History
Literary Theory, Philosophy and Political Thought
Material Culture and History of the Book
Poetry, Rhetoric and Poetics
Language and Linguistics overview
Comparative Syntax
Computational Linguistics
Dialectology
Experimental Phonetics and Phonology
Historical Linguistics
Language Acquisition
Language Change
Language Contact
Multilingualism
Psycholinguistics
Semantics, Pragmatics and Philosophy
Translation Theory and Practice
Funded Projects
Apply for Research Funding overview
Research Strategy Committee
Leverhulme Early Career Fellowships
British Academy Postdoctoral Fellowships
Management of Ongoing Grants
Funding Opportunities
Centres overview
Cambridge Film and Screen
Cambridge Italian Research Network (CIRN)
Centre of Latin American Studies (CLAS)
Cambridge Language Sciences
Cambridge Endangered Languages and Cultures Group (CELC) overview
Seminar Series
Past conferences
Cambridge Centre for Greek Studies
Centre for the Study of Global Human Movement
Equality and Diversity overview
EDI Committee
Accessibility Statement
Accessible Materials
Recording Lectures
Athena SWAN
Mentoring and Career Development
Parents and Carers
EDI Related Links
Harassment and Discrimination
Outreach overview
Resources overview
Open Day Resources for Prospective Students
CCARL A-level Resources overview
Why Not Languages? resources overview
Student Q&A
Events for Students overview
Events for Teachers overview
Diversity in French and Francophone Studies: A CPD workshop series for teachers of French
Diversity in German Studies - CPD Workshop series aimed at secondary teachers of German
Workshop for Spanish Teachers
Workshop for Teachers of German: Diversity in German Culture
Access and Widening Participation
Prospective Students
Equality and Diversity

Identifying an argument

Ultimately, you are aiming to produce a series of propositions in relation to your material: usually a main proposition (thesis or argument) with some sub-propositions.

Asking yourself the following questions may help you think critically about your material and identify some potential arguments:

How can I bring together the various different ideas that interest me about my topic?
What difficulties am I experiencing in organising my material, comparing texts or coming to conclusions about them? Are these difficulties significant, i.e. do they tell me something interesting about the nature of the material I am dealing with?
Did my reading and research throw up anything unexpected?
What are the polemical aspects of this topic? How can I bring out those contradictions, account for them or investigate them further?
How do my interpretations converge or diverge from analysis that has already been published on the topic?
Does my analysis support one or more viewpoints in an existing critical or theoretical debate in the wider field?

Writing summary statements

You need to reach the stage at which you can reduce your argument(s) down to one or more full sentences. Imagine explaining the central idea of your dissertation to a supervisor or fellow student. Try to express your main argument in a couple of summary sentences, and then expand these into four or five sentences, giving greater detail or including sub-points. It is best to have a draft of your summary sentences ready before you start writing, as this will dictate how you should organize your material. But it is entirely normal (and very healthy!) for your ideas to change as you start writing. If that happens, simply go back to your summary and your plan and make sure they reflect your current thinking. It is also very common (and again, a good sign) for your argument to change or develop quite radically after you have composed your first draft. Think of it as a continual, circular process: of refining your summary argument(s), which leads to changes in your written draft, which lead to further refinements of your argument(s), which lead to more alterations to the draft, etc.

Search form

Keep in touch

University of Cambridge Privacy Policy
Student complaints and Examination Reviews

University A-Z
Contact the University
Accessibility
Freedom of information
Terms and conditions
Undergraduate
Spotlight on...
About research at Cambridge

The case for global governance of AI: arguments, counter-arguments, and challenges ahead

Open access
Published: 02 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

Mark Coeckelbergh ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9576-1002 1

1075 Accesses

35 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

It is increasingly recognized that as artificial intelligence becomes more powerful and pervasive in society and creates risks and ethical issues that cross borders, a global approach is needed for the governance of these risks. But why, exactly, do we need this and what does that mean? In this Open Forum paper, author argues for global governance of AI for moral reasons but also outlines the governance challenges that this project raises.

A Framework for Global Cooperation on Artificial Intelligence and Its Governance

Global Governance of Artificial Intelligence: Ethical, Legal Challenges and Changes in Economy and Business

Analyzing the contribution of ethical charters to building the future of artificial intelligence governance.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Recently there have been more calls for a global approach to the governance of AI across international organizations, industry, and academia. The UN’s Secretary-General and his Envoy on Technology, for example, have called for globally coordinated AI governance as ‘the only way to harness AI for humanity while addressing its risks and uncertainties’. Footnote 1 Earlier a Resolution adopted by the UN’s General Assembly called for improving digital cooperation and deliberation using the UN as a platform for stakeholders, Footnote 2 thus preparing work on global governance. In September, the G20 leaders called in New Delhi for global governance for AI to harness AI for ‘Good and for All’. Footnote 3 OpenAI CEO Sam Altman called for coordinated international regulation of generative AI. Footnote 4 And while still relatively rare, several academics have discussed how to achieve global governance of AI, often calling for new policies and new institutions (Erman and Furendal 2022 ; Dafoe 2018 ) and recognizing existing and emerging initiatives and regimes (Schmitt 2022 ; Butcher and Beridze 2019 ; Veale et al. 2023 ), also from non-governmental and non-profit directions. For example, next to the AI for Good summits Footnote 5 that have discussed how AI can contribute to solving global, the Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has its Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Footnote 6 and in May 2021, the International Congress for the Governance of AI (ICGAI) held its first conference in Prague. Footnote 7

But why, exactly, is global governance needed, and what form can and should it take?

The main argument for the global governance of AI, which is also applicable to digital technologies in general, is essentially a moral one: as AI technologies become increasingly powerful and influential, we have the moral responsibility to ensure that it benefits humanity as a whole and that we deal with the global risks and the ethical and societal issues that arise from the technology, including privacy issues, security and military uses, bias and fairness, responsibility attribution, transparency, job displacement, safety, manipulation, and AI’s environmental impact. Since the effects of AI cross borders, so the argument continues, global cooperation and global governance are the only means to fully and effectively exercise that moral responsibility and ensure responsible innovation and use of technology to increase the well-being for all and preserve peace; national regulation is not sufficient.

Some might add that the alternative to global governance is a race to the bottom: a kind of Hobbesian situation in which nations engage in a competitive race without heeding ethical standards, safety, and accountability, resulting in widespread injustice and inequality, displacement, security problems, power concentration, and perhaps even totalitarianism. Just as Hobbes thought that individuals left to themselves and not ruled by a state authority would render the life of individuals nasty, brutish, and short, one could argue that nation states left without global governance would result in a global disastrous situation where only some nations and their citizens benefit from the technology and others suffer. A global authority that reigns in the power of the individual nation states could solve this situation. A similar Hobbesian argument can and has been made regarding the climate crisis and other global challenges (Saetra 2022 ).

The Hobbesian for of the global governance of AI argument is not absolutely necessary, at least not in that form. Without world government, one could argue, the situation might not be as bleak as sketched here. There is already regulation at national and even supranational level. The EU, for example, will implement its AI Act, Biden recently issued an Executive Order to create A.I. safeguards, Footnote 8 and China has published rules for generative AI. Footnote 9 However, while this objection defuses the specific Hobbesian view, it does not undermine the general moral argument for global governance of AI: with national regulation in place in some countries, the world might get less nasty for some (e.g., for EU citizens), but such islands of regulation do not benefit those who do not have the luck to live in these parts of the world. In other words, even without a race to the bottom everywhere and for everyone, the general argument still holds. For sake of justice, equality, and inclusion, we need a global governance framework, regardless of national regulation.

Sometimes the argument is made that AI will accelerate and that we need global governance given the risks of AGI (Artificial General Artificial Intelligence)—intelligence comparable to human intelligence—or superintelligence. It is argued that AGI might be in charge of global governance or may lead to (other) global existential risks. Sam Altman and Geoffrey Hinton, for instance, hold this view. Footnote 10 Mitigating such risks, including risk of extinction from AI, is then a reason for global governance. While neither the acceleration thesis nor this view concerning the existential risks of AGI are shared by everyone in the scientific community, they have received increasing attention and are currently influencing AI policy—not only in the US but also in the EU, for example. I am very concerned about this development, if only since it contributes to increased power of people like Altman: they do not only create the problem but also claim to sell the solution, which gives them a unique undemocratic position of power. However, regardless of one’s view on these matters, it is important to see that the world governance of AI argument does not depend on it. Just as a specific Hobbesian version is not necessary, a specific AGI version of the argument is also not necessary for it to work. Even without the supposed risks that might be created by AGI (if such a thing would ever exist), there are sufficient risks left and there is sufficient moral reason to mitigate them. Not believing in the possibility of AGI or in the acceleration thesis is not an excuse to reject global governance of AI.

A more challenging range of counter-arguments, however, has to do with the precise form global governance of AI can and should take. These counter-arguments point to important challenges for those who support this project and wish to implement it, and deserve careful consideration.

A first objection is that global governance is undemocratic. Here the assumption is that global governance means establishing a world government and that a world government is necessarily undemocratic. But these assumptions do not hold. Global governance can in principle be organized in a (more) democratic way, for instance, more democratic than currently the UN works, and there is no obvious reason why world governance should be organized along the lines of the nation state (or any particular nation state for that matter). If we can find a way to do this differently but still establishing sufficient authority then let us do that. In the history of politics and political theory, it has always been a challenge to combine legitimacy and authority; this is not different in this case. Supporters of global governance of AI, therefore, can (and do) argue that they want a multistakeholder approach and want inclusivity and participation not only in terms of AI ethics but also when it comes to the global governance process. For example, the UN has recently established a multistakeholder advisory body on AI. Footnote 11 While this is arguably not democratic enough since it is composed of a rather selective membership, there is a growing awareness of the need for inclusivity and democratisation. Moreover, global agencies and (other) authorities are just one form global governance can take; there are also councils, international agreements, and other instruments of global governance. That being said, how to organize global governance remains a challenge and requires much more research and innovation efforts. Unfortunately, usually the degree and pace of institutional and political innovation does not match the speed of technological development. This needs to change. Institutions needed to be created that can respond faster to technological developments.

Another objection is that global governance of AI is unrealistic and too idealistic: that nation states are not, and will not be, willing to give up national sovereignty and delegate power to a global governance entity or framework, and that even if they would do so, it would be difficult to enforce anything since they would anyway do what they want. This objection can have two faces: a normative and a descriptive one. If the point is that we should not delegate this to supranational governance then one can reply with the moral imperative that we should do something about the risks and ethical problems; in other words, one can reiterate the main argument. If the point is that, as a matter-of-fact, nations are not and would not be willing to do this; one could point to existing global governance in other technological areas such as aviation and nuclear technology, and point to current and emerging initiatives that get the support of nation states. For example, those who argue for global regulation of AI often refer to the current nuclear governance model. Altman has used the analogy and UN Secretary Antonio Guterres has proposed the establishment of an international AI agency akin to the International Atomic Energy Agency. Footnote 12 While there are good reasons to be sceptical about the comparison between AI and nuclear weapons (Does AI pose existential risk similar to nuclear weapons, if it poses an existential risk at all? Does this distract us from real and known risks? And are nuclear weapons not easier to control given that they need specific resources? Footnote 13 ), the example shows that it is not only desirable but also possible to reach agreements about global regulation of technology. The UN’s history when it comes to nuclear, aviation, and indeed climate change (Guterres also referred to the IPCC) shows that it is perfectly possible to come to new rules, treaties, and agencies at a global level in response to global threats.

A third potential weakness of the argument concerns, surprisingly perhaps, its moral component. The argument seems to assume that we all agree on AI ethics. But, so this objection goes, apart from nations having different interests (a point that is somewhat covered in the previous paragraph), they might also have different values. Given cultural diversity across the world, so it is argued, it is unlikely that nations might agree on a global governance framework. In response, one may point again to the fact that this has so far not been a barrier for international cooperation and global governance. Consider for instance human rights frameworks and their supranational institutions at UN and EU level, which despite being subject to decades of philosophical criticism that stresses difference and diversity, have been at least partly successful as a form of global governance by focusing on what we have in common as humans. And currently there seems consensus rather than divergence within the AI ethics community. Even if there is valid criticism that points to the danger of neo-colonialism and hegemony, ethical frameworks in this area look surprisingly similar and seem to have found some kind of pool of shared values. Consider for example UNESCO’s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, which lists a number of such values. Footnote 14 Moreover, from a philosophical point of view, it can be argued—as is done in the case of human rights for example—that while it is important to respect diversity and difference, humans also share a lot of needs, interests, and values, regardless their differences in terms of citizenship, culture, and identity. In other words, it is both possible and desirable to establish a global ethics, including a global AI ethics. Yet the objection does help to create sensitivity and awareness of the importance of respect for diversity and in this context must be seen as a call for creating global governance of AI in a global-inclusive way—for example, in a way that includes the Global South—and in a way that avoids the instalment of (another?) unjust and hegemonic regime. Global governance of AI can only succeed if it has broad global support across cultures and continents and takes into account all these values and interests.

Finally, there might be the worry that global governance of AI might hinder technological innovation. For example, in the process towards the E.U.’s AI Act, OpenAI and other big tech companies have expressed concerns about this Footnote 15 ; similar concerns exist concerning global governance of AI. But this is a familiar discussion also at the national level, and is not as such a good objection to global governance. What I currently see is that the tech industry itself also calls for regulation of AI, both at national level and at global level. The argument, I guess, is that innovation can only succeed if there is a regulative framework that brings more certainty and stability in this turbulent policy area, and that makes sure that the technology can be used and developed in a safe and ethical way. It is in the long-term interest of innovation and business that there is a robust and integrated global governance framework. The extent and nature of that framework may be under discussion—as it should be—and that discussion may well have to include this concern about protecting innovation, but this can hardly be an argument against a global approach. At most, it signals that there are of course power interests at play here, also at the global level. Big tech companies risk to monopolize both the development and the regulation of AI, at least those AI systems that are currently most successful and pervasive. The global governance of AI project questions this monopoly and rightly asks these companies to share the responsibility for better AI and a better world with global frameworks and global institutions that represent and protect citizens and their communities and cultures. How they can and should do this is a huge challenge, but this problem should not justify halting efforts towards more global governance of AI.

In conclusion, here is a good argument for global governance of AI, based on moral reasons and aimed at avoiding a situation in which only some citizens and countries benefit from AI whereas others have to deal with most of the risks and ethical issues. Objections that the global governance of AI project would necessarily be undemocratic, unrealistic, not respecting diversity, and hindering innovation, can be countered. Nevertheless, these objections point to challenging issues that the UN and other actors in this global policy arena will have to deal with in the coming years when trying to build this global governance framework. More research in this area is urgently required to support these efforts.

https://www.un.org/techenvoy/ai-advisory-body .

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N20/248/80/PDF/N2024880.pdf?OpenElement .

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/g20-leaders-call-for-global-governance-for-ai-inclusive-digital-public-infra-for-service-delivery/articleshow/103537219.cms?from=mdr .

https://edition.cnn.com/2023/06/09/tech/korea-altman-chatgpt-ai-regulation-intl-hnk/index.html .

https://aiforgood.itu.int/ .

https://standards.ieee.org/industry-connections/ec/autonomous-systems/ .

https://www.icgai.org/ .

https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/30/us/politics/biden-ai-regulation.html .

https://edition.cnn.com/2023/07/14/tech/china-ai-regulation-intl-hnk/index.html .

https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/jun/07/what-should-the-limits-be-the-father-of-chatgpt-on-whether-ai-will-save-humanity-or-destroy-it .

https://www.un.org/techenvoy/content/artificial-intelligence .

https://www.reuters.com/technology/un-chief-backs-idea-global-ai-watchdog-like-nuclear-agency-2023-06-12/ .

See, for example, this Chatham House discussion: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2023/06/nuclear-governance-model-wont-work-ai .

https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unescos-recommendation-ethics-artificial-intelligence-key-facts .

https://www.irishtimes.com/business/innovation/2023/07/13/chris-horn-could-regulation-stifle-ai-innovation-in-europe/ .

Butcher J, Beridze I (2019) What is the state of artificial intelligence governance globally. RUSI J 164(5–6):88–96

Article Google Scholar

Dafoe A (2018) AI governance: a research agenda. Paper available at http://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/GovAI-Agenda.pdf . Accessed 9 Apr 2024

Erman E, Furendal M (2022) The global governance of artificial intelligence: some normative concerns. Moral Philos Politics 9(2):267–291

Saetra HS (2022) A hobbesian argument for world government. Philosophies 7(3):66

Schmitt L (2022) Mapping global AI governance: a nascent regime in a fragmented landscape. AI Ethics 2:303–314

Veale M, Matus K, Gorwa R (2023) AI and global governance: modalities, rationales, tensions. Annual Review of Law and Social Science 19. Retrieved from https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10171121/1/Veale%20Matus%20Gorwa%202023.pdf . Accessed 9 Apr 2024

Download references

Open access funding provided by University of Vienna.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Philosophy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Mark Coeckelbergh

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mark Coeckelbergh .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

There are no conflicting interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Coeckelbergh, M. The case for global governance of AI: arguments, counter-arguments, and challenges ahead. AI & Soc (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-024-01949-5

Download citation

Received : 16 November 2023

Accepted : 10 April 2024

Published : 02 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-024-01949-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Artificial intelligence
Global governance
Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

IMAGES

PPT
What is a Counter Argument?
8 Counter argument examples to help you write a strong essay
How To Write A Thesis Statement (with Useful Steps and Tips) • 7ESL
PPT
How To Write a Compelling Argumentative Essay: Expert Tips & Guide

VIDEO

Written Statement, Counter, Written Argument
The ONLY WAY to Make YOUR Argument Thesis COMPLEX!
Explaining my thesis
Have You Seen The Thesis Statement?
3 Types of Thesis Statements for your Papers: Explanatory, Analytical, and Argumentative
How to Write Counterargument Thesis Statements! (Lesson and Activity)

COMMENTS

Counterargument
Some counterarguments will directly address your thesis, while other counterarguments will challenge an individual point or set of points elsewhere in your argument. For example, a counterargument might identify. a problem with a conclusion you've drawn from evidence. a problem with an assumption you've made. a problem with how you are ...
How to Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)
1. Brainstorm. You have already researched your topic, so you know on what grounds people most frequently oppose your argument. Write them down. Pick one, or a few, that you consider to be important and interesting. Formulate the counter argument as if you were on the opposing side. 2. Making the Transition.
Counter Arguments
Counter Argument. One way to strengthen your argument and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address counter arguments, or objections. By considering opposing views, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not ...
The Writing Center
It may be tempting to just write a sentence or two explaining your opponent's argument and then spend paragraphs refuting that argument, but a good counter-argument is fair in the assessment of the opponent's position. Here are some tips: Provide a few fair reasons why someone could possibly have the perspective of your opposition.
Counterarguments
Counterargument in two steps. Respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument. Refute the stance of opposing arguments, typically utilizing words like "although" or "however.". In the refutation, you want to show the reader why your position is more correct than the opposing idea.
Thesis Statements and Counter-Claims
A thesis statement is a claim that sets up your argument. Your thesis should situate your argument within a broader discussion, which will likely involve addressing possible objections, or counter-claims.Counter-claims will help you develop a well-rounded argument by showing you've considered many possible positions on your topic.
PDF COUNTER-ARGUMENT AND REBUTTAL
Counter-Argument 2 Cabrini University Writing Center - Revised 9/16 2) Cite an actual source, critic or group of critics, who might resist your argument Here many feminists would probably object that _____. But social Darwinists would certainly take issue with the argument that Nevertheless, both followers and critics of Malcolm X will probably argue that
Argument, Counterargument, & Refutation
Debatable thesis statement in the Introduction. Argument - paragraphs which show support for the author's thesis (for example: reasons, evidence, data, statistics) Counterargument - at least one paragraph which explains the opposite point of view. Concession - a sentence or two acknowledging that there could be some truth to the ...
Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation
An argumentative essay presents an argument for or against a topic. For example, if your topic is working from home, then your essay would either argue in favor of working from home (this is the for side) or against working from home.. Like most essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction that ends with the writer's position (or stance) in the thesis statement.
Academic Guides: Writing a Paper: Responding to Counterarguments
You can choose to place the counterargument toward the beginning of the essay, as a way to anticipate opposition, or you can place it toward the end of the essay, after you have solidly made the main points of your argument. You can also weave a counterargument into a body paragraph, as a way to quickly acknowledge opposition to a main point.
9.16: Introduction to Counterarguments
An integral part of composing a strong argument is including counterargument. This can be difficult, especially if a writer is arguing for a position s/he already agrees with. In such cases, writers can sometimes make good points to support their stances; however, their arguments are vulnerable unless they anticipate and address counterarguments.
Addressing Counterarguments
The following example counterarguments will be based on one of the mock thesis statements presented in the related writing guide Creating a Clear Thesis Statement. Thesis Statement: This writing guide will likely have a far-reaching effect since it is intended to support people who are writing for school, work, and ministry.
PDF Counterargument
evidence supports your thesis. But just offering your readers evidence that supports your thesis isn't enough. You also need to consider potential counterarguments—the arguments that your readers could reasonably raise to challenge either your thesis or any of the other claims that you make in your argument.
How To Make Strong Arguments In A Dissertation
Similarly to qualifying your argument, a good argument needs to anticipate the opposition. There will almost always be counter-arguments to any argument - very little is cut and dry. Therefore, analysing and addressing counter-arguments shows the marker that you have put in considerable time and thought to develop the best scenario.
Writing a Counterargument Paragraph
When writing your counterargument paragraph, you should respond to that other position. In your paragraph: Identify the opposing argument. Respond to it by discussing the reasons the argument is incomplete, weak, unsound, or illogical. Provide examples or evidence to show why the opposing argument is unsound, or provide explanations of how the ...
Counterargument
Never end an argument with the notion that it might not be valid. DEFINITIONS. There are three main strategies for addressing counterargument: Acknowledgement: This acknowledges the importance of a particular alternative perspective but argues that it is irrelevant to the writer's thesis/topic. When using this strategy, the writer agrees that ...
PDF Co un te r A rgume n t
Counter Argument. One way to strengthen your argument and demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address counter arguments or objections. By considering opposing views, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not ...
How to structure an argument and counter-argument essay?
Here's a straightforward outline to follow: 1. Introduction. - Start with a hook to grab the reader's attention (an interesting fact, question, or quote) - Provide some background/context for your topic. - State your thesis, which should clearly present your main argument and a brief overview of the counter-argument. 2.
4.5 Identifying Concessions and Counter Arguments
4.5 Identifying Concessions and Counter Arguments. Let's take some time to learn how to concede logical points and then to counter them appropriately. These skills are INCREDIBLY IMPORTANT. Oftentimes, only the strongest and most confident writers can write in a concession-style. Your use of concession-style thesis statements, and concessions ...
How Do I Incorporate a Counterargument?
Generally, they work by pointing out weaknesses with the solidity or rationale of the objection's claim itself (what the objector says about the argument) or of its evidence (the support offered for the claim). Counterarguments: Counterarguments are a more cooperative form of rebuttal. In counterarguments, a writer acknowledges the strengths ...
Here's How to Write A Counter Argument!
On the general term, you can begin your counter argument with a sentence, phrase, or word. These starters must show that the statements that follow are not the author's view. Some counter argument words include: "But," "However," "Similarly," etc. Sometimes, they could be complex whole sentences.
Planning your dissertation: Constructing an argument
Identifying an argument. Ultimately, you are aiming to produce a series of propositions in relation to your material: usually a main proposition (thesis or argument) with some sub-propositions. Asking yourself the following questions may help you think critically about your material and identify some potential arguments:
The case for global governance of AI: arguments, counter-arguments, and
The main argument for the global governance of AI, which is also applicable to digital technologies in general, is essentially a moral one: as AI technologies become increasingly powerful and influential, we have the moral responsibility to ensure that it benefits humanity as a whole and that we deal with the global risks and the ethical and societal issues that arise from the technology ...

How to Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

What Is a Counter Argument?

Why Include a Counter Argument?

How To Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

1. Brainstorm

2. Making the Transition

3. Offering Evidence

4. Refute the Counter Argument

5. Restate Your Argument

How To Write A Good Counter Argument

Examples of Counter Arguments with Refutation

Related posts:

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

All About Counterarguments

What is a counterargument?

How to start:

How to present your counterargument:

How to actually write and implement a counter-argument:

Counterarguments

Counterargument in two steps

Where to put a counterargument

Why use a counterargument?

Examples of the counterargument structure

ESL Lesson Plans, Tests, & Ideas

Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation

You Need to Also Respond to the Counter-Arguments!

The Refutation/Response Paragraph

Where Do We Put the Counter-Argument and Refutation?

Extra Advice on Argumentative Essays

Use Language in Counter-Argument That Shows Its Not Your Position

Choose the Side with the Strongest Support

Do Not Include Too Many Counter-arguments

23 comments on “ Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation ”

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Writing a Paper: Responding to Counterarguments

Identify the Counterarguments

Investigate the Counterarguments

Address the Counterarguments

Refine Your Argument

Templates for Responding to Counterarguments

Walden Resources

Centers and Offices

Student Resources

Gordon-Conwell Writing Center

Addressing Counterarguments

How To Create Rock Solid Arguments In Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Assignments

Arguments happen all the time and that’s okay.

So, what do you need in an argument?

Ingredient #1:

Ingredient #2:

Data trumps gut

Relevance is essential

Need a helping hand?

Ingredient #3:

Deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning

Ingredient #4:

Ingredient #5:

Ingredient #6: Emotion and energy

Wrapping up

Psst... there’s more!

You Might Also Like:

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

23 Counterargument

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITIONS

Works Cited

Share This Book

Calculate for all schools

About CollegeVine’s Expert FAQ

4.5 Identifying Concessions and Counter Arguments

Activity 1: Identifying Concessions

Share This Book

Search: {{$root.lsaSearchQuery.q}}, Page {{$root.page}}

General Considerations

Incorporating counterarguments helps you build your credibility as a writer.

In Practice

Seek out opposing views

How To Write A Counter Argument In A Few Steps

How to Write Counter Argument Fast